from the late revolutio turn, coup)

profound qualitative changes in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge (for example, the social revolution, as well as the geological, industrial, scientific, technological, cultural revolution, the revolution in physics, in philosophy, etc.).

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REVOLUTION

(revolution) The overthrow of the existing system, associated with the transfer of state power from one leadership to another and capable of leading to a radical restructuring of social and economic relations. Until 1789, the word was often understood - in accordance with its literal meaning - as a return to a pre-existing order of things. After the French Revolution (French Revolution), this meaning was supplanted by the modern one. Revolutions are processes in which elite rivalry and the rise of the masses merge. The causes of revolutions take a long time to mature (so it may seem that revolutions happen suddenly) and have both domestic and international roots. The end results of revolutions differ from the initial goals of their participants. It is difficult to determine exactly when revolutions begin and end. History knows many revolutionary situations that never led to revolutions. The few revolutions recognized as "great" pose methodological problems for comparative analysis. There are political and social revolutions. The political revolution leads to changes both in the nature of state power and in the composition of its apparatus. It continues until the old regime's monopoly of power and force is broken and until the new ruling group restores the sovereign power of the state. It can cause a counter-revolution and sometimes a restoration of the old regime. Social revolutions (which happen much less often) involve political and social transformations, class struggle and pressure from below for radical change. This mass upsurge can be used by other participants in the revolution, pursuing their own goals, often contrary to the interests of the broad masses of the people. The perception of the revolution and the experiences associated with it are different depending on the position in which these or those actors find themselves. The depth of social transformation will depend on the intensity of the class struggle, the alignment of class forces, the strategy, organization and leadership of the revolutionary forces, as well as the viability of the existing authorities. Karl Marx called revolutions "the locomotives of history." The most concise presentation of his views on the development of the historical process can be found in the preface to the work "On the Critique of Political Economy" (1859). New modes of production (feudalism, capitalism, socialism) arose within the framework of the existing mode. Revolutions took place as a result of the development within the framework of a given mode of production of a contradiction between social forces and social production relations, when the latter became fetters that restrained the development of the former. This was expressed in the intensification of the class struggle, heralding what Marx called "the era of social revolution." Each pre-revolutionary class developed its self-consciousness in the process of economic and political struggle against the ruling class. The result was the formation of new production relations and their corresponding ideological forms and, as a result, the establishment of the hegemony of the victorious revolutionary class. Marx emphasized that not a single social system becomes obsolete until its possibilities for the development of productive forces are exhausted and new production relations mature in its "womb". While admitting the possibility of a peaceful transition to a new social system in a few mature democracies (Great Britain, the United States), he nevertheless argued that most of the socialist revolutions would be of a violent nature. Marx's theory was based on the assumption that revolutions would take place in highly developed industrial countries, while the experience of the present century has shown that revolutions take place in underdeveloped and undeveloped societies. Many do not so much view revolutions in terms of their progressiveness or inevitability, but seek to understand the roots of social instability and political violence in order to prevent revolutions. Thus, from the point of view of functionalism, society is constantly in a state of self-regulating equilibrium, so revolutions are a deeply anti-social or "dysfunctional" phenomenon that should be avoided - so says Chalmer Johnson ("Revolutionary Change" ("Revolutionary Change", 1966). Legitimation of political power is achieved through social consensus regarding political norms and roles. As long as this consensus remains, governments can make the necessary changes, even quite radical reforms. A skilful government can neutralize the influence of innovative ideas, events and processes (called "catalysts"), while a government that has lost political composure can resort to force and thus provoke a revolution. Charles Tilly also stressed the importance of elite conflict resolution (for example, in From Mobilization to Revolution, 1978). In another approach, revolutions are portrayed as socio-political crises caused by the disruption of the modernization process. According to Tocqueville, who wrote about the French Revolution, revolutions occur when previously encouraged hopes for improvement are not justified. In societies in transition, revolutions can be fueled by both rising and dying hopes. The modern version of this thesis is called the "J-curve" hypothesis (imagine the letter "J" rotated 1350 counterclockwise). According to Samuel Huntington (Politichl Order in Changing Societies, 1968), the cause of revolution is the active participation of new groups in politics; it is happening so fast that existing institutions are unable to assimilate them. Revolution does not take place in established democracies that are capable of expanding counter-elite participation in power and incorporating them into their structures without losing political control. According to this model, revolutions are characteristic of developing societies, where the process of modernization is characterized by instability. Theda Skocpol (States and Social Revolutions, 1979) criticized early models of reductionism (although she herself focused only on the two main causes of the French, Russian, and Chinese revolutions, namely political crisis and peasant uprisings). ). Central to her structural analysis is the decisive and independent role that the state could play in mediating between groups. The revolutionary process has no underlying logic; rather, it is the manifestation and development of numerous conflicts generated by the contradictions inherent in the old regime. It is necessary to deeply analyze specific revolutions before identifying models that are exceptions to the general rule. According to Skokpol, the human factor or the revolutionary organization does not really matter. Her somewhat ahistorical model does not adequately capture the fact that "great" revolutions influence each other or other movements.

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Revolutio - coup). A revolution in social and political relations, carried out by force and leading to the transfer of state power from the ruling class to another, socially advanced class. Great proletarian revolution. “... The liberation of the oppressed class is impossible not only without a violent revolution, but also without the destruction of the apparatus of state power that was created by the ruling class ...” Lenin . “The fundamental question of the revolution is the question of power…” Lenin . "The October Revolution abolished private ownership of land, abolished the purchase and sale of land, established the nationalization of land." Stalin . "... A revolution, the replacement of one social system by another, has always been a struggle, a painful and cruel struggle, a struggle for life and death." Stalin . "The revolution is always, always young and ready." Mayakovsky . “The main task of the bourgeois revolution is to seize power and bring it into line with the existing bourgeois economy, while the main task of the proletarian revolution is to seize power and build a new, socialist economy.” Stalin. International Revolution.

|| trans. A radical revolution in some area of ​​knowledge, art. Revolution in the theatre. This discovery revolutionized technology. Cultural revolution.

Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "REVOLUTION" is in other dictionaries:

- (from late Latin revolutio turn, coup), a deep qualitative change in the development of c.l. phenomena of nature, society, or knowledge (for example, geological R., industrial R., scientific and technological revolution, cultural revolution, R. in physics, R. in ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

revolution- and, well. revolution f. lat. revolutio rolling back; coup. 1. aster., obsolete. lat. Full rotation of the cosmic body. I thought, going around the settlements and then, when I crossed from them, that I was thrown from the region by some kind of revolution of the globe ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

This is a fraternization of ideas with a bayonet. Lawrence Peter Revolution is a barbaric way of progress. Jean Jaures Optimism is the religion of revolutions. Jacques Banviel Revolutions have never lightened the burden of tyranny, but only shifted it to other shoulders. George Bernard Shaw One... ... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms

- (French, from Latin revolvere, revolutum to turn over, renew). A sudden change, a revolution in the physical or moral world, interrupting the natural course of things. State unrest, rebellion, violent overturn of civil life. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (revolution) The overthrow of the existing system, associated with the transfer of state power from one leadership to another and capable of leading to a radical restructuring of social and economic relations. Until 1789, this word is often ... ... Political science. Dictionary.

Modern Encyclopedia

Revolution- (from the late Latin revolutio turn, upheaval), a profound change in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge (for example, geological, industrial, scientific and technological, cultural revolution, revolution in physics, in philosophy ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (from the late Latin revolutio turn, coup), deep qualitative changes in the development of any natural phenomena, society or knowledge (for example, a social revolution, as well as a geological, industrial, scientific and technical, cultural revolution ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

See rebellion... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. revolution, rebellion, rebellion; change, coup, ntr, uprising Dictionary of Russian synonyms ... Synonym dictionary

Revolution- Revolution ♦ Révolution Victorious collective rebellion; an uprising that was crowned with at least temporary success and the overthrow of public or state structures. The archetypes of revolutions are the French Revolution of 1789 and ... ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

Books

• Revolution, Jennifer Donnelly. This book is a work of art. All events and dialogues, as well as characters, with the exception of well-known historical and public characters, are the products of the author's imagination. Situations and conversations where...

Many do not know what a revolution is, we will give a definition of revolution, and also consider the main theories of this social phenomenon.

Revolution as a social phenomenon

When it comes to revolution, most people give it a political meaning. Although in a broad sense, a revolution is any radical change in any area. For example, the revolution of labor, education or production. From the Latin language, the word "revolution" is translated as "coup" or "transformation".

A revolution is always a radical, deep and abrupt change in the development of man, nature or the world as a whole. A leap in development is associated with a revolution. That is why this term is opposed to evolution, which just describes smooth, progressive changes. Also, revolution is distinguished from reform.

Revolutionary changes can be in such areas:

• Nature (geological revolution).
• Social development (neolithic revolution).
• Economy (revolutionary production).
• Culture (writing revolution).
• demographic revolution.
• Scientific revolution (the emergence of new qualitative knowledge in the sciences), etc.

Initially, this term was used in such fields of knowledge as chemistry and astrology. The term "revolution" was introduced into scientific circulation by Nicolaus Copernicus.

What are the causes of the revolution?

If we talk about the revolution as a socio-political upheaval, then we can single out the following reasons for its occurrence:

• Unstable economy. The population of any country is very keenly aware of any problems in the economic sphere, whether it be an increase in government debt, inflation or an unstable exchange rate. All this leads to massive unrest, which is a consequence of rising prices. Usually, the increase in prices for goods and services is associated with an unstable economy and a number of economic problems. In such a situation, people are scared, they try to find a way out, and they find it in a revolutionary uprising.
• Divergence of Elite Opinions. Each state has its own elite: political, economic, cultural and others. The ideology of one elite may differ significantly from the ideology of another elite. This introduces a dissonance in the stability of opinions regarding the future of the country. An elite that puts forward an opinion contrary to the majority can create political opposition and negotiate with the ruling elite in a revolutionary context.
• Mass mobilization. We are talking about human resources that are mobilized to put forward an opinion to the authorities. The purpose of mobilization is revolutionary negotiations. The people see a way out only in a revolutionary way of communication and act accordingly.
• Ideology. The ideology of the majority may not coincide at all with the ideologies of the minority. Usually, an ideology is imposed on a minority using various methods: violence, technologies of influence, etc. The dissenting minority opposes imposition.

Classification of revolutions

Revolutions can be classified in different ways. We will give the most simple and logical classification. In political science and sociology, revolutions are divided into political and social.

• social revolution- these are revolutionary changes associated with a change in social formations, as a result of which one social structure is replaced by another.
• political revolution- these are revolutionary changes that are associated with the replacement of one political regime with another. In some cases, the revolutionary coming to power of a new political elite can also be considered a political revolution.

The main sign of any revolution is the complete replacement of the old regime with a new one.

Karl Marx made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of revolution. He divided revolutions into bourgeois and socialist. Each revolution, according to Marx, leads to a change in formation. For example, after the bourgeois revolution, feudalism is replaced by capitalism. And the socialist revolution leads to the replacement of capitalism by socialism. Each of these formations corresponds to a separate form of economic activity, a form of economic and market relations.

Separately, it is necessary to single out such a type of uprising as national liberation. The goal of the national liberation revolution is liberation from assimilation by the dominant nation. Such uprisings are inherent in colonial and conquered countries.

It is worth noting that history knows many examples when revolutions were unsuccessful. The rebels do not always have the opportunity to convey their point of view to the ruling elite. Because of this, they are often arrested and even killed.

Scientists from different humanities assessed such a social phenomenon as revolutions in different ways. Consider the most interesting theories about revolutions.

Pitirim Sorokin is an outstanding Russian sociologist, familiar with revolutions firsthand. The fact is that during the October Revolution of 1917, he fled to America. Sorokin is very negative about any revolutionary uprisings, considering them morally poor. He said that victory in the revolution is achieved at too high a price, at the cost of numerous human sacrifices. A logical question arises: are the resulting changes worth human lives? For Sorokin, the answer is obvious - definitely not.

In his opinion, in order to change the current situation, it is necessary to look for a compromise. On the government side, that compromise is reform. If there are dissatisfied and dissenting people in the state, it is easier to meet them and fulfill a number of their wishes. It will be humane and fair. Moreover, after well-implemented and implemented reforms, the number of dissatisfied citizens will decrease. This will lead to the extinction of revolutionary sentiment among the masses.

Marx and Engels developed their theory (which they later called "Marxist") before Sorokin. The Marxist theory of revolution is the complete opposite of the previous theory.

According to Marxists, the need for a revolutionary upheaval is simply enormous! The uprising is necessary for people in order to change the bourgeois capitalist formation to the proletarian socialist one. This change of formation should positively influence both the development of the country's economy and the mass consciousness.

Marx believed that the formation of socialism should be replaced by the formation of communism. He considered communist society to be the highest social good. Therefore, in order to build a society of universal equality and justice, a revolutionary upheaval is needed.

Representatives of this theory are James Davis and Ted Gurr. In their opinion, any rebellion can be explained by the presence of conscious and unconscious mechanisms in the human psyche. A person does not want to be poor, but at the same time, he strives not to be socially isolated. In other words, he wants not to be alone in being poor. This pushes him to join the mass of the same dissatisfied as he is.

Thus, the unwillingness of poverty is explained by the conscious components of the human psyche, and the desire to be part of the revolutionary crowd is explained by the unconscious. As a result, we get revolutions, riots and uprisings.

I recall the words of the English poet John Harrington (1561 - 1612) translated by S.Ya. Marshak:

Rebellion can't end in luck

Otherwise, his name is different.

In the history of mankind, there are many large social explosions. Including those in which the rebels managed to capture the capital (Wat Tyler's uprising in England) or kill the ruling monarch (the "red-browed" uprising in China). But all of them were eventually defeated and did not have a significant impact on social and political development, although in some cases the authorities made concessions to the population due to popular discontent.

The term "revolution" entered the scientific language in the 16th century from the title of a book by Nicolaus Copernicus "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" ("On the rotations of the celestial spheres"). And in the modern sense, it was used only in 1660 in England during the Stuart Restoration.

As a rule, in historiography the term "revolution" is not used in relation to the popular uprisings of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although, for example, the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron refers to the uprising of the Roman popolans under the leadership of Cola di Rienzo in May 1347, which established a republic in the city.

The Dutch Revolution of 1566-1609 is considered the first revolution. It was both political, as it brought to power the national Protestant nobility and the bourgeoisie instead of the governors of the Spanish king and representatives of the Catholic Inquisition, and social, since during it the feudal-absolutist order was replaced by capitalist society.

The revolution began with the Iconoclastic uprising on August 11, 1566. It was directed against the Catholic Church - the main support of the Spanish king in the Netherlands. The rebels - Calvinists sacked temples and monasteries, destroyed icons and statues of saints. In some places, noble estates were burned, debt and lease records were destroyed. The unrest subsided only after the Spanish viceroy Margaret of Parma made concessions to the rebels.

In 1567, King Philip II sent an army to the Netherlands under the leadership of the Duke of Alba, giving him broad powers to restore order. The brutal reprisals of the Spaniards against dissidents caused another social explosion. A broad partisan movement developed in the country. The Duke of Alba was unable to cope with the uprising, and was recalled from the Netherlands. His place was taken by Luis de Requezens. However, the Spaniards failed to defeat the rebels.

In 1579, the seven northern Dutch provinces formed the Union of Utrecht, a military-political union directed against the Spanish monarchy. Thus, the foundation was laid for the creation of a new independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces. On July 26, 1581, the leaders of the uprising signed the "Act of Oath Renunciation", which secured the withdrawal of the Northern Netherlands from the jurisdiction of the Spanish king. Philip II did not recognize the legitimacy of the new authorities, and the war continued. The Republic of the United Provinces fought successfully against Spain until 1609, when the Twelve Years' Truce was signed. Under its terms, Spain de facto recognized the sovereignty of the Northern Netherlands.

It is these events that led to the creation of a strong and independent Dutch Republic that are traditionally considered to be the first revolution in the modern sense of the term. The second after it was the English Revolution of the middle of the XVII century.

Thanks for the very interesting answer, but I was still more interested in knowing when the very, very first political action that can be considered a revolution was committed, and not about the earliest political action that is considered to be a revolution. That is, when asking this question, I expected that the answerer, for example, would proceed from the fact that Cleisthenes had made a revolution in Athens, overthrowing tyranny.

Reply

If we talk about the earliest event that fits the definition of revolution, then we can recall the uprising of the poor and slaves in Egypt, which put an end to the era of the Middle Kingdom. Approximately it is dated to 1750 BC. e.

Information about this event is fragmentary. The main source for the uprising is the Oration of Ipuver (Ipusera) from the Leiden Papyrus. It tells about a certain social explosion, as a result of which the power of the pharaoh and his nobles was overthrown, after which the country plunged into chaos. The author of the papyrus is clearly opposed to the rebels and sympathizes with the representatives of the nobility.

Here are some excerpts from the document.

"The best land is in the hands of gangs. Therefore, a man goes to plow with his shield. Truly: the meek say: "[The fierce man] has become a face everywhere. There is no man of yesterday anywhere." Truly: a robber is everywhere. The Nile irrigates, no one plows for it. Everyone says: "We do not understand what is happening in the country." Truly: women are barren, they do not become pregnant. Khnum does not create more because of the state of the country. Truly: common people have become owners of jewels. That who could not make for himself [even sandals] has now become the owner of riches. Truly: the hearts of his slaves are mournful; nobles do not share with people their [their] joys. Truly: the heart of people is cruel. Pestilence is all over the country. Blood is everywhere. It is not removed death. The veils [of the dead] cry before approaching them. Truly: many corpses are buried in the stream [in the Nile]. The river [turned] into a tomb, [and] the river became a place for embalming. Truly: the noble in the mountain, the common people in joy. Each city says: "Let us beat the strong [haves] among us." Truly, people have become like birds looking for carrion."

"Truly: the archives were opened. Their tax declarations were plundered. The slaves became the owners of the slaves. Truly: [officials] were killed. Their documents were taken. Oh, how sad it is for me because of the disasters of this time. Truly: the scribes for accounting for the harvest, their lists are destroyed. Grain Egypt has become common property.Truly: the scrolls of the laws of the judicial chamber are thrown away, they are walked on at the crossroads.The poor people break their seals in the streets.Truly, the poor people have reached the position of the Ennead, [for] that administration of the House of Thirty has lost its closedness.Truly, the Great Judicial the chamber has become [a place] of exit and entry into it. Poor people go out and enter the Great Palaces. Truly: the children of nobles are driven out into the street. A person who knows will confirm all this, a fool will deny, [for] the ignorant will seem beautiful [everything that happens] in front of him".

"Look: the fire has risen high; its flame comes from the enemies of the country. Look: things have happened that never [seemed] could be done. The king is captured by poor people. Look: [the king] buried by a falcon, he lies on a [simple] stretcher What the pyramid concealed now stands empty![the tomb of the king].Look: a few people who do not know the law set about depriving the country of royal power.Look: people started a rebellion against the uraeus, [eye of] Ra, who pacifies the Two Earths "Look: the secrets of the land, whose borders did not know, became known to all. The capital, it was destroyed in one hour. Look: Egypt [itself] began to pour water. He who poured only water on the earth, he captured the strong in time of distress. See : the snake [uraeus] is taken from its nest [from the headdress of the king]. The secrets of the kings of Upper and Lower Egypt have become known to all. The capital is alarmed by the lack. Everyone is striving to kindle a civil war. There is no way to resist. The country, it is bound by gangs of plunder lei. [As for] a strong man, the vile one takes his property. See: the worm [gnawing at the [noble] dead: he who could not make himself a sarcophagus, he [now] became the owner of the tomb. Look: the owners of the tombs are thrown out on the tops of the hills. The one who could not make himself [even] a coffin, he became the "owner" of the mortuary estate. Look: it has now happened to people. He who could not build himself [even] a hut, he became [now] the owner of the house. Look: the courtiers are expelled from the king's houses. Look: noble women are on shedu barges. The nobles are in the bins. The one who did not sleep [even] next to the wall, he became [now] the owner of the bed. See: the owner of wealth spends the night [now] suffering from thirst. The one who begged for the sediment [drinks] is now the owner of the jugs, throwing them to the ground. Look: the owners of luxurious garments are [now] in tatters. The one who never wove for himself is [now] the owner of fine linen. Look: the one who never built himself [even] boats, has become [now] the owner of the ships. Their real owner looks at them, but they no longer belong to him. Look: the one who had no shadow [fan] has become [now] the owner of the shadow. The [former] owners of the shadow [cool only] when the wind blows. Look: the one who did not know [even] the lyre has become [now] the owner of the harp. He who [even] did not sing for himself, he praises [now] the goddess Mert. Look: the owners of copper vessels no longer decorate vessels on any of them. Look: the one who slept without a wife because of poverty, he finds [now] noble women. The one who did not look at him [now] stands respecting [him]. Look: the one who did not have his property has become [now] the owner of riches. The nobles praise him. Look: the commoners of the country have become rich. The owners of wealth became have-nots. See: the [managers] led became the owners of the slaves. The one who was [himself] a messenger sends another. Look: the one who did not have his own bread [became] the owner of the bin. His pantry is supplied with the property of another. Look: the one whose hair fell out because he did not have his own oil became the owner of [whole] jugs of sweet myrrh. Look: who did not even have a box [with good] became the mistress of a [whole] cargo. The one who looked at her face in the water [became] the owner of the mirror. Look... Look: that person who eats his own bread is good. Eat your possessions with the joy of your heart. Do not turn away from him, [for] it is good for a man to eat his own bread. God commands this to the one who praises him... Look: he who does not [k]al of God, he sacrifices to him the incense of another. The one who did not know [... Look]: noble women of a great family, owners of jewelry, give their children as concubines. Look: a man [noble took] a noble woman as his wife, and her father protected him. [Now] not having such a father-in-law kills him. Look: the children of dignitaries [now] in [rags, cattle] of their herds belong to the robbers. Look: the butchers [now] slaughter the cattle of the poor, for the cattle are in the hands of robbers. Look: the one who did not cut anything for himself, he cuts [now] fattened bulls. He who did not know [even] a lizard, sees [now food] all kinds. Look: the butchers slaughter geese, and they [the geese] are sacrificed to the gods instead of bulls. See: the slaves... donate the apeh substance. Noble women... Look: noble women run. The bosses...they are overwhelmed by the fear of death. Look: the leaders of the country are fleeing, they do not find [even] alms (?) because of poverty. The owner of the awards is in poverty (?). Look: the owners of the bed are sleeping on the ground. The one who spent the night in the mud prepares a leather bed for himself. Look: noble women are hungry, but butchers are full of what they slaughtered [for others]. Look: all positions, they are not in their places, like a frightened flock without shepherds. Look: the cattle are scattered. There is no one to collect it. Everyone brings him to himself, branding his name. Look: a man is killed next to his brother. He leaves him to save himself. Look: the one who did not have [even] his team [i.e. e. two bulls], became the owner of the herd. The one who could not find a bull for plowing became the owner of a large number of cattle. Look: the one who did not have his own grain became the owner of the barns. He who borrowed grain, [now] gives it himself. Look: the one who did not have [even] temporary slaves has become [now] the owner of hereditary slaves. The one who was a "nobleman" [now] does the errands himself. Look: the strong [noble] do not [report the position of] the people. [All] are approaching destruction. Look: all the artisans, they do not work The enemies of the country stole her crafts. [See: the one who harvested] the harvest, he does not receive it. He who did not plow [for] himself, receives the harvest. [The harvest] is ripening, [but] it is not reported [by anyone]. The scribe sits [in his office], his hands are idle in it.