It is a method of comparing two or more research objects (phenomena, objects, ideas, results, etc.). As a result of such an analysis, the advantages and disadvantages of the compared objects are revealed for the purpose of classification. Comparative analysis is applied in various disciplines. The meaning and examples are discussed in the article.

Benchmarking Plan

Comparison is one of the simplest ways by which a person learns about the world around him. The whole point is to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the compared objects. The objects of study must be homogeneous, that is, they must belong to the same genus, category. After the objects of comparison are selected (there may be two or more), the type of comparison is selected. For example, dynamic, spatial, etc. The next stage is to decide on how many indicators objects will be evaluated and compared. And the final stage of the comparative analysis method is the choice of the comparison scale.

Disciplines that are based on the comparative method

A number of disciplines are based on comparative analysis, which relate to various spheres of human life. For example, comparative anatomy, which is one of the biological disciplines, studies the patterns of structure and development of both the organs themselves and their systems. And there are quite a lot of such disciplines, in addition to comparative anatomy, using the comparative method of analysis as the basis of knowledge: comparative theology, comparative historical linguistics, comparative literary criticism, comparative mythology, comparative political science, comparative law, comparative psychology, comparative religion, comparative criminal law, comparative philosophy.

Advantages and disadvantages of the comparison method

Comparative analysis is universal, refers to general scientific methods of research, it is a logical technique in the knowledge of the world around. It allows you to highlight the common features, features of the analyzed objects, identify differences, identify the distinctive features of specific objects from among those common to all analyzed objects (phenomena, ideas, results, etc.). The main disadvantage of the method under discussion is that all the results obtained can be questioned due to their subjectivity: what seems to be a difference to one person is either imperceptible to another, or is not a distinctive feature at all. In other words, the inability of the analyzer to objectively assess the properties of the object under study, compare them with the properties of other objects, and take into account all aspects of the process of identifying common and different characteristics is a major drawback.

Classification

Comparative analysis can be divided into:

1. Quantitative - quantitative characteristics are analyzed.
2. Qualitative - analysis of the characteristics that determine the quality of the object under study, phenomenon, result.
3. Retrospective - analyzes past changes that affect the current situation.
4. Applied - the result of the object's activity is studied.
5. Research - this type of analysis is used in the analytical sciences.
6. Descriptive - initially explores the structure of an object (phenomenon), gradually moving to an analysis of functions and goals.
7. General - based on general systems theory.
8. Structural - this type of analysis deals with the study of the structure of the analyzed objects.
9. Microsystem - used to study a specific system.
10. Macrosystemic - analyzes the role of specific systems in a variety of similar systems interconnected by common features.
11. Vital - deals with the study of development and its main stages of the analyzed system.
12. Genetic - the study of heredity, its mechanism, genetic systems.
13. Other types.

Comparison in economics

Most often, comparative analysis is used as a method of processing economic information. This analysis is used to obtain reliable knowledge about a certain period of time, to choose the path of further development, to identify the most acceptable option and to solve many other economic problems and issues. The method of comparative analysis is effective and indicative at all levels. It plays an invaluable role in assessing the potential of enterprises.

Varieties of the comparison method related to economic activity

With regard to research in the economic field of activity, there are the following types of comparative analysis:

1. Horizontal and vertical. Horizontal comparative analysis specializes in determining the absolute and relative deviations between indicators that are compared with each other. The vertical analysis of the calculation of the specific weight of parts allows us to study economic phenomena, namely their structure.
2. Dynamic and static. The dynamic method is also called temporary, it allows you to study the changes in the analyzed processes (phenomena, objects) over time. Static, or spatial, studies the level of the same indicator for a certain time for different objects of study.
3. One-dimensional and multidimensional. essence One-dimensional analysis consists in the fact that either several objects are analyzed according to one indicator, or one object is analyzed according to different indicators. The multidimensional method allows you to explore several objects according to several indicators.
4. Based on comparison. On the This point needs to be a little more detailed. The fact is that this type includes several subparagraphs.

• The first of them is a comparison of the expected data with the data of the period considered as a reference. In other words, a forecast is made of the results that should be obtained, then the result is compared with the reporting data of a certain period.
• Comparison of planned indicators with actually received indicators.
• Comparison of the data obtained after the fact with the standard values ​​​​of the indicators established by the norms.
• When the industry average values ​​of the analyzed indicators are known, the actually obtained data are compared with the industry average.
• Comparison of actual data with data obtained in the previous period (last year/month/half year).
• Comparison of the received data with the data received at the leading enterprises, which are leaders in the industry.
• If any factor was changed or the production situation was changed, then a comparison is made of the data that were obtained before and after the changes were made.
• And, finally, a comparative analysis of different options for management decisions is made.

Results

Benchmarking results are the data that is obtained from the comparison process. That is, all the distinguishing features, as well as similar ones, are summarized, as a rule, in tables. Based on the values ​​entered in these tables, conclusions are drawn about the disadvantages and advantages of this or that analyzed object/effect/phenomenon, etc. In other words, the conclusions made on the basis of the identified distinctive features are the result of a comparative analysis.

Comparison of corporate governance models

A comparative analysis of corporate governance models used in different countries of the world consists of comparing these models with each other according to various criteria. One of the most important criteria is the hiring of employees. There are two options: quick hire for a short/long period of time and long-term hire for a short/long term. In the second case, hiring employees, as a rule, consists of several stages: a candidate for a position passes an interview (perhaps more than one), then proceeds to training, then undergoes an internship to consolidate the acquired skills and gain experience in using knowledge in practice, then an exam is taken, according to the results of which the candidate gets or does not get the desired position. Such a criterion as decision-making can also be of a different nature - either decisions are made individually or collectively. Responsibility, as well as decision-making, can be collective and individual.

Indicators of financial and economic activity of the enterprise

A comparative analysis of indicators of the financial and economic activity of an enterprise begins with the definition of these same indicators. There are four main large groups of indicators, which, in turn, are divided into several smaller ones. The indicators characterizing the economic potential of an enterprise include the assets of the enterprise (i.e., property owned by the enterprise and cash), fixed capital (in other words, part of the capital that more than once takes part in the production activities of the enterprise) and others indicators. The overall results of the company's activities are evaluated by total costs, which include the cost of maintaining the equipment and its operation, shop expenses. Performance can be assessed by profit, return on sales, assets, equity. The financial position is characterized by such parameters as solvency (general and current), market and financial and economic stability.

Examples not related to the economic field of activity

As mentioned above, comparative analysis is used in many areas of human activity. Not only economic efficiency can be assessed by this method. An example of a comparative analysis is the consideration of programs of political, economic, social reforms. It is much easier to make the right decision by comparing the accepted projects with foreign experience, the experience of previous years. The study of management methods, legislation, structures of state systems, as well as their comparison with the experience of other states, allows you to adopt positive experience and effectively implement it in your country both to improve the lives of citizens and to improve the state itself.

Conclusion

So, the concept of "comparative analysis" refers to many sciences. This method is one of the main knowledge of the surrounding world. Since time immemorial, comparison has been used by mankind as the most effective way to study phenomena, results, objects. Due to its versatility, comparative analysis is widely used in various fields of human activity.

In the process of study or research, one often has to write works on comparative analysis. For example, to compare and contrast two historical figures, two political theories, two social trends, two scientific processes, etc. The classical structure of comparative analysis contains a comparison of several objects. The purpose of the author is to identify and compare their similarities and differences.

There are various ways of comparative analysis. However, let us dwell on the key points that the work on comparative analysis should contain.

1. Context. Determine the context against which you will be benchmarking. In other words, describe the problem, theory, idea containing the objects that you need to compare. For example, if you are analyzing two similar legal norms, it is advisable to touch on the issues of the area of ​​law in which they apply. For greater persuasiveness, the basis should not be your own conclusions, but a link to authoritative sources. Comparative analysis out of context will deprive you of the foundation on which you will build your arguments in the process of comparing selected objects.

2. Grounds for Comparison. In the study, you need to justify the reason why you are comparing the selected objects. For example, you decide to compare what is healthier for a healthy diet: cabbage or beets. Readers need to be shown the logic you followed when choosing objects for comparison. And explain why you don't compare the nutritional benefits of carrots and cucumbers? This is necessary so that the reader sees that your choice is logical and conscious, and not imposed or taken from the ceiling. So, state the reasons for your choice.

3. Arguments. You are writing a comparative analysis, so it is logical to operate with facts that can and should be compared when comparing two objects. Your statements are meant to show how objects relate to each other. Do these objects complement each other? Do they contradict, dispute, are they mutually exclusive? The purpose of the arguments put forward is to show the relationship of two objects. Your facts are built on the basis of the context of the idea (problem, theory) from which you isolated the compared objects (see paragraph 1). Showing the relationship of objects, you can use the following words: “whereas”, “while”, “opposite”, “besides”, “complementing”, “excluding”, etc.

4. Methods of comparative analysis. After writing the introductory part of the work: context, reasons for comparison and arguments, determine how you will compare objects. There are three methods for this:

A) first state all the pros and cons of the object X, then - the object Y.

B) sequentially compare similar elements of objects one by one X and Y.

B) compare X and Y , putting more emphasis on one of the objects. This method is recommended if X and Y cannot be fully compared. Yes, the object X can act as a tool for determining whether an object complies with Y the arguments you put forward in point 3.

The comparative method is one of the most common in different sciences. In many areas of human activity, there is a need for optimal choice. This takes into account all the characteristics of the objects under study, as well as their comparison according to the required criteria.

Comparison as a way of knowing

Comparison is one of the main methods of cognition of the surrounding reality. The basis of this method is quite simple: the definition and comparison of individual phenomena of a social, economic, political or other nature in order to detect distinctive similarities and differences.

On the basis of the comparison, a reasonable or hypothetical conclusion is drawn about the homogeneity of phenomena, the similarity of their content, general direction, etc. This allows using data on one object when studying another. If, during the course of the study, some discrepancies were found, then this allows us to indicate the peculiarity, specificity and uniqueness of one phenomenon or object in relation to another.

The concept and categories of the method of comparative analysis

The method of comparative analysis originates from such a general scientific method as analogy. However, unlike the latter, comparison involves the use of elements of other methods, including analysis, methods of thinking, modeling, synthesis, induction, deduction, etc. The main purpose of comparison is to obtain new facts not only from the various properties of the compared objects or phenomena, but also analysis their various relationships. Based on this, it is possible to draw up a general trend of their subsequent functioning and development.

Methods of a comparative approach lead to the fact that already established views on certain phenomena and facts can be revised. Comparison can also reveal features that are specific to a particular object or phenomenon, but were not previously known to researchers. Thus, comparison contributes to a deeper study and knowledge of objects and phenomena, as well as the search for their distinctive features and differences at different levels of research.

Benchmarking mechanism

The comparative research method has its own mechanism, which includes the following components:

• General scientific methods. These include: analogy, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc.
• Logic device. An extensive category system that is used in comparison and analysis operations. Each object or phenomenon has its own system of categories.

Particular attention is also deserved by such a variation of the comparison method as segmentation. Its essence lies in the fact that information about an object or phenomenon is divided into separate parts - segments, which are subsequently subjected to research. At the same time, the comparison can be carried out according to different criteria, in particular, the historical-comparative method is quite often used, where the object is studied not only in comparison with other objects, but also in comparison with itself at different time stages.

Segmentation as one of the methods of comparative analysis involves the study of not only the characteristics of individual elements of a particular object or phenomenon, but also the nature and trends of its functioning and development within the framework of the whole.

Stages of comparative analysis and forecasting

The comparative method of assessing objects and phenomena provides for the implementation of research at several levels:

• Collection and processing of all received information. At the same time, all data must be objective, accurate and provable.
• Systematization of information. All data must be divided into different categories and the collected material should be given a structural form.
• Interpretation of the received data. Based on the analysis and comparison of information, specific conclusions are drawn.

With the correct implementation of these steps, the researcher can formulate justifications for the forecast. The simplest method of forecasting is a direct comparison of information about an object or phenomenon at different levels, for example, in different regions, countries, etc. The second method of forecasting involves the formulation of specific hypotheses supported by real facts.

Benchmarking Rules

The comparative research method will be effective only if all the rules for its implementation are observed:

• Implementation of comparison at different levels using analogy, system-historical analysis and logic.
• The correct choice of objects for the implementation of the comparison process.
• Specific goal setting.
• The comparative analysis method should be carried out using specific criteria.
• A clear definition of the features of the compared objects and phenomena.
• Processing of comparison results and analysis of the possibility of their application in practice.

All data obtained during the research process must be clear, unambiguous and provable.

Types of comparative studies

The comparative method has its own typology. In science, the following types of research are distinguished:

• According to the scope of the study: macro- and micro-comparison.
• According to the goals, practical (or functional) and theoretical (or scientific) research is distinguished.
• According to the level, research can be intersystem, intrasystem, intranational, historical, intersectoral, etc.

In addition, there are also synchronous and asynchronous comparison. In the first case, we are talking about parallel and simultaneous comparison, and in the second case, the comparative method can be applied to objects that are in different time periods.

Pros and cons of the comparative method

The comparative approach has a number of pluses and minuses that the researcher should take into account in his work. As for the positives, they are as follows:

• The method allows you to reflect the current and real situation in relation to the object or phenomenon under study.
• All data are statistically justified.
• In the process of research, you can make adjustments to the compared phenomena or objects.
• In the presence of a large amount of information, the method is very easy to implement and gives reliable and reliable results.

The method also has its drawbacks:

• At the time of interpretation of the results of the study, the data may be out of date.
• The accuracy of the obtained data depends on the stability of the object under study.
• For reliable and accurate data, a large amount of information is needed.

The ratio of the positive and negative aspects of the method determines the effectiveness of its application in each specific case.

Benchmarking Examples

Features of the comparison method allow it to be used in a variety of areas, such as:

• Biology and anatomy.
• Linguistics, in particular comparative linguistics.
• Literary criticism and mythology.
• Comparative Politics.
• Economic sciences.
• Jurisprudence and jurisprudence.
• Psychology.
• Sociological sciences.
• Religious studies.
• Philosophy, etc.

The comparative method has a number of features that allow it to be effectively used in a variety of sciences. The method has its own classification, typology, as well as the rules and features of the study at different stages. The choice of this method is determined by the availability of the required amount of information and the selection of optimal criteria.

The essence of this method is relatively simple: a comparison of individual social phenomena, including political ones, in order to discover their similarities and differences. Based on the revealed similarity, a hypothetical or sufficiently substantiated conclusion is made, for example, about their social homogeneity, more or less similar content, the general direction of their development, etc. In this case, the known data about one of the compared phenomena can be used to study others. The differences in the studied phenomena revealed during the comparative analysis indicate their specificity and, possibly, the uniqueness of some of them.

It follows from the foregoing that the method of comparative analysis is largely based on such a general scientific method as analogy. At the same time, in the comparative analysis of political phenomena, such general scientific methods of thinking and cognition as analysis and synthesis, modeling, induction, deduction, etc. are used.

These methods correspond to category system , i.e. the most general concepts, within the framework of which the mental procedures of comparative analysis are performed: "comparison", "similarity", "difference", "object of comparison", "subject carrying out comparative analysis" (with its views, ideological attitudes and value orientations), " angle of vision" of the compared phenomena, "whole", "part", "segmentation" (dividing the whole into separate segments for the purpose of research), "social homogeneity" of the phenomena under study, "method of comparison", etc.

Basic meaning comparative analysis - obtaining new information not only about the properties of the compared phenomena, but also about their direct and indirect relationships and, possibly, about the general trend of their functioning and development. As the French researchers M. Dogan and D. Pelassi rightly point out, "although at first the comparison may be caused by the search for information, it is at the same time the key to cognition. This is what makes it one of the most fruitful areas of thinking."

Benchmarking can lead for a critical review researcher on certain socio-political phenomena that had previously developed during his study of a particular country and which he was ready to consider universal, i.e. acceptable to many other countries. In a comparative analysis, specific features characteristic of different countries that were not previously known to the researcher can be identified. The groundlessness of claims to the universality of his former views, which are characterized by the concept of "ethnocentrism", i.e. closed on the data of the study of one country, primarily its own.

So, a comparative analysis of political phenomena and processes contributes to a deeper knowledge of their common properties and differences, their development trends, as well as a more informed critical assessment of the experience of one's own country and other countries. This, in turn, raises the problem of mastering the experience of these countries, expanding cooperation with them, including in the field of the political life of society.

Benchmarking mechanism

Some components of the mechanism for comparative analysis of social, including political, phenomena have already been mentioned: general scientific methods of cognition (analogy, analysis, synthesis, etc.) and logical apparatus (first of all, the system of categories used in the logical operations of comparative analysis, its inherent judgments and conclusions).

Let us now consider such a procedure for comparative analysis of political phenomena as segmentation- dividing the whole into segments and highlighting those that will be subject to comparative analysis. For example, it is possible to single out such links of the political process in a particular society as the relations of the legislative power, and conduct their comparative analysis. Or to carry out a comparative analysis of the political rights and freedoms of citizens of different countries. In both cases, there are phenomena of the same type which allows their comparative analysis in more detail and depth.

The objects of comparative analysis can be both certain political processes in their most complete form, and their components, including subjects of political processes - classes, political parties, political elites, etc., as well as those included in these processes political institutions.

Segmentation as a method of comparative analysis involves the study of not only the structural properties of the political phenomenon under study, but also the nature of its functioning within the whole (for example, a comparative analysis of the activities of various elites or political parties in the conditions of various societies). At the same time, it should be remembered that only when studying the functioning of any social, including political, phenomenon within the framework of the whole, one can obtain reliable knowledge about its real existence and role in society, because it always functions and manifests itself in the context of a particular society.

Important distinguishing stages of comparative analysis are the processing of the obtained data, their systematization and scientific interpretation. In any case, it is necessary to show the validity of the political phenomena found in the comparative analysis of their similarities and differences , reveal their social nature, the immediate causes of their appearance, as well as their social significance. In this case, on the basis of a comparative analysis of political phenomena, useful practical conclusions can be formulated.

Comparative analysis can play a significant role in predicting political processes. The simplest way to forecast is a direct comparison of data on the development of these processes and the corresponding political institutions in different countries. It is argued, for example, that the model of American democracy is a model of the future of democracy in developed European countries, and so on.

Another way to predict based on comparative analysis is extrapolation (distribution) of the received data for the future on the basis of appropriate hypotheses.

It has been argued (and not without reason) that forecasting based on comparative analysis is more reliable "especially in the case of short-term forecasts" and "remains one of the most promising approaches in the sociology of the future." Let's add from ourselves: "And in political scientists, too."

The low level of labor productivity in Russian companies in various industries today causes heated discussions among many interested parties: owners and managers of enterprises, investors, representatives of state administration, and the expert community. In the most general form, productivity characterizes the ability of a resource to produce a product (that is, to be transformed into benefits useful to a person). In the conditions of the planned economic system in Russia, the indicator of labor productivity was very actively used. It was one of the central guidelines for the development of the economy as a whole, individual industries and enterprises. Today the situation is exactly the opposite. The latest Rosstat data in July 2010 ends with 2005, and in the operational mode this indicator is not calculated at all and is not controlled at the state level, replacing it with the notorious GDP.

Problems related to the change in the economic system, the abolition of planning and statistical reporting on labor productivity:

The introduction of the System of National Accounts (SNA) has changed the methodology for recording labor costs and labor results at the macro level.

At the level of enterprises, various methods for calculating production volumes, labor costs and labor productivity indicators began to be used, which made their reducibility impossible.

The structure of employment has changed (assessment of the results and labor costs of IT workers, programmers, engineers within the framework of innovative projects, marketers, logistics, etc.).

Ignoring the timesheet at many enterprises does not allow estimating labor costs.

Intangible assets, the use of human and intellectual capital, which increasingly affect labor productivity, do not have reliable assessment methods.

Periodically, more or less independent rating agencies or research companies publish the results of research on labor productivity in Russian companies. The conclusions that can be drawn from these results are the most disappointing - according to various estimates, labor productivity in Russian companies is only 10% - 15% of the same indicator in foreign companies.

Figure 3. Labor productivity in the economies of countries 4

Figure 3 shows the general situation with labor productivity in the economies of the countries. As you can see, labor productivity in Russia is three times less than in the United States.

In terms of sectors, the lag is sometimes even more critical: in communications, transport, electrical equipment, mechanical engineering, and the pulp and paper industry, the share of labor productivity in the Russian Federation does not even reach 10% of labor productivity in the United States. A very relative leader in this list is the mining industry.

Table 3 presents data on labor productivity of the largest Russian and foreign corporations for a specific analytical period.

Table 3

Labor productivity in the largest

Russian and foreign corporations in 2007

Russian company			Comparable foreign company
billion dollars	number,	t. USD/person	billion dollars	number,	t. USD/person
Retail groups
Wimm-Bill-Dann
Uralkali
Severstal
RusHydro
Aeroflot

Recently, discussions have been escalating regarding methods for measuring labor productivity. There is a point of view according to which it is incorrect to compare labor productivity in Russian and foreign companies using the cost method due to the fact that the capacity of national consumer markets in monetary terms is different. But when using the natural method of measuring labor productivity in some industries, the situation is even more aggravated. In 2009, AvtoVAZ accounted for 7.3 vehicles per employee, while General Motors had 34.1. Severstal had 209 tons of steel per employee per year, while Arcelor Mittal had 327 tons. Rosneft had 5,225 barrels of oil equivalent per employee per year, and 15,217 barrels of oil equivalent per employee in British Petroleum. This is where Russian companies are not inferior to their foreign counterparts, it is in the tobacco and beer industries: there were 356,000 liters of beer per employee in Baltika, while Anheuser-Busch InBev had 168,000 liters.

According to experts from the McKinsey Global Institute, the main reason hindering the growth of labor productivity in Russia until 2000 was the inequality of market participants and the lack of fair competition. But, summarizing the opinion of a large number of experts regarding the same reasons at the present time, we came up with the following consensus estimate:

Lack of flexibility in the personnel structure relative to the structure of the organization. There are facts that testify to a quite comparable average hourly output of workers in the main specialties of Russian companies relative to the same indicator in foreign companies. At the same time, the overall labor productivity at the same Russian enterprises is significantly lower. With the improvement of the organizational structure of management, the number of administrative and managerial personnel remains the same with a general reduction in the number of personnel. In the process of restructuring large corporations, this circumstance becomes even more acute.

Uncontrollability of processes (labor processes, business processes). With high-quality planning of processes, there is practically no operational resource management - a very high proportion of downtime associated with waiting for materials, repair services, transport, etc. Weak combination of operations and functions are the result of the lack of interest in improving the processes of the performers.

Lack of organizational, self-organizational skills and operational planning skills among low-level managers. This applies to all activities of managers, from inaccurate resource planning to the inability to self-discipline (start and finish work on time).

Problems of employee training. Improving processes in this area in Russian companies were suspended at the end of 2008-2009 due to well-known events. This indicates that the development of personnel is still not a priority in our companies and is financed on a residual basis.

Rigid state policy in the field of downsizing. Headcount optimization at many enterprises is the most problematic process in the course of reorganization measures in Russian organizations. Anti-crisis measures of public administration in the Russian Federation in 2009-2010 led to the fact that, despite a general fall in GDP by 7-8%, unemployment grew by only 3.9% according to official data. Accordingly, the decline in labor productivity amounted to 5 - 6%.

Lack of established effective accounting and reporting practices. Large Russian companies are required to submit financial statements in accordance with IFRS and RAS. Also, the intra-company management accounting system is in a transitional stage: the transition to ERP systems is associated with double accounting (according to the old and new systems). In this regard, instead of optimizing labor processes, specialists have to duplicate similar operations in different systems.

Thus, the conclusions recognized by the majority of representatives of the expert community, without exception, all lie in the organizational and managerial plane.