mental operation, which means the transition to a higher level of abstraction by identifying common features (properties, relationships, development trends, etc.) of objects in the area under consideration; entails the emergence of new scientific concepts, theories, laws.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

GENERALIZATION

1) With t. sp. logic - construction (derivation) of universal and existential statements: a) in systems of deductive logic - on the basis of postulated rules for constructing such statements (inference rules for quantifiers of generality and existence - the so-called O. variables); c) in inductive logic systems based on experimental (experimental) data ("data of empirical evidence") - the so-called. and inductive O. (see Induction, Inductive Logic, Scientific Induction, Incomplete Induction, Popular Induction). 2) From epistemological. (and methodological) v. sp. O. - one of the most important means of scientific. cognition, a procedure for moving to a higher level of abstraction based on identifying (in the area of ​​objects under consideration) features common to these objects: properties, relationships, development trends, etc. Science, in essence, appears when "... as a result of a series of considerations of experience, one general view of similar objects is established" (Aristotle, Met. I 1, 1981 a 1 - in 13; Russian translation, M.–L ., 1934, p. 19). Depending on the subject area and tasks of O. research, they are carried out at different levels, in particular: 1) at the level of empirical. material [it usually includes the development of a concept that reflects similarity, commonality, similarity, etc., in general, c.-l. the relationship between two or more objects (phenomena) under study, and the formulation of a certain principle that explains in a unified way a group (or groups) of observed phenomena or the identification of a law governing this group of phenomena]; 2) at the level of already developed concepts (see Concept); 3) at the level of "system of concepts" - theories. In the latter case, O. is closely connected with the concepts of a group of transformations and invariants. For example, for classical mechanics were fair so-called. Galilean transformations: lengths and masses of bodies, time intervals remained unchanged during the transition from one reference system to another. Relativity theory uses a more general group - Lorentz transformations, establishing the relationship between space and time. With such an orientation, the former invariants turn out to be only particular projections that depend on the frame of reference; other quantities are taken as invariants - the maximum length, the space-time interval, the minimum mass. Thus, O. theory usually involves a transition from one group of transformations to another, broader one. Lit.: Jevons S., Fundamentals of science, trans. from English, St. Petersburg, 1881, ch. 27; Gorsky D.P., Questions of abstraction and the formation of concepts, ?., 1961, ch. ten. F. Lazarev. Kaluga, M. Novoselov. Moscow.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Generalization The process by which a particular experience becomes a representation of a whole class of experience; one of three modeling processes in .

Brief explanatory psychological and psychiatric dictionary. Ed. igisheva. 2008 .

Generalization

A product of mental activity, in which reflections of common features and qualities of phenomena of reality are presented. The types of O. correspond to the types of thinking. O. are most studied in the form of word meanings. O. also acts as a means of mental activity. The simplest O. consist in association, grouping of objects on the basis of a separate, random attribute (syncretic associations). More complex is complex search, in which a group of objects is combined into a single whole for various reasons. The most difficult type of identification is one in which species and generic characteristics are clearly differentiated and the object is included in a certain system of concepts.

Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: PHOENIX. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

Generalization

A product of mental activity, a form of reflection of common features and qualities of phenomena of reality. The process is cognitive, leading to the selection and signification of relatively stable properties of the external world. The simplest types of generalization are already realized at the level of perception, manifesting themselves as the constancy of perception. Its types correspond to the types of thinking. The most studied are generalizations in the form of word meanings. Generalization also acts as a means of mental activity. At the level of human thinking, generalization is mediated by the use of socially developed tools - methods of cognitive activity and signs.

The simplest generalizations consist in association, grouping of objects on the basis of a separate, random feature (syncretic associations). Complex generalization is more difficult, when a group of objects is combined into a single whole for various reasons. It is especially difficult to generalize, in which specific and generic characteristics are clearly differentiated, the object is included in a certain system of concepts. Complex generalizations, as well as syncretic ones, are presented at any level of complexity of intellectual activity.

When studying the formation of new generalizations in psychology, the method of forming artificial concepts is used, when the methods of grouping objects typical for a particular person (syncretic, complex, proper conceptual) are analyzed.

One and the same generalization can be formed as a result of different organization of research activities - for example, a generalization built on the basis of the minimum necessary data, and it is also based on redundant data. A subjectively new generalization () of an individual can be of different origin: obtained in communication with other people or developed independently. In the second case, this generalization may be absent from social experience.

In the study of generalizations in psychology, methods are used to define concepts, compare and classify them. There is widespread research on purposeful management of the process of assimilation of generalizations. There are usually several generalizations associated with one word; the use of one of them depends on the context of the situation, the utterance, on the motives and goals of the subject of speech activity. The formation of generalizations that enrich social experience is also a contribution to the historical development of thinking.

Dictionary of practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 .

It leads to the selection and signification of relatively stable properties of the surrounding world. The simplest types of generalization are already carried out at the level of perception, manifesting themselves as the constancy of perception. At the level of human thinking, generalization is mediated by the use of socially developed tools - methods of cognitive activity and signs.

Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .

GENERALIZATION

(English) generalization) is one of the main characteristics of cognitive processes, consisting in the selection and fixation of relatively stable, invariant properties objects and their relationships. The simplest type of O., made in terms of direct perception, allows a person to display the properties and relationships of objects, regardless of the particular and random conditions of their observations. In addition to this, a person has 2 indirect type O., in the process of which comparisons play a special role, and , including the use of funds language.

At the core 1st type mediated O. lies comparison action. Comparing with a certain t. sp. objects of a certain group, a person finds, singles out and designates with a word their outwardly identical, common properties that can become content concepts about this group or class of objects. Such O. and concepts are called empirical. Separating general properties from particular ones and designating them with a word allows a person to cover the sensory diversity of objects in an abbreviated, concise form, reduce them to certain classes, and then operate with concepts without direct appeal to individual objects. ). One and the same real object m. included in both narrow and broad classes. This allows you to designate scale of generalitysigns(according to the principle of genus-species relations). The function of empirical O. is to streamline the diversity of objects, to classify them. With the help of classification schemes, each new item can be identified as belonging to a specific group. Empirical O. is characteristic of the initial stages of cognition. (In logic, such O. are called "inductive." - Note.ed.)

2nd the indirect O. is carried out by the analysis of empirical data about to. object to highlight significant internal links that define this object as an integral system. Such an O. and the concept corresponding to it is called theoretical. This concept initially fixes internal connections in an abstract way, only as a genetic starting point of an integral system. Then, using a theoretical concept, a person correlates the particular features of the object into a single whole. Knowledge about it is becoming more and more detailed and complete, concrete. With such an ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the mental reproduction of the object occurs. This type of O. corresponds to the developed state of science, its theoretical stage.

in the nursery and educational psychology it is generally accepted that the ability to empirical O. begins to take shape in preschool age and develops especially rapidly in primary school age. O. of a theoretical nature is typical for adolescence and especially for adolescence. There is also a point of view according to which the above age stages and the cognitive abilities corresponding to them can be significantly shifted towards an earlier age.

Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .

Antonyms:

See what "generalization" is in other dictionaries:

Generalization- concepts - a logical operation, through which, as a result of the exclusion of a specific feature, a concept of a wider scope is obtained. For example, a power of attorney document is a business paper. Generalization, a form of increment of knowledge by mental transition from ... ... Wikipedia

GENERALIZATION- (lat. generalisatio), mental transition: 1) from otd. facts, events to their identification in thoughts (inductive generalization); 2) from one thought to another more general (logical O.). These transitions are carried out on the basis of a special kind of rules. So,… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

generalization- abstraction, synthesis, synthesizing; conclusion, summing up, stylization, universalization, summary, total, summation, generalization, resume Dictionary of Russian synonyms. generalization 1. summary, summary 2. synthesis Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. ... ... Synonym dictionary

generalization- GENERALIZATION (eng. generalization; from lat. genero to produce, generate). 1. In logic, the operation of generating existential and universal judgments; in deductive logic based on postulated inference rules for general quantifiers and ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

Generalization- a cognitive process leading to the selection and meaning of relatively stable properties of the surrounding world. The simplest types of generalization are already carried out at the level of perception, manifesting themselves as the constancy of perception. At the human level... Psychological Dictionary

generalization- GENERALIZATION, summary, summary GENERALIZED, general, book. summary GENERALIZE / GENERALIZE, sum up / summarize, not and owls. to summarize, nesov. and owls. summarize GENERALLY, book. in total ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

GENERALIZATION- transition to a higher level of abstraction by identifying common features (properties, relationships, development trends, etc.) of objects in the area under consideration; entails the emergence of new scientific concepts, laws, theories ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

GENERALIZATION- GENERALIZATION, generalizations, cf. (book). 1. only units Action under ch. summarize generalize. “... None other than Lenin undertook the most serious task of summarizing, in materialist philosophy, the most important of what science has given over the period ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

GENERALIZATION- GENERALIZATION, I, cf. 1. see summarize. 2. General conclusion. Broad generalizations. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

GENERALIZATION- see GENERALIZATION. "GENERALIZED OTHER" generalized other; German verallgemeinerter Anderer. PoJ. G. Midu, the idea of ​​the individual about the abstract other that arises in the process of socialization; includes a set of expectations, attitudes, values ​​... Encyclopedia of Sociology

Books

• Generalization of the Jacobi way of integrating complete systems of linear homogeneous equations. Generalization of the relevant studies of Clebsch`a, G.V. Pfeiffer. Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1931 edition (Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences). AT…

In the general case, the definition of the word "generalization" is the representation of a phenomenon within the framework of a peculiar process of cognition of the surrounding world. A person, analyzing his environment, can designate some stable phenomenon, highlight it. The simplest way to generalize implement at the level of perception is a constant. Human thinking implements generalization through the indirect use of tools formulated by society. Take into account a variety of signs, ways of knowing.

Applying to reality

Most often, generalization and systematization are necessary in relation to some results. At the same time, we are talking about determining which group has essential, important, pronounced features. Attention is paid to key quality indicators. But all the characteristics that are characteristic only of individual objects must be discarded.

What is a generalization for logic is easiest to understand if you think of the process as inductive. Start with the specific, gradually move to the more general. The results obtained during the organization of some research often describe particular situations, individual individuals, reactions, phenomena. In order to explain the result obtained and project it onto a larger community, a generalization is necessary. Statistics officially refers to the phenomenon as the transfer of results to a population from a limited sample. The maximum level is the general population.

Experiments and analyzes

Considering the generalization and systematization of knowledge, special attention should be paid to experimental practice and the application of this logical inductive approach within its framework. Typically, the process is divided into four key aspects:

• situation;
• reaction;
• personality;
• mutual connections of components.

As part of the generalization, it is necessary to analyze the results obtained in order to transfer their results to circumstances at a level higher, wider.

Reactions and personalities

Considering what generalization is in relation to answers, it should be understood that different subjects show different reactions. All the results obtained can be summarized in a single category for a certain evaluation perspective. To do this, the researcher formulates an evidence base for the fact that individual differences are not really important, they are only partial and do not have a significant impact on the final result or on the interconnection of the reaction and the situation.

As part of considering what a generalization is, it is necessary to pay attention to understanding this phenomenon at the personal level. The task of the researcher is to prove that the sample is representative. It is necessary to show that the reactions of the subjects correspond to those that a survey of a larger community would show. If the set is composed based on some dominant feature, the proof for generalization is quite simple. Most often, they mention sexual resemblance or belonging to the same age group, profession, social stratum or biological species.

About relationships

Analyzing what a generalization is in relation to this aspect, one should understand how the variables present in the experiment are interconnected. For the purity of the study, only two variables are usually taken. The levels of generalization can differ significantly, this is determined by the characteristics of a particular study. By increasing the range of relationships, more numerous variables can be successfully compared, taking into account a variety of characteristics.

The generalized form is a factor that allows you to explain the particular features of the behavioral reactions of the subjects. In practice, such a generalization of experience is well illustrated by Pavlov's experiments on the conditioned reflex. At first the connection was private, the dog was induced to salivate due to the bell, but soon numerous stimuli were found. The expansion of the variety of subjects, situations, responses made it possible to define the conditioned reflex as a phenomenon that unites all animals and has a high level of organization. This set also includes a person.

Realities of our life

Often, the method of generalization in practice is used not for scientific purposes, but for the sake of influencing the general population. This technique makes it easier for the recipient of information to perceive categories. Often, a certain image is formed, which is assigned a set of characteristics and given a specific name. Such a label is applicable in a variety of situations, a generalized understanding of the characteristics that it implies is created in the public mind, so there are no discrepancies in the perception of information.

As experts say, such generalization of concepts associated with the formation of labels encourages people to think in indistinct categories. At the same time, a rather small percentage of individuals try to independently determine the characteristics of the object that caught their eye, since it is easier to resort to labels. In fact, through them, the diversity of the surrounding space is clearly divided into several groups, outlined, strictly defined. Assignment to some of them in advance gives a negative idea about the individual, regardless of his personal characteristics.

Step to the side

The generalization of knowledge through labeling is a feature of the thinking of a modern person, which is very difficult to move away from. Even people who protect themselves from outside informational influences are subject to the use of labels. Often, many do not notice this, do not pay attention. Labeling is a method of activating false causation. The human brain tries to quickly classify any information, focusing on the object of action, and labels formulated by the outside world simplify its task, but lead to incorrect associations.

As practice shows, often the invention of labels is not necessary, it is enough just to mention that a person belongs to a certain social group. This may be a condition of the nation, profession, income level. One has only to call someone, for example, a migrant, and immediately an idea is formed in the head on the basis of an established label. Gender, inclination to certain habits or lifestyles, other distinctive personality traits easily become labels that distort the public perception of individuals.

So simple!

If the label has already been formed, attaching a specific color to it is a simple task that does not require much effort. It is often enough to inform the general public through the media and other means of transmitting information that a certain crime was committed not just by citizen A, but by an African, migrant, European, and soon the audience will associate all people belonging to this group with criminal acts and accuse them of such the first opportunity. As practice shows, it is not uncommon for labels that are initially formulated as derisive, over time, develop into a serious threat to people belonging to the categories that fall under them. Of course, justice is out of the question here. At the same time, such labeling denies the right to individuality that every modern person has.

What to do?

The task of an educated, intelligent modern person is to avoid the use of labels. To implement this in your life, you first need to accustom yourself to notice inadequate, unfair generalizations. Often in the media they are already visible by the headline. When faced with such a person, who wishes to resist the influence on his ability to adequately perceive, must remind himself that this is only a label. You should also not use them on your own, but ignore them in the speech of others. Many use generalizations without even noticing.

It is unacceptable to use labels as a means of proving your point of view. Such a generalization is by no means an argument if we are not talking about a scientific experiment with an evidence base, as was already mentioned above about the conditioned reflex. Generalization of qualities in relation to an individual, a phenomenon is a manipulative technique that contradicts the scientific essence of generalization as such.

Purity of experiment

Often, generalization leads to incorrect presentation of information by the manipulator, up to outright deception. A number of features of the object that has become the center of discussion are changed, exaggerated or underestimated, while other characteristics are completely attributed on the basis of fantasy. The subject of manipulation in such a situation turns into the personification of those qualities that the interlocutor using labels wants to pay attention to. This person aims to make his opponent believe that these properties are the most characteristic of the object under discussion, the main ones, fully characterizing it.

At the same time, in order to further enhance the picture (and distort it), other properties that conflict with the exaggerated ones are carefully hushed up, as if they did not exist at all. Many even seek to prove to the opponent that there are no qualities opposite to hypertrophied ones, they are simply impossible due to the very nature of the object. The task of a person faced with a manipulator is to be able to analyze incoming information, identify labels in time and perceive information correctly, avoiding distortions at the will of other people.

Teaching activity

In addition to the scientific, this area is especially attentive to the possibility of generalization. The pedagogical experience transmitted by specialists is most effective in application if it is systematized and correctly formulated for its use by other professionals. By experience it is customary to understand such a characteristic that describes the working practice in relation to the problems facing the teacher. As part of the formulation of experience, the specialist identifies patterns and determines which prerequisites are most effective in achieving the formulated goal.

Pedagogical generalization involves the analysis of empirical information, theoretical provisions. Such a generalization is especially relevant in relation to best practices, that is, the corresponding development of society at the moment. The activity of the teacher is the most valuable, as well as the experience he has accumulated, if the results and effectiveness are obvious. At the same time, it is necessary to organize the work process in a stable way, effectively spending the teacher's efforts and resources, and giving demonstrable results.

Generalization methods

The generalization of pedagogical experience requires a careful study of scientific literature, methodological publications. It will not be superfluous to introduce a bibliography in the context of the most interesting question for a particular specialist. Materials through which you can get an idea of ​​the work experience should be carefully saved. This applies to abstracts, plans, topics, questions. It is important to record all failures, doubts for subsequent analysis and search for the optimal solution.

Scientific research is always focused on the search for patterns, and patterns are established as the result of generalizations based on observations, experiments, a certain set of theoretical results and other data. Generalization is one of the effective ways to expand and develop scientific knowledge.

Generalization(lat. - generalization) - a way to highlight the general properties, relationships and patterns of a certain subject area by moving to a higher level of abstraction u defining the relevant concepts.

Generalization includes all general scientific methods and research procedures - abstraction, definition, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, classification, analogy, modeling, etc., playing one or another dominant role at certain levels and stages of generalization. Depending on the tasks and level of research, empirical and theoretical generalizations are distinguished.

Empirical Generalizations followed in several inductive steps. At the first stage of generalization, according to the data of experience (facts), the essential features of groups of phenomena or objects are revealed, according to which the main empirical concepts, or empirical objects, are determined and introduced. If real objects have an infinite number of properties, then empirical objects, although they are compared with real objects of experience, are endowed with a rigidly fixed, limited number of attributes, and become abstract objects. Empirical concepts (empirical objects)- these are abstractions that actually single out a certain generalized set of essential properties and relations of the objects under study. Examples of empirical concepts can be such as "conductor with current", "chemical element with atomic weight", "organism (individual)", "species", etc.

Empirical concepts can be qualitative, expressed verbally, but also have a quantitative assessment, become not only observable, but also measurable. So, for example, in physics, a group of gas phenomena are some empirical concepts (pressure, temperature, volume), and the phenomena of the passage of electric current in a conductor are others (current strength, voltage, resistance), which can be fixed by instruments and measured.

According to accepted empirical concepts, the data of experience (facts) are divided and distributed according to essential features into qualitatively delimited groups (classes, subclasses). Therefore, we can assume that the scientific (natural) classifications, taxonomies, typologies, systematics are the next stage of empirical generalization. Such generalizations are the basis for many empirical sciences.

Between the classification groups, designated by empirical concepts, various connections and relationships are established. The simplest generalization of these relations is empirical regularities, which are expressed in tabular form, functional dependence, constructed empirical curves by points, empirical formulas, etc., sometimes referred to as empirical models. The limit of empirical generalization is empirical Law, establishing constantly recurring connections between empirical concepts or empirical objects. For example: G. Ohm's law, which establishes the relationship between current, voltage and resistance; periodic law of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev; the biogenetic law of E. Haeckel, which reflects the relationship between the individual development of an individual and the evolutionary development of the species; and etc.

In contrast to the inductive orientation of the stage of empirical generalization, theoretical generalization is deductive. Due to the fact that at the theoretical level of research there is no direct contact with the material object under study, a natural question arises about the source of the initial theoretical principles and categories, the highest generalization of which is scientific theory. in order to find an answer to the question posed, it is advisable to pay attention to the intermediate form of theoretical-empirical generalization scientific knowledge - a scientific picture of the world.

Scientific picture of the world (SCM)- this is a historically conditioned generalized system of figurative-model ideas about the world and its fragments, developed by scientific and philosophical knowledge for a given period of time and expressed in general scientific and particular scientific concepts, principles, laws and hypotheses. Theorist is primarily interested not in the general scientific, but in the particular-scientific or disciplinary-sectoral picture of the world (CHNKM). On the basis of the basic, partial and complex forms of the motion of matter, physical, chemical, biological, social, astronomical, geological, geographical and technological · nkm. Depending on the level of development of one or another branch of science, the degree of generalization of the CHNKM differs. However, in any case, the specific results of such a generalization, as a rule, should be sought for the time being in the products philosophy of science or general theory of science.

Appeal to theoretical knowledge involves the construction of hypotheses, abstract concepts, models and theories. The highest form of generalization of scientific knowledge- it's a theory in which various facts and phenomena of the surrounding world are reflected in general concept of law. Models of a theory often act as the results of generalizations of individual empirical models. However, the generalization procedure in this case is no longer reduced to a simple systematization of the empirical dependence. These dependencies are taken into account indirectly in the process of developing generalizing theoretical hypotheses. Generalization through the formulation of theoretical hypotheses is one of the main ways of developing theoretical knowledge. In this case, the object of generalization can be not only empirical dependencies, but also theories themselves.

An expressive example of a theoretical generalization is the history of the creation of Newton's theory of gravity. Analyzing Kepler's laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun, Newton suggested that the Sun is the source of motion. Unlike his predecessors, Newton was the first who absolutely clearly understood what exactly needed to be sought to explain the motion of the planets - it was necessary to look for strength and only strength"(Grigoriev V.I., Myakishev G.Ya. Forces in nature. - M., 1969. - P.32).

From Kepler's third law it was possible to derive a more specific guess about the magnitude of the force acting on the planet from the Sun. Comparing the motion of two planets, he came to the conclusion that this force is inversely proportional to the squares of their relative distances. Based on this, Newton put forward a hypothesis about the existence of a gravitational force between the Sun and the planet, which is directed from the Sun to the planet and whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. But there are also the Moon and Moons orbiting Jupiter, so we can assume that the gravitational forces everyone, everything attracts to all:

Thus, the hypothesis, further confirmed by experiment, was generalized into the theory of gravity, where the facts were reflected in the generalizing concept of the law of universal gravitation. At the same time, the fundamental concept of force (P) becomes synonymous with "interaction", which later made it possible to speak not only about gravitational forces, but also about electromagnetic forces, nuclear forces and weak interactions. Further, Newton's theory of gravity was generalized by Einstein into the general theory of relativity, where the forces of gravity do not act instantly, but at a speed not exceeding the speed of light.

Finally, an important form of generalization is the development of abstract theoretical concepts or constructs from which theory models are built. Here, by way of abstraction and idealization, one goes from one abstract concept to another, more general concept. The limit of generalization is the fundamental concept of a given science or category(for example: point, material point, absolutely rigid body, magnetic field, electromagnetic wave, chemical element, ideal gas, gene, biological population, cost, social group, productive forces, production from

wearing, basis, superstructure, etc.).

First you need to decide what "genus", "species" and "nearest species" are.

The concepts of "genus", "species" and "nearest species"

Each concept exists in interconnection with other concepts. Some concepts are included in others, which may contain many concepts. Therefore, it is necessary to have the skill of including and excluding one concept from another. Depending on whether the concept includes another in its scope or, conversely, is itself in the scope of another, there are generic and specific concepts.

Generic concept- a concept that includes another concept and its complement (negation).

species concept- a concept, the scope of which is entirely included in the scope of a more general concept.

A species concept necessarily possesses all the features of species definiteness. Performing logical operations requires distinguishing " closest species". concept BUT is the closest view for the concept AT if there is no such concept FROM , which is a view with respect to the concept AT and gender in relation to the concept BUT .

It should also be emphasized that the certainty of thinking requires distinguishing genus-species relationship from relationship between whole and part , because the part the object does not have all the features the whole . For example, "man" and "head of man", "faculty" and "university".

Restriction and generalization of concepts as logical operations

The transition from generic to specific concepts and from specific to generic ones is based on formal-logical law of the inverse relationship between the content and scope of concepts.

Generalization of the concept- a logical operation, which consists in the transition from a concept with a smaller volume, but more content (kind), to a concept with a larger volume, but less content (genus), by discarding the species-forming feature from the content of the species concept. When generalizing, a transition is made from a specific concept to a generic one.

For example, generalizing the concept of "coniferous forest", we turn to the concept of "forest". The content of this new concept is narrower, but the scope is much broader. The content has decreased because we removed (removing the word “coniferous”) a number of characteristic species features that reflect the characteristics of a coniferous forest. Forest is a genus in relation to the concept of "coniferous forest", which is a species. The initial concept can be both general and singular. For example, you can generalize the concept of "Paris" (single concept) by moving to the concept of "European capital", the next step will be the transition to the concept of "capital", then "city", "village". Thus, gradually excluding the characteristic features inherent in the subject, we are moving towards the greatest expansion of the scope of the concept, sacrificing content in favor of abstraction.

Generalization example: “P.I. Tchaikovsky Eugene Onegin”, “P.I. Tchaikovsky", "opera by a Russian composer of the 19th century", "opera by a Russian composer", "opera", "work of musical art", "work of art".

Purpose of generalization- the maximum removal from the characteristic features. At the same time, it is desirable that such a removal should occur as gradually as possible, i.e., the transition from the genus should occur to the closest species (with the widest content).

The generalization of concepts is not unlimited, and the limit of generalization is philosophical categories, for example, "being" and "consciousness", "matter" and "idea". Since the categories are devoid of a generic concept, their generalization is impossible.

Turning to the question of the limits of generalization, it is important to point out the need to distinguish the generalization of a single concept(outside of any knowledge system) from the generalization of a concept as part of a certain system of knowledge or within the framework of a certain theory. For example, considering the concept of "mammal living on land", one can get successively: "mammal", "animal", "living body", "body" and even in general - "something". This latter, apparently, is the limit of generalization of any single concept. Within the framework of biology, as a certain system of knowledge, the limit of generalization of the concept of "mammal living on land" would be "living body", since the transition to the concept of "body" and even more so to the concept of "something" would mean going beyond biology, so how bodies in general, and even more so "something" are not the object of study of biology.

Concept constraint- a logical operation consisting in the transition from a concept with a large volume, but less content (genus), to a concept with a smaller volume, but more content (kind), by adding an indication of a species-forming feature to the content of the generic concept. The restriction has a limit, the limit of the restriction is a single concept.

When restricting, a transition is made from a generic concept to a specific one (for example, “poet”, “great poet”, “great Russian poet”, “great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin”. The limit of restriction in this example is the single concept “great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin").

If the generalization follows the path of gradual removal from the attributes of the object, the restriction, on the contrary, enriches the totality of the attributes of the concept. Thus, there is a transition from the general to the particular, from species to genus, from single concepts to general ones.

This logical operation is characterized by a decrease in volume due to the expansion of content.

The operation of limitation cannot continue any further when a single concept is reached in its process. It is characterized by the most complete content and volume, in which only one object is conceived.

Thus, the operations of limitation and generalization are the process of concretization and abstraction within the framework from a single concept to philosophical categories. These operations teach a person to think more correctly, contribute to the knowledge of objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world, their relationships. Through generalization and limitation, thinking becomes clearer, more precise, and more consistent. However, one should not confuse generalization and limitation with the selection of a part from the whole and consideration of this part separately. For example, a car engine consists of parts (carburetor, air filter, starter), parts consist of smaller ones, and those, in turn, of even smaller ones. In this example, the concept following the previous one is not its kind, but is only its component.

With the help of Euler circles, we will graphically depict the generalization and restriction of concepts.

Generalization and limitation of concepts can be schematically depicted in the figure.

Rice. Limitation and generalization of concepts

When generalizing, signs are discarded, while the content decreases, and the volume increases. When limited, on the contrary, to the generic concept BUT more and more new species features are added (a,b, With etc.), so the volume decreases and the content increases.

The logical operation of concept generalization is used literally in all cases when certain definitions are given through genus and specific difference. For example: "A noun is a part of speech..."; "Sodium is a chemical element" or better (through the nearest genus) "Sodium is a metal...".

We give examples from the Russian language. The following concepts will limit the concept of "sentence": "simple sentence", "one-part sentence", "one-part sentence with the main member of the predicate", "impersonal sentence". This example shows some relationship between the operation of restriction and the operation of classifying the concept of "sentence". Consider another example with the concept of "city".

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