Speech apparatus - a set and interaction of human organs that take part in the process of speech breathing, sound and voice formation, as well as ensuring the emergence of speech itself in the speaker. The latter include the organs of hearing, vision, articulation and the human central nervous system. In a narrow sense, the vocal apparatus is understood as all those organs that are directly involved in the process of sound formation (respiratory organs, larynx, supraglottic cavities) and respiration.
How sounds are formed
Today, the structure of the speech apparatus can be considered fully understood. It allows us to understand how sound is born, what to eliminate possible problems and disorders of the voice and speech apparatus.
How does the process of sound pronunciation take place? The sounds of their combination are born as a result of contraction of the muscular tissues that make up the peripheral apparatus of speech. A person, starting to speak, exhales on the machine, unconsciously. The created air flow from the lungs passes into the larynx, as a result of which the resulting nerve impulses act on the vocal cords. They vibrate and contribute to the formation of sounds that add up to words and sentences.
The structure of the speech apparatus
The voice apparatus consists of two sections: central and executive. The first is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways, stem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and the corresponding nerves. And the peripheral section is the whole set of executive speech organs, which include bones and cartilage, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral nerves (sensory and motor). With their help, the work of these bodies is carried out.
In turn, the executive department consists of three main departments, each of which operates collectively:
1. Respiratory department
It's no secret that the formation of human breath is the most important physiological process. People breathe reflexively without really thinking about it. Breathing is carried out by special centers of the human nervous system, and it consists of three continuous and successive phases:
- pause
- exhalation
A person always speaks on exhalation and the air jet stream created by him simultaneously performs two functions: voice-forming and articulatory. Any violation of this rule distorts the sound of speech. That is why it is very important to take the time to work on .
The respiratory organs include the lungs, bronchi, trachea, intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm. It is on it that the main muscles of a person rely. The diaphragm is an elastic muscle that has the shape of a dome in a relaxed state. When it and the intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the human chest increases and inspiration occurs. And vice versa, when they relax - exhale.
2. Voice
It is necessary to remember about the correct posture, thanks to which the voice-speech apparatus functions better. To do this, keep your head straight and your back straight, do not slouch, straighten your shoulders, bring your shoulder blades together a little. In addition, such a habit of correct posture contributes to the improvement of your appearance.
For people whose activities are associated with prolonged speaking, the ability to relax the organs of speech and restore the efficiency of the speech apparatus is of great importance. Relaxation means rest and relaxation, which is provided by special exercises. They are recommended to be performed at the end of speech technique classes and immediately after prolonged speaking, when vocal fatigue sets in.
1. Posture of relaxation
You may have read in specialized literature about posture and relaxation mask. That is, about relaxation, the removal of muscle "clamps". To assume this posture, you need to sit down and lean forward slightly, while bending your back and bowing your head. The legs rest on the entire foot and should be spaced at right angles to each other. Your hands rest on your hips, your hands hang freely. Close your eyes. And relax all your muscles as much as possible.
In this posture of relaxation, you can use separate forms of auto-training, which will provide the most complete relaxation and rest.
Sitting, relax all your muscles as much as possible
2. Her mask
The possession of a mask of relaxation is no less important for the speaker or the speaker. To do this, alternately strain and relax various muscle groups of the face. How to “put on” masks of joy, surprise, longing, and so on. After that, relax all the muscles. To do this, say the sound " T» on a weak exhalation and leave the lower jaw in a lowered position.
Make faces, tense and relax your face - this can improve your sound pronunciation
Relaxation is one of the hygiene of speech activity. Its general requirements: protection from unwanted hypothermia and from colds. Avoid anything that irritates the mucous membranes. Follow a certain technique for training the speech apparatus, follow the rules for performing exercises in speech technique and reasonably alternate between stress and rest.
1. Definition of phonetics, various sections of phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.
Depending on the amount of material that is the subject of direct study of phoneticians, general phonetics and comparative phonetics and private phonetics of individual languages differ. General phonetics explores patterns that are characteristic of the sound side of any language. Comparative phonetics is engaged in identifying the common and special in the sound side of two or more compared or compared languages. Phonetics of individual languages studies the features of the sound side of a particular language to the fullest possible extent.
In turn, the phonetics of individual languages differ historical phonetics and descriptive phonetics. The historical phonetics of a particular language studies the history of the sound means of a given language to the extent that it is reflected in the monuments of writing in this language, dialect speech, etc. Descriptive phonetics explores the sound means of a particular language in a certain period of its history or in its current state.
In phonetics, such particular disciplines as articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, perceptual phonetics, functional phonetics, or phonology, accentology, or the study of word stress, intonation, or the study of intonation, are distinguished. Articulatory phonetics investigates the activity of the human speech apparatus, as a result of which sounds are produced. Acoustic phonetics studies purely physical features
(characteristics, parameters) of speech sounds in individual languages. Perceptual phonetics considers the features of the perception of speech sounds by the human organ of hearing.
Functional phonetics, or phonology, studies the functions that speech sounds perform as part of sounds that form the material, perceived side of the meaningful units of the language: morphemes, words and their forms. Thus, the terms phonetics and phonology cannot be equated: phonology is only a part of phonetics, a private discipline that studies the functions that speech sounds, phonemes.
In the circle of other linguistic units - grammar, lexicology - phonetics occupies an equal position with them as an independent science. It interacts primarily with grammar. This interaction is due to the fact that the same sound features of the sound form of linguistic phenomena are essential not only for the sound side of the language, but also for some parts of its grammatical structure. For example, certain types of alternations turn out to be morphologized, that is, they are used in the formation of different forms of the same words or different words from the same root morphemes. (cf. in Russian: wake up - wake up, drive - drive, friend - friend or in German: sprechen-sprach, stechen-stach.
Such morphologized alternations of sounds are studied by the discipline that arose at the junction of phonetics and morphology, called morphonology. Both for phonetics and for syntax, the rules of phrasal intonation of specific languages are very significant, since each specific sentence is characterized by a certain intonational design. Therefore, the data obtained in actual intonological studies find the most direct application in works on descriptive syntax.
2. General information from acoustics
From the point of view of acoustics, sound is the result of the oscillatory movements of a body in any medium, available for sound perception.
Acoustics distinguishes the following features in sound:
1. Height, which depends on the frequency of the oscillation.
2. Force, which depends on the amplitude (range) of oscillations.
3. Duration, or longitude, that is, the duration of a given sound in time.
4. The timbre of sound, that is, the individual quality of its acoustic features.
3. The device of the human speech apparatus
The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body, adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, the organs of hearing and vision, as well as the organs of speech.
The organs of speech, or the speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include:
lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.
According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce those or other movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus of particular importance for their formation. Active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, back of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.
Articulation of speech sound
For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds.
The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the organs of speech - the articulation complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of the speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features.
The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: this is an attack (excursion), exposure and retreat (recursion).
An attack of articulation consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to a position necessary for pronouncing a given sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position necessary to pronounce a sound. The indentation of articulation consists in the translation of the organs of speech into a calm state.
On the relationship between sounds and letters
One of the most remarkable discoveries of the science of language in the middle of the last century can be summarized as follows: the establishment of differences between sounds and letters, with the help of which these sounds are represented. Even the great founders of comparative historical linguistics in the first third of the 19th century - F. Bopp (1791 - 1867), Rask (1787 - 1832), Vostokov (1791 - 1864) - often mixed languages \u200b\u200band sounds and letters were not able to clearly articulate the essence of the difference between them . And only in the second half of the century before last did this distinction find universal and indisputable recognition. Despite the fact that the nature of sounds is completely different from the nature of letters, nevertheless these concepts are correlated. There is no one-to-one correspondence between sound and letter; if there were, it would be an ideal alphabet. The letter represents the designation of sounds in writing.
Sound classification
The classification of speech sounds is based on the acoustic and anatomical and physiological characteristics of sounds. The starting point is the division of all sounds into
vowels and consonants. The totality of vowels forms vocalism, the totality of consonants - consonantism.
4. Signs that distinguish vowel sounds about consonants
1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel always forms the top of a syllable, is a sonant, a consonant accompanies a sonant, is a consonant.
2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists in the different intensity of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of education.
3. In the formation of vowels, the voice prevails over the noise, while in the formation of most consonants (with the exception of sonorants), the ratio is opposite: the noise dominates the voice.
The presence of two types of speech sounds (vowels and consonants), differing in articulation, makes it necessary to classify vowels separately from the classification of consonants.
5. Classification of vowel sounds.
The basis for the classification of vowels is the row and rise of the tongue, as well as the work of the lips.
Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally in a row, that is, in that part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given sound. There are three rows, and, accordingly, three types of speech sounds, which are front, middle and back.
Front vowels - and e; middle row - s; back row at about a.
Vertically, vowels differ in elevation - that is, in the degree of elevation of one or another part of the language during the formation of a given vowel. There are usually three rises - upper, middle and lower. In Russian, high vowels include y y, middle vowels - e o, and low vowels include a.
According to the position of the lips, vowels are divided into labials, that is, in the formation of which the lips take part - o y (labialized, rounded) and unrounded, that is, in the formation of which the lips do not take part - a e and s. Labial vowels are usually back row.
Nasalization.
In a number of languages there are nasal vowels, for example, in French, Polish. In Old Slavonic, nasal vowels were also represented, which in Cyrillic were depicted with special letters: yus large, or o nasal, and yus small, or e nasal. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs when raised? the palatine curtain and the lowered back of the tongue, so that the air stream simultaneously and equally enters the mouth and nose.
6. Classification of consonant sounds.
The classification of consonants is more complex because there are more consonants in the languages of the world than there are vowels.
Noisy - sonorous. As part of the consonant sounds of any language, two large classes of consonants are distinguished: noisy, that is, sounds in the formation of which noise plays the main role, and sonorants, that is, sounds in the formation of which the main role is played by the voice that occurs when the vocal cords vibrate.
The difference between consonants according to the nature of the obstacle and the way it is overcome. Consonants differ depending on what kind of barriers the organs of speech form for the air flow coming from the lungs. If the organs of speech are closed, then the air stream opens them. As a result, there are stop or plosive consonants. In those cases when the organs of speech are not closed, but only brought together, a gap remains between them. An air stream passes into this gap, a characteristic air friction is formed, and the consonant sounds arising from this noise are called fricative (from the word gap), or fricative(from the Latin name fricare - "to rub", as the air, as it were, rubs against a gap in the loosely spaced organs of speech). In various languages, there are still such consonants that combine the features of explosives with the features of consonant fricatives. Such consonants, as it were, begin with an explosive element and end with a slotted element. They are called affricates. The Russian affricate ts consists of a plosive t and a fricative s, the affricate h consists of a plosive t and a fricative sh. Affricates are found in English (Georg), German (Deutsch) and many other languages.
According to the method of formation of the barrier, trembling consonant sounds are also distinguished, during the formation of which the barrier is formed by the periodic approach of the active speech organ to the passive one until a very weak connection occurs, which is immediately broken by a stream of air emerging from the lungs.
If the first series of differences in the area of consonants is determined by the nature of the obstacles that stand in the way of the air flow coming from the lungs, then the second series of differences is associated with activity of active organs of speech- tongue and lips. According to this series of differences, consonants are divided into lingual and labial. When the anterior part of the tongue is involved in lingual articulations, anterior lingual consonants arise. Middle-lingual and back-lingual consonants are also possible.
Crushing is carried out further: among the anterior lingual consonants, dental consonants, for example, t, and alveolar ones, for example, sh, are distinguished. When articulating middle-lingual consonants, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises and approaches the hard palate (for example, the German so-called Ich-Laut in words like ich, Recht). When articulating posterior lingual sounds, the back of the tongue approaches with a soft palate. Back-lingual Russians include k, g, x. In addition to lingual, this group of consonants also includes labial consonants, which in turn are divided into labial-labial (bilabial, for example, Russian p) or labial-tooth, for example, c). The difference between labial and labial and dental is easy to detect experimentally: for this, you just need to alternately pronounce the Russian sounds n and v several times.
The third series of differences in the system of consonants is created by the so-called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - hard palate). Palatalization, or softness, is the result of raising the middle and front of the tongue towards the hard palate. Any consonants can be palatalized or softened, except for middle-lingual ones. The presence of palatalized consonants is a striking feature of Russian phonetics.
In order for a person to utter this or that speech sound, the following is necessary: a) a certain impulse sent from the brain; b) the transmission of this impulse along the nerves to the organs directly executing this "command"; c) in the vast majority of cases, the complex work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi and trachea), as well as the diaphragm and the entire chest, since speech sounds cannot normally be formed without an air stream created by breathing; d) the complex work of those organs that are commonly called pronunciation organs in the narrow sense of the word, i.e., the vocal cords, tongue, lips, palatine curtain, pharyngeal walls and certain movements of the lower jaw, providing the desired angle in the oral cavity solution.
The totality of the work of the respiratory apparatus and the movements of the pronunciation organs, necessary for pronouncing the corresponding sound, is called articulation of this sound.
The speech apparatus is the organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of sound speech. In the broad sense of the word, the speech apparatus includes the central nervous system, the hearing (and vision) organs necessary for the perception of sounds and the correction of sound formation, and the speech organs necessary for the production of speech sounds.
The organs of speech (or the speech apparatus in the narrow sense) consist of the respiratory organs, the larynx and the supraglottic cavities.
The respiratory organs are the lungs, bronchi, and windpipe (trachea). The lungs and bronchi are the source and conductor of the air stream, which causes vibrations of the organs of the pronunciation apparatus, which generates the sound of speech. Breathing itself is involuntary. Speech breathing, which, unlike physiological breathing, occurs through the mouth, has the peculiarity that the inhalation is larger than the exhalation, so that enough air remains in the lungs to prolong the exhalation and create the air pressure necessary to vibrate the vocal ligaments. With proper speech breathing, the beginning of phonation, i.e., the formation of sounding speech, coincides with the beginning of exhalation.
Larynx (larynx) - the upper expanded part of the trachea. The voice box is located in the larynx. It is made up of cartilage, muscles and muscles. The skeleton of the larynx is formed by two cartilages - the cricoid and the thyroid (the upper part of it protrudes in men in the form of an Adam's apple). On top of the cricoid cartilage are two small arytenoid (or pyramidal) cartilages; they look like triangles that can move apart and move towards the center.
Two elastic folds are stretched between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilages - the vocal cords; they are located on the side walls of the larynx, covered with a mucous membrane and can converge or diverge at an angle with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes.
Plays an important role in the formation of speech sounds oral cavity: various noises and resonator tones are produced here, which are important for creating a timbre. In the oral cavity (see the figure on p. 104) there are: teeth (upper and lower), alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth), hard palate (palatum; it, in turn, is divided into anterior and middle), soft the palate (velum), which ends with the tongue (in Latin it is called uvula), the tongue is the most mobile organ of speech. Distinguish between the tip of the tongue, the back (the part facing the palate) and the root of the tongue; The back of the tongue is divided into three parts - anterior, middle and posterior.
The soft palate is also called palatine curtain; it really opens and closes the nasal cavity: when the palate is lowered, when the air stream freely penetrates the nasal cavity, a nasal resonance occurs, which is characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants. When the palatine curtain is raised and pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, the soft palate closes the passage into the nasal cavity for the air stream; this produces non-nasal speech sounds.
According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. Active organs are mobile; they perform various movements necessary to create barriers and forms for the passage of an air stream. Passive organs are motionless, they are the place where the active organ creates a bow or gap. The active organs are the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, back of the pharynx (pharynx), as well as the entire lower jaw. The tongue and its front part are especially active.
Passive organs are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, as well as the entire upper jaw.
For the pronunciation of any sound of speech, the activity of one of the organ of speech is not enough. For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed.
There are three phases of speech sound articulation: attack (excursion), excerpt and indent (recursion). These phases are related to each other as components of sound production.
Attack articulation consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state or articulation of the previous sound to the position necessary for pronouncing this sound. So, the start of articulating the sound [t] consists in the fact that the vocal cords move apart and relax, the palatine curtain rises and presses against the back of the pharynx, and the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth.
Each sound of speech is a phenomenon not only physical, but also physiological, since the central nervous system of a person is involved in the formation and perception of speech sounds. From a physiological point of view, speech appears as one of its functions. Pronouncing the sound of speech is a rather complex physiological process. A certain impulse is sent from the speech center of the brain, which travels along the nerves to the speech organs that carry out the command of the speech center. It is generally accepted that the direct source of the formation of speech sounds is a jet of air pushed out of the lungs through the bronchi, trachea and oral cavity. Therefore, the speech apparatus is considered both in the broad and narrow sense of the word.
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In a broad sense, the concept speech apparatus include the central nervous system, the organs of hearing (and vision - for writing), necessary for the perception of sounds, and the organs of speech, necessary for the production of sounds. The central nervous system is responsible for the production of speech sounds. It is also involved in the perception of speech sounds from the outside and awareness of them.
speech organs, or speech apparatus in the narrow sense, consist of respiratory organs, larynx, supraglottic organs and cavities. The organs of speech are often compared to a wind instrument: the lungs are bellows, the windpipe is a pipe, and the oral cavity is valves. In fact, the speech organs are controlled by the central nervous system, which sends commands to various parts of the speech organs. In accordance with these commands, the organs of speech produce movements and change their positions.
respiratory organs are the lungs, bronchi and windpipe (trachea). The lungs and bronchi are the source and conductor of the air stream, forcing the exhaled air by the tension of the muscles of the diaphragm (abdominal obstruction).
Rice. one. Breathe-helping machine:
1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - windpipe (trachea); 4 - bronchi; 5 - terminal branches of bronchial branches; 6 - tops of the lungs; 7 - bases of the lungs
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Larynx, or larynx(from the Greek larynx - larynx) - this is the upper expanded part of the trachea. The larynx contains the vocal apparatus, which is made up of cartilage and muscles. The skeleton of the larynx is formed by two large cartilages: the cricoid (in the form of a ring, the signet of which is turned back) and the thyroid (in the form of two connected shields protruding at an angle forward; the protrusion of the thyroid cartilage is called Adam's apple, or Adam's apple). The cricoid cartilage is fixedly connected to the trachea and is, as it were, the base of the larynx. On the top of the cricoid cartilage are two small arytenoid, or pyramidal, cartilages that look like triangles and can move apart and shift towards the center, turn inward or outward.
Rice. 2. Larynx
BUT. Larynx in front: 1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - hyoid bone; 4 - middle shield-hyoid ligament I (connecting the thyroid cartilage with the hyoid bone); 5 - middle cricoid ligament; 6 - trachea
B. Larynx behind: 1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - upper horns of the thyroid cartilage; 4 - lower horns of the thyroid cartilage; 5 - arytenoid cartilages; 6 - epiglottis; 7 - membranous (back) part of the trachea
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Across the larynx, obliquely from the top of the front to the bottom of the back, two elastic muscular folds are stretched in the form of a curtain, converging in two halves to the middle, - the vocal cords. The upper edges of the vocal cords are attached to the inner walls of the thyroid cartilage, the lower - to the arytenoid cartilages. The vocal cords are very elastic and can be shortened and stretched, relaxed and tense. With the help of the arytenoid cartilages, they can converge or diverge at an angle, forming a glottis of various shapes. The air forced by the respiratory organs passes through the glottis and causes the vocal cords to tremble. Under the influence of their vibrations, sounds of a certain frequency are produced. This begins the process of creating speech sounds.
It should be noted that, according to the neuromotor theory of voice formation, the vocal cords actively contract not under the influence of a mechanical breakthrough of exhaled air, but under the influence of a series of nerve impulses. Moreover, the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords during the formation of speech sounds corresponds to the frequency of nerve impulses.
In any case, the process of creating sounds in the larynx is just beginning. It ends "on the upper floor" of the speech apparatus - in the supraglottic cavities with the participation of the organs of pronunciation. Resonator tones and overtones are formed here, as well as noise from air friction against adjacent organs or from the explosion of closed organs.
The upper floor of the speech apparatus - the extension tube - begins with the pharyngeal cavity, or pharynx(from the Greek phárynx - pharynx). The pharynx can narrow in its lower or middle region by contracting the circular muscles of the pharynx or moving back the root of the tongue. In this way, pharyngeal sounds are formed in Semitic, Caucasian and some other languages. Further, the extension pipe is divided into two outlet pipes - the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. They are separated by the palate (Latin palatum), the front part of which is hard (hard palate), and the back is soft (soft palate, or palatine curtain), ending with a small tongue, or uvula (from Latin uvula - tongue). The hard palate is divided into anterior and middle.
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Depending on the position of the palatine curtain, the air flow leaving the larynx can enter the oral cavity or the nasal cavity. When the veil of palate is raised and fits snugly against the posterior pharyngeal wall, air cannot enter the nasal cavity and must pass through the mouth. Then oral sounds are formed. If the soft palate is lowered, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open. Sounds acquire nasal coloring and nasal sounds are obtained.
Rice. 3. pronunciation apparatus
The oral cavity is the main "laboratory" in which speech sounds are formed, since it contains mobile speech organs, which, under the influence of nerve impulses coming from the cerebral cortex, produce various movements.
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The oral cavity can change its shape and volume due to the presence of movable pronunciation organs: lips, tongue, soft palate, uvula, and in some cases, the epiglottis. The nasal cavity, on the contrary, acts as a resonator that does not change in volume and shape. The tongue plays the most active role in the articulation of most speech sounds.
Knead the tip of the tongue, the back (the part facing the palate) and the root of the tongue; The back of the tongue is divided into three parts - anterior, middle and posterior. Of course, there are no anatomical boundaries between them. In the oral cavity there are also teeth, which are its solid border of a fixed form, and alveoli (from Latin alveolus - groove, notch) - tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth, which play an important role in the formation of speech sounds. The mouth is covered with lips - upper and lower, representing a soft border of a mobile form.
According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. Active organs are mobile, they make certain movements necessary to create barriers and forms of air passage. Passive organs of speech do not perform independent work in the formation of sounds and are 1 the place where the active organ creates a bridge or gap for] the passage of an air stream. The active organs of speech include the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, back of the pharynx, and the lower jaw. Passive organs are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, and also the upper jaw. In the pronunciation of some sounds, the active organs may not take a direct part, thereby passing to the position of passive organs of speech.
The tongue is the most active organ of the human speech apparatus. Parts of the tongue have different mobility. The tip of the tongue has the greatest mobility, which can be pressed against urubam and alveoli, bend up to the hard palate, form constrictions in various places, tremble at the hard palate, etc. The back of the tongue can merge with the hard and soft palate or rise towards them, forming constrictions.
Of the lips, the lower lip has more mobility. It can merge with the upper lip or form a labial with it.
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constriction. Protruding forward and rounding, the lips change the shape of the resonator cavity, which creates the so-called rounded sounds.
The small uvula, or uvula, may tremble intermittently as it closes against the back of the tongue.
In Arabic, the epiglottis, or epiglottis, is involved in the formation of some consonants (hence epiglottis, or epiglottal, sounds), which physiologically covers the larynx at the time of the passage of food into the esophagus.
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Girutsky A. A
G51 Introduction to linguistics: Proc. allowance /A.A. Girutsky. - 2nd ed., erased. - Minsk: "TetraSystems", 2003. - 288 p. ISBN 985-470-090-9. The manual fully complies
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It is believed that understanding the nature and essence of language is connected with the answer to at least two questions: 1) is language ideal or material? 2) what kind of phenomenon is language - biological, mental,
Ideal and material in language
The structure of the ideal in the language is rather multilayered. It includes the energy of consciousness - spirit, the energy of thinking - thought, which form the same ideal elements of language, called
Biological, social and individual in language
In the middle of the XIX century. a view arose of language as a living organism that develops according to the same laws of nature as other living organisms: it is born, matures, reaches its peak,
Language, speech, speech activity
Language is the property of society, but it always manifests itself in the speech of an individual. A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) believed that the language of each individual has a real existence, while the language
Language Features
The question of the nature and number of language functions does not have an unambiguous solution in modern linguistics. Even in the educational literature it is interpreted in different ways. Multiple discussion of the
Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics (from the Greek phōnē - voice, noise, sound, speech) studies the sound structure of the language, that is, the inventory of sounds, their system, sound laws, as well as the rules for combining sounds in
Acoustics of speech sounds
The general theory of sound is a section of physics - acoustics, which considers sound as a result of the oscillatory movements of a body in any medium. The physical body can
Articulation of sound and its phases
Articulation (from lat. articulatio - I pronounce articulately) is the work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production of sounds. Each pronounced sound has three articulatory
Phonetic division of speech flow
Speech is phonetically a continuous stream of sounds following each other in time. The sound stream, however, is not continuous: from a phonetic point of view, it can
Interaction of sounds in a speech stream
The sounds of speech, used as part of a word, measure and phrase, influence each other, undergoing changes. The modification of sounds in the speech chain is called the phonetic process
stress and intonation
In the speech flow, all phonetic units - sounds, syllables, words, measures, phrases - are represented by linear segments (segments) of one or another length, located in succession
Phoneme and system of phonemes
Prerequisites for the emergence of phonology. So far, the material side of the language has been considered: the physical and physiological embodiment of the ideal essences of the language in speech
Morphemics and word formation
A larger unit of language than a phoneme is a morpheme, which occupies an intermediate position between a phoneme and a word. With all the differences in the approach to the morpheme, the only common
Changing the morphemic structure of a word
The morphemic composition of a word can change over time, when affixes, both externally and internally, are closely soldered to the roots and to each other. As part of these adhesions, the former boundaries of m
Word formation and its basic units
The vocabulary of any language is in a state of continuous development, one of the regularities of which is the replenishment of the vocabulary of the language with new words. Replenishment of vocabulary about
Lexicology and semasiology
The basic unit of language is the word. Language as an instrument of thinking and communication is, first of all, a system of words, it is in the word that the language acquires its integrity and completeness, being formed in the process
The word as the central unit of language
Word structure. The word as the central unit of the language has a very complex structure, in which the language also receives its structural integrity and completeness (see diagram). Actually
Lexical meaning and its types
Lexical meaning is most often understood as a historically formed connection between the sound of a word and the display of an object or phenomenon in our minds, denoted
Development of the lexical meaning of the word
Polysemy. Most words in the language have not one, but several meanings that have appeared in the process of long historical development. Yes, the noun
Lexico-semantic groupings of words
Back in the last century, the Russian semasiologist M.M. Pokrovsky (1868-1942) drew attention to the fact that "words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other," but are not united in our soul.
Chronological stratification of the vocabulary of the language
Vocabulary fund. The vocabulary of any language can be described not only on the basis of semantic similarity and opposition of words that reflect the systemic nature of the vocabulary
Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the language
In every literary language, vocabulary is distributed stylistically. There is no generally accepted classification of the stylistic stratification of the vocabulary, it differs in different authors.
Onomastics
Onomastics (from the Greek onomastik - the art of giving names) is a section of lexicology that studies any proper names. This term is also called the totality of own
Phraseology
Phraseology and phraseological units. Phraseology (from Greek phrásis, genus p. phráseos - expression and logos - word, doctrine) is a section of lexicology that studies
Etymology
The vocabulary of a language is that side of it that is most subject to historical change. Words change their meanings, sound appearance, which often makes
Lexicography
Lexicography (from the Greek lexikon - dictionary, graphō - I write) is the science of dictionaries and the practice of compiling them. She is very closely related to lexicology and semasiology
Grammar and its subject
Grammar (from other Greek grammatike techne - literally written art, from gramma - letter) is a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of the language, that is, the laws of structure and
Grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form
The triadic structure of the language - language, speech, speech activity - is also reflected in the units of grammar, where the grammatical category acts as a unit of the language, the grammatical sign
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
The whole variety of grammatical forms in the languages of the world is reduced to a countable and easily observable number of ways to
Parts of speech and members of a sentence
The word as an element of morphology and an element of syntax. In grammar, one and the same word has to be considered both as a morphological phenomenon and as a syntactical phenomenon.
phrase
The phrase as a unit of syntax. The theory of the phrase was developed mainly in Russian linguistics. Foreign linguistics with the concept of the phrase benefit
Sentence
A sentence as a unit of syntax. A sentence in modern linguistics is considered as the main unit of syntax, opposing it to a word and a phrase in form, meaning
History of the letter
The true history of writing begins with the advent of descriptive writing. But even before that, people communicated at a distance and in time in a variety of ways and means. As a pre
The main stages of the history of writing
The main types of descriptive writing. In the development of descriptive writing, several stages have historically changed, characterized by different types of writing. Features
Alphabets, graphics and spelling
Alphabets. An alphabet (from the Greek alphábētos) is a set of letters of a phonemographic script arranged in a historically established order. The very word a
Specialized writing systems
Among the specialized writing systems are transcription, transliteration and shorthand, serving professional needs. Transcription. transcription
Languages of the world
As already noted, there are approximately 5,000 languages on the globe. The difficulty in determining their exact number lies primarily in the fact that in many cases it remains unclear what it is -
Patterns of historical development of languages
Approximately about 40 thousand years ago, if not earlier, Homo Sapiens appeared, that is, a reasonable person. He knows rock art and uses a sound language that acts as a full-fledged
Tribal languages and the formation of related languages
It is believed that linguistic fragmentation was the state of mankind at the time of its origin. This condition is found in many modern typically tribal societies in Africa, Australia,
External and internal laws of language development
In modern linguistics, the concept of the laws of language development is not clearly defined, since many language changes do not form a constant ascending line associated with development.
speech apparatus- this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two departments: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral section is the whole set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilages, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.
1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhalation;
2nd department- organs of speech are passive - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on the technique of speech;
3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;
The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a jet of air, the second to form a voice, the third is a resonator that gives sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech that arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.
The lower jaw drops and rises; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage to the nasal cavity; tongue and lips can take a variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of locks and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which this or that character of the sound is determined.
The tongue is rich in muscles that make it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and arched.
The soft palate, or palatine curtain, ending in a small tongue, lies at the top of the oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, which begins at the upper teeth with alveoli. The palate has the ability to rise and fall and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the palatine curtain is raised. If the palatine curtain is inactive for some reason and is not raised, then the sound turns out to be nasal (nasal), since when the palatine curtain is lowered, sound waves pass mainly through the nasal cavity.
The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-producing) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowels (a, o, u, e, and, s).
The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correctness of resonation and the clarity of the sounds pronounced. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.
The organs of speech are shown in the following figure:
