DEEP ECOLOGY: LIVING AMONG SIGNIFICANT NATURE Bill Devall and George Sessions

Depth psychology

1. General characteristics of depth psychology.

1. Psychoanalysis by Z. Freud.
2. Analytical psychology of C.G. Jung.
3. Individual psychology of A. Adler.
4. Neo-Freudianism (K. Horney, E. Fromm, G. Sullivan and others).

Depth psychology- this is a group of directions in modern foreign psychology, focused mainly on unconscious mechanisms psyche.

General provisions of depth psychology are based on theories Z. Freud, K. G. Jung, A. Adler, while somewhat generalizing and expanding the boundaries of each of the theories. Unconscious of a person is considered wider than just repressed sexual desires or archetypes of the collective unconscious. Moral can also be considered as one of the forces of such an "unconscious". " Where the spiritual self plunges into the realm of the unconscious as its last foundation, there we can, depending on the circumstances, speak of knowledge, love or art. Where, on the contrary, the psychophysical id breaks into consciousness, we are dealing with neurosis and psychosis.", - wrote W. Frankl. The spiritual principle in a person is not only the result of the sublimation of aspirations, it is not a kind of concomitant phenomenon of the body-psychic complex, but initially exists along with it. Soul and body are considered as two complementary ways of manifestation of the living.

Depth psychology, with its appearance, stimulated the development of a new field of medicine that studies the influence of psychological factors on the occurrence of certain diseases. This branch of medicine is called psychosomatics. As a therapeutic method, psychosomatics proceeds from the fact that there is not a single disease of the body that would not be accompanied by mental causes.

Depth psychology refers to:

• psychoanalysis by Z. Freud;
• analytical psychology of C. G. Jung;
• individual psychology of A. Adler;
• neo-Freudianism of K. Horney, E. Fromm, G. Sullivan and others.

Depth psychology uses methods partially borrowed from psychoanalysis, namely:

• free associations,
• projective methods,
• methods of psychodrama, etc.

Depth psychology opposes itself behaviorism(behavioral psychology), which studies only the observable manifestations of the human psyche.

According to depth psychologists, what we are aware of is only a small part of our personality, like the tip of the iceberg. With the help of depth psychology, you can discover the amazing reserves of your own personality, better understand and know yourself, and solve many long-standing problems.

2. Psychoanalysis 3. Freud

Psychoanalysis 3. Freud(1856-1939) was formed in the conditions and under the influence of the political and social development of Austria at the end of the past - the beginning of this century. Such features of the socio-psychological atmosphere of Austria at that time as the collapse of patriarchal principles in a collision with the bourgeois way of life, the rivalry between the political forces of liberals and conservatives and the defeat of liberalism, the flourishing of nationalism and on its basis the spread of anti-Semitic sentiments, the feeling of which is repeatedly described by Freud 3. ("Interpretation of Dreams", "Autobiography", etc.)

Economic upheavals (crises) gave rise to pessimism, loss of faith in the rationality of being and ideas about the irrationality of life, various forms and varieties of irrational consciousness. At the end of the XIX century. there is a wide interest in the unconscious - not only in special, scientific literature, but also in fiction, as well as in philosophy. The views of Z. Freud, his understanding of man, according to which, under the pressure of the instincts of sexuality and due to the unconsciousness of mental processes, it was recognized that “I” is “not the master in my own house”, objectively reflected the crisis of the bourgeois personality, the typical self-perception of the individual in bourgeois society, in including that part of it with which Freud dealt as a medical practitioner. However, Freud himself presented his historically conditioned theory of man as the only scientific - the natural concept of man.

Psychoanalysis emerged in the early 1990s. 19th century from the medical practice of treating patients with functional mental disorders. 3. Freud, after graduating from the medical faculty of the University of Vienna (1881), worked as a practicing physician in Vienna. In 1938 he was forced to emigrate to England. Died in London in 1939.

Dealing with neuroses, mainly hysteria, 3. Freud studied the experience of the famous French neurologists J. Charcot and I. Bernheim. The latter's use of hypnotic suggestion for therapeutic purposes, the fact of post-hypnotic suggestion made a great impression on Freud and contributed to such an understanding of the etiology of neuroses, their treatment, which formed the core of the future concept. It was set forth in the book An Investigation of Hysteria (1895), written jointly with a well-known Viennese physician I. Breuer(1842-1925), with whom Freud was collaborating at the time.

In its general form, Freud's theory during this period amounted to an understanding of neurotic illnesses as a pathological functioning of "impaired affects", strong, but detained in the unconscious area of ​​​​experiences. If, through hypnosis, the patient is able to relive these traumatic experiences and re-experience them emotionally, healing can occur. The decisive moment in the formation of the original theory 3. Freud was the departure from hypnosis as a means of penetrating the hurt and forgotten painful experiences: in many and just the most difficult cases, hypnosis remained powerless, met with "resistance" that it could not overcome.

Freud was forced to look for other ways to the hurt affect and eventually found them in the interpretation of dreams, free-floating associations of small and large psychopathological symptoms (manifestations), excessively increased or decreased sensitivity, movement disorders, slips of the tongue, forgetfulness, etc. Research and Freud called the interpretation of this diverse material psychoanalysis - a new form of therapy and method of research. The core of psychoanalysis as a new psychological trend is the doctrine of the unconscious.

Freud's scientific activity spanned several decades. Over the years, his concept of the unconscious has undergone significant changes. In his teaching; It is possible to distinguish, albeit somewhat conditionally, three periods. The first period (1897-1905) was when psychoanalysis basically remained a method of treating neuroses, with occasional attempts at general conclusions about the nature of mental life. The main works of this period: The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1904), Wit and its Relation to the Unconscious (1905), Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), An Excerpt from an Analysis of Hysteria "(1905, the first and complete exposition of the psychoanalytic method of treatment).

Work is of particular importance "The Interpretation of Dreams", which sets out the first version of the doctrine of the system of mental life as having a deep structure. It distinguishes three levels - conscious, preconscious and unconscious with censorship between them.

During this period, psychoanalysis began to gain popularity, a circle formed around Freud (1902) from representatives of various professions (doctors, writers, artists) who wanted to study psychoanalysis and apply it in their practice.

In the second period (1906-1918), Freudianism turns into general psychological doctrine of personality and its development. Freud formulates the basic principles of his psychology, a description of mental processes from three points of view - dynamic, topical and economic.

During this period, “Analysis of the Phobia of a Five-Year-Old Boy” (1909), “Leonardo da Vinci” (1910) and “Totem and Taboo” (1912) are published - works in which Freud extends psychoanalysis to the field of artistic creativity and the problems of human history, “ Regulations on the two principles of mental activity” (1911).

Psychoanalysis is arousing interest in many countries. In 1909, Freud, at the invitation of Hall, lectured at Clark University (Worchester) and this marked the beginning of the spread of psychoanalysis in America ("On Psychoanalysis, Five Lectures", 1909).

A significant event in the development of psychoanalysis during this period was the departure from Freud of his first collaborators A. Adler (1911) and C. Jung (1912). The best and most complete exposition of psychoanalysis as it developed by the beginning of the First World War, and the work that, together with The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, received the widest distribution compared to other works of 3. Freud, are his Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis ( in 2 volumes; in 1932, Freud added the 3rd volume to them), which are records of lectures given to doctors in 1916-1917. In the 3rd, last, period, the concept of 3. Freud undergoes significant changes and receives its philosophical completion.

Under the influence of the events of the First World War, the the doctrine of instincts(“Beyond the Pleasure Principle”, 1920). The structure of the personality is now presented in the form of a doctrine of three instances - "I", "It", "Ideal-I" ("I and It", 1923). In a number of works 3. Freud extends his theory to the understanding of culture and various aspects of social life: religion - "The Future of an Illusion" (1927), anthropology, social psychology, problems of civilization - "Psychology of the masses and analysis of the human "I" (1921), Moses and Monotheism (1939) and others. Psychoanalysis is becoming philosophical system and merges with other irrationalist currents of bourgeois philosophy.

ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY by C. Jung- one of the areas of depth psychology and psychotherapy, which originally arose within the framework of the psychoanalytic movement, but later acquired the status of an independent existence.

The founder of analytical psychology is the Swiss psychotherapist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961), who developed the method of associative experiment in the psychiatric clinic Burgholzli led by psychiatrist E. Bleyer (1898–1927) and discovered the presence of sensory complexes in a person, who established correspondence with Z. Freud, and in 1907 paid his first visit to him, shared psychoanalytic ideas for a number of years and was the editor of the Yearbook of Psychoanalytic and Psychopathological Research, as well as president of the International Psychoanalytic Association from March 1910 to April 1914.

After the publication of the work of Z. Freud "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900), K.G. Jung read it, referred to it in his doctoral dissertation On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena (1902), re-read it in 1903, and beginning in 1904 made extensive use of psychoanalytic ideas in diagnosing associations and the psychology of early dementia (dementia praecox), later called schizophrenia by E. Bleuler. For several years, a fruitful exchange of views on the development of psychoanalytic ideas and concepts was carried out between the two researchers and practitioners, as a result of which, at the second International Psychoanalytic Congress, held in March 1910 in Nuremberg, it was Z. Freud who recommended K.G. Jung as the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. Moreover, the founder of psychoanalysis considered C.G. Jung as his ideological heir and placed great hopes on him in terms of the further development of the psychoanalytic movement.

In 1911, between Z. Freud and K.G. Jung found differences in the understanding of some psychoanalytic ideas. The publication of the last work "Libido, Its Metamorphoses and Symbols" (1912), in the second part of which the Freudian concept of libido and ideas about the "incestuous complex" was revised, led to a deepening of theoretical differences between them. Subsequent conceptual and subjective differences led to the fact that at the beginning of 1913 between K.G. Jung and Z. Freud stopped first personal, and a few months later, business correspondence. Later K.G. Jung began to develop his own doctrine of man and his mental illness, the totality of ideas and therapeutic techniques of which was called analytical psychology, which was reflected in his work Preface to Selected Papers on Analytical Psychology (1916).

Unlike classical psychoanalysis, K.G. Jung, the following general theoretical ideas were put forward: a person should be considered on the basis of his health, and not from pathology, which is characteristic of the views of Z. Freud; the doctrine of introverted and extroverted personality types is based on the assumption that in the picture of the world there are internal and external principles, and between them there is a person who is turned to one or the other pole, depending on temperament and inclinations; mental energy is born from the interaction of opposites, it is not limited only and exclusively to sexual energy, and, therefore, the concept of libido is broader in content than is commonly believed in psychoanalysis; in order to break the vicious circle of biological phenomena associated with sexuality, incest, it is necessary to recognize the presence of the spirit and relive it; a person naturally develops a religious function and therefore, for a long time, the human psyche has been permeated with religious feelings; all religions are positive and in the content of their teachings there are those figures that one has to face in the dreams and fantasies of patients; The human ego suffers not only because of its separation from humanity, but also from the loss of spirituality.

As K.G. Jung in Freud and Jung: A Difference of Views (1929), it is on these general assumptions that all the many divergences that take place between classical psychoanalysis and analytical psychology are based. Differences concerning both the “genetic” (instead of purely sexual) understanding of libido and the rejection of the polymorphic-perverse characteristics of the child, taken from the psychology of neuroses and projected back into the psychology of the infant, and the division of the unconscious into individual and collective, the differences between the Self and the Self, as well as opposing the constructive (synthetic) method of research to the causal-reductive (analytical) interpretation of mental processes.

If Z. Freud appealed to the unconscious mental, then K.G. Jung distinguished between the individual (personal) unconscious, containing sensory complexes, and the collective (superpersonal) unconscious, which is a deep part of the psyche, which is not an individual acquisition of a person, and owes its existence to "exclusively inheritance", manifested in the form of archetypes, acting as a "model and a pattern of instinctive behaviour.

If the founder of psychoanalysis singled out It, I and Super-I in the personality structure, then K.G. Jung singled out such components in the human psyche as Shadow, Persona, Anima, Animus, Divine Child, Virgo (Kora), Old Sage (Philemon), Self and a number of other figures.

If in classical psychoanalysis the father complex played a decisive role in the development of the personality, then in analytical psychology it was the mother complex, which absorbed the image of the Great Mother.

If Z. Freud undertook a causal (causal) interpretation of dreams, then, like the founder of individual psychology, the Austrian psychologist and psychotherapist A. Adler (1870–1937), K.G. Jung was guided by the final (goal-setting) way of considering dreams, believing that "everything psychological requires a double way of considering, namely causal and final" (in this respect, analytical psychology was a kind of synthesis of some ideas of classical psychoanalysis and individual psychology).

If Z. Freud believed that the dream has a reducing, biological compensatory function, then K.G. Along with this function, Jung also recognized the prospective function of the dream, which contributes to the emergence in the unconscious of a certain plan, the symbolic content of which is a blueprint for solving intrapsychic conflicts.

If the founder of psychoanalysis emphasized the exceptionally important role of the unconscious in human life, then the founder of analytical psychology proceeded from the fact that “the meaning of the unconscious is approximately equivalent to the meaning of consciousness” and one is an addition to the other, since consciousness and the unconscious are connected with each other by bonds of mutual compensation.

If, in Z. Freud's view, there is nothing accidental in the psyche, and in the internal, as well as in the external world, everything is due to a causal relationship, then in the understanding of K.G. Jung, mental and physical are different aspects of a single reality, where, in addition to the causal connection, the acausal connecting principle or synchronicity is also effective, indicating the parallelism of time and meaning between various events that take place in the life of an individual, other people and in the world as a whole.

If for Z. Freud the center of personality is I (consciousness), and the position “Where It was, I must become” was the psychoanalytic maxim, then for K.G. Jung, the central position in the personality is occupied by the Self, which includes consciousness and the unconscious, uniting, thanks to the “transcendental function” (combining the contents of consciousness with the contents of the unconscious), conscious and unconscious representations into a kind of unity or “mental integrity”, which implies the implementation of individuation, that is, the process , generating a psychological individual, that process, the symbol of which can be a mandala (the image of a circle in a square and a square in a circle or a quarter and a circle, embodying the integrity of the psyche, the completeness and perfection of the personality).

General and particular conceptual differences of K.G. Jung with a number of psychoanalytic ideas put forward by Z. Freud were reflected in analytical practice - in the use of appropriate methods of working with the unconscious of patients, the strategies and goals of analytical psychology in assisting those who turned to the analyst for help.

Based on analytical psychology, psychotherapy includes an attitude towards the individualization of the treatment method and the irrationalization of the target activity. Both are associated with specific types of patients (introverts and extroverts, young and old, with mild and severe mental disorders, adapting to reality with difficulty or without difficulty) and various stages of psychotherapeutic problems - recognition (confession, catharsis, corresponding to the cathartic method of treatment J. Breuer), clarification (an explanation of the phenomena of resistance and transfer, characteristic of the method of interpretation of Z. Freud), education (in many cases, clarification leaves behind “albeit an understandable, but nevertheless unadapted child” and therefore social education is required that reflects the aspirations of A. Adler’s individual psychology) and transformation (self-education of the educator, based on changes not only in the patient, but also in the doctor, who, before becoming a practicing analyst, must himself undergo an educational analysis in order to deal with his own unconscious).

Thus, analytical psychology not only includes the methods of treatment used in classical psychoanalysis and individual psychology, but also represents a healing of the soul, which is put at the service of self-education and self-improvement. The fourth stage of analytical psychology (transformation) expands the horizon of healing and leads to the fact that in psychotherapy "not a doctor's diploma, but human qualities" is essential. Self-education and improvement become integral components of psychotherapy, which focuses on the internal tendencies of the development of the person himself, capable of leading to spiritual integrity in the process of mutual transformation of the patient and the doctor involved in the analysis. Thus, as K.G. Jung, analytical psychology fills a deep gap that previously testified to the spiritual inferiority of Western European cultures compared to Eastern ones, and becomes nothing more than a kind of "yoga of the twentieth century."

Analytical therapeutic practice of K.G. Jung was based on the following approaches, methods and techniques for understanding the unconscious and healing the soul: a constructive (synthetic-hermeneutic) approach to mental processes, in which analysis is not a panacea, but a more or less thorough putting in order in the patient's psyche, involving liberation "from partitions between consciousness and the unconscious” and insight into its potential creative possibilities; dialectical approach, which consists in comparing mutual data, recognizing the fact of the possibility of different interpretations of symbolic contents, understanding that any mental impact is in fact the interaction of two systems of the psyche; the dialectical method of establishing such relationships between the doctor and the patient, in which the individuality of the patient requires respect no less than the individuality of the analyst, and the therapist ceases to be an active party, but becomes simply "an accomplice in the individual development process"; the technique of "amplification" that expands and deepens the images of dreams through historical parallels from the fields of mythology, alchemy, and religion; the method of "active imagination", which is an effective way of bringing the contents of the unconscious to the surface and activating creative fantasy, due to which the transcendental function becomes effective, initiating the process of individuation, giving a person the opportunity to achieve his liberation, contributing to his gaining unity, completeness, integrity and leading to the establishment of an internal harmony.

The main task of the analyst is, according to K.G. Jung, not in delivering the patient from momentary difficulties, but in preparing him to successfully confront possible difficulties in the future. The effect sought by the analyst is the emergence of such a state of mind in which the patient begins to experiment, express himself with a brush, pencil or pen, shape his fantasies into material images of reality, make the transition to mental maturity and creative independence from his complexes and from the doctor. .

Critical rethinking of K.G. Jung a number of psychoanalytic ideas and concepts of Z. Freud predetermined the formation of analytical psychology. The innovations he introduced into the practice of psychotherapy (the method of “active imagination”, the reduction in the frequency of analytical sessions from five to three or two or even once a week, breaks in treatment for two to two and a half months so that the patient was provided with the usual environment and etc.) contributed to its further development. And although analytical psychology has acquired the status of an independent existence, and its modern representatives tend to dissociate themselves from psychoanalysis as such, it is nevertheless obvious that there are not only differences, but also similarities between them. It is no coincidence that in the report “The Goals of Psychotherapy”, published in the report of the Congress of the German Psychotherapeutic Society in 1929, K.G. Jung remarked that he viewed his therapeutic technique as a direct continuation of the development of the Freudian method of free association.

Some modern authors, in particular, the Italian psychoanalysts P. Fonda and E. Yogan, come to the conclusion that "the distance between analysts belonging to Jung's circle and those belonging to Freud's circle has decreased, and their language is similar" . This opinion was expressed by them in the work "The development of psychoanalysis in recent decades" (1998).

Psychoanalysis (depth psychology) is one of the first psychological directions that appeared as a result of the division of psychology into different schools. The subject of psychology in this school was the deep unconscious structures of the psyche, and the method of their study was developed by this school.

The main provisions of psychoanalysis:
1) understanding as motivational, personal;
2) consideration of development as an environment, although later other psychoanalysts did not understand the environment as completely hostile, however, it always opposes the concrete;
3) the driving forces of mental development are always innate and unconscious and represent mental energy given in the form of human drives or aspirations and striving for discharge (i.e. satisfaction);
4) the basic mechanisms of development, which are also innate, lay the foundations for it already in early childhood. Hence the interest of psychoanalysis in the memories of early childhood and the traumas received in this.

Basic theories of depth psychology


Congenital unconscious drives to life and death (eros and thanatos), transforming libidinal, aggressive and suicidal drives. Id, Ego and Superego. Identification with a close adult of the same sex. Repression, regression, rationalization, projection, sublimation.

The desire for rootedness and independence, individualization. A typology based on the dominance of one of the two needs - to be or to have. Sadism, masochism, conformism, destructiveness.

E. Erickson
A personality develops throughout life, passing through 8 main stages of its formation, at each of which the form of psychic energy changes (feeling of guilt, identity, etc.). The leading structure of the ego, striving for a somatic, personal and social identity. The desire for integrity, (with oneself, one's culture, ethnic group, etc.).

mental processes. As a synonym for the concept of "depth psychology" is often used the concept of " dynamic psychology”, although the term “dynamic” denotes only a special case of a deep approach (along with economic and topographical ones), which describes mental phenomena not in a static, but in a dynamic aspect - as a result of a collision and addition of unconscious drives.

From the history

The merit of introducing the concept is recognized by the Swiss psychiatrist E. Bleuler, who worked closely with Z. Freud. Through joint research, the authors laid the foundation for the study of mental phenomena through the prism of the unconscious. Psychoanalysis became the leading direction in depth psychology, from which numerous directions and currents later broke away.

Theories and directions

Depth psychology includes:

• Neo-Freudianism (K. Horney, E. Fromm, G. Sullivan and others)

"Depth psychology" is a concept that arose in modern medical psychology (E. Bleuler), and denotes that psychological science that deals with the phenomena of the unconscious.

It is interesting

The basis of the term Tiefenpsychologie ("typhopsychology") is borrowed by Ph.D. Yu. R. Vagin to designate his own approach, which he called “typhoanalysis” (“deep analysis”). Typhoanalysis is a monistic psychological concept, the subject of study of which is the field of metapsychology of classical psychoanalysis.

see also

Sources

• Freud Z. Psychology of the unconscious. Translation from him. A. M. Bokovikova. - M., 2006
• Laplanche J., Pontalis J.-B. Dictionary of psychoanalysis. M., 1996
• Rycroft C. Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. - St. Petersburg, 1995
• Psychoanalytic terms and concepts: Dictionary / Ed. Borness E. Moore and Bernard D. Fine/Translated from English. A. M. Bokovikov, I. B. Grinshpun, A. Filz. - M., 2000

Links

• Psychoanalysis (deep psychology)//M. G. Yaroshevsky History of psychology
• Depth psychology - a dictionary of psychoanalytic terms of the site Psychoanalysis in Russia

Notes

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See what "Depth Psychology" is in other dictionaries:

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- (German Tiefenpsychologie), the designation of a number of areas of modern. foreign psychology, who made the subject of their research the so-called. the deepest forces of the personality, its drives and tendencies, which are opposed to the processes taking place on ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

depth psychology- a number of areas of Western psychology that attach decisive importance in the organization of human behavior to irrational motives, tendencies, attitudes hidden behind the "surface" of consciousness, in the "depths" of the individual. The most famous directions of G ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- see DEEP PSYCHOLOGY. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- (German: Tiefenpsychologie) the collective designation of the directions of psychology of the 20th century, which made the subject of research the so-called. the deepest forces of the personality, its drives and tendencies, which are opposed to processes on the surface of consciousness (psychoanalysis Z. ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Depth Psychology- a number of areas in psychology and psychiatry, in which the leading role of the unconscious (irrational, affective-emotional, instinctive and intuitive processes) is postulated in the activity of the individual, in the formation of his personality. Includes:… … Psychological Dictionary

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- a collective concept, through which they denote a number of different directions, currents, schools and concepts of psychology, emphasizing the activity and study of various unconscious components, mechanisms and processes, ... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- (from German tifenpsy chologie letters, depth psychology) a number of areas of modern, primarily foreign psychology, the main subject of study of which is the unconscious as the main factor in organizing human behavior (Freudianism, ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

depth psychology- (German: Tiefenpsychologie), a cumulative designation of the directions of psychology of the 20th century, which made the subject of study the so-called deep forces of the personality, its drives and tendencies, which are opposed to processes on the "surface" of consciousness ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

DEEP PSYCHOLOGY- (Depth psychology; Tiefenpsychologie) the general name of psychological currents that put forward the idea of ​​​​the independence of the psyche from consciousness and seek to substantiate and explore this independent mentality as such, in its dynamic ... ... Analytical Psychology Dictionary

depth psychology- (from German tifenpsychologie letters, depth psychology) a number of areas of modern, primarily foreign psychology, the main subject of study of which is the unconscious as the main factor in the organization of human behavior (Freudianism, ... ... Ethnopsychological dictionary

Books

• Wisdom of the Mind: Depth Psychology in the Age of Neuroscience, Paris Ginette. In this book, Ginette Paris opens up a new genre of psychological writing that connects intimate personal biography, humanly touching patient stories, and radical,…

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Depth psychology began its development path with the psychoanalysis of Freud, who developed his own methodology, different from the traditional one, based on identifying the characteristics of human experiences and actions due to unconscious motives. Freud proposed a kind of psychological technique - the method of free associations. The purpose of the method was to return to consciousness repressed ideas and experiences that could be the cause of neurotic disorders or abnormal behavior of the patient. Freud was thoroughly introspective, and much of his theoretical reasoning was based on his own neurotic disorders. He undertook a work of introspection in order to better understand himself and understand his patients. Freud considered the analysis of dreams to be the main means of introspection, and in 1900 summarized his experience in the book The Interpretation of Dreams, which is still considered one of his main works today. In 1901, Freud published the book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, where he suggested that unconscious ideas, competing with each other for a breakthrough into consciousness, have a significant impact on the thoughts, actions and actions of a person, changing them. In 1902, Freud was approached by a group of students, including Adler and Jung, to direct a weekly seminar on problems in psychoanalysis. This is how the psychoanalytic school of Freud arose, which created the basic theoretical prerequisites for the formation of one of the three dominant areas of modern psychology and psychotherapy - a dynamic direction that combines a large number of theories based on the concept of the unconscious. Freud was the first theorist to point out the importance of the study of childhood for understanding the nature of the human psyche.

In 1911, due to theoretical differences, one of Freud's favorite students, Adler, the founder of individual psychology, left the Freudian Society. In 1914, Freud also left the Swiss psychiatrist Jung, whom he considered his spiritual son and heir to the psychoanalytic school. Jung developed his own analytical psychology.

In addition to Adler's individual psychology and Jung's analytical psychology, Freud's psychoanalysis was the source of a vast current in psychology that arose in the 1930s. 20th century - neopsychoanalysis. Its largest representatives were Horney, who developed characterological analysis, Fromm with his humanistic psychoanalytic theory, Sullivan, who created the interpersonal theory of psychiatry, Erickson, the author of the psychosocial concept. The period of creation of these theories spans decades both before the Second World War and after it. Depth psychology has penetrated not only psychiatry and psychology, but also literature and art, cultural studies, anthropology and sociology.

In Russia, interest in depth psychology was accompanied by clinical testing of Freud's hypotheses; it had both its supporters and opponents. Russian scientists met Freud's ideas about the leading role in the origin of neuroses (F40-F48) of sexual experiences with calm interest.

Criticism of psychoanalysis concerned only the one-sidedness of Freud's views, ignoring other factors in the origin of neuroses, in addition to sexuality. Almost every publication of Freud was reflected in abstract reviews on the pages of the Journal of Neuropathology and Psychiatry. Most of the major works were translated into Russian and published as separate books. The issues of psychoanalysis were given special attention by such Russian doctors and scientists as Osipov, Vyrubov, Asatiani, Wulf, Rosenthal, Luria, Livshits and others.

After the October Revolution of 1917 and the civil war in Soviet Russia, the study of psychoanalysis continued. There were naive attempts to combine psychoanalysis with Marxism, which bore the general name of Freudo-Marxism (Luria, Friedman). After Marxism-Leninism became the only theory in the USSR, Freudianism, like behaviorism and other psychological concepts, were severely criticized and banned as propaganda of bourgeois ideology. In the 1920s, the scientific works of foreign psychologists were actively published in our country: Freud, Adler, Koehler, Koffka, Thorndike, Piaget, Kretschmer, in the introductory articles to which domestic scientists gave a detailed description of their theories and methods. New personal contacts between Soviet psychologists and foreign psychologists continued and were established. Representatives of Soviet psychology actively participated in international congresses and symposiums. Applied psychology developed rapidly, especially psychotechnics and pedology. By 1923, there were 13 scientific institutes in the country engaged in the study of the problem of labor, and a large number of pedological laboratories. Since 1928, the journal "Psychology, Pedology and Psychotechnics" began to appear, where the results of research conducted in our country were published. Psychodiagnostics developed actively. Thus, at the Moscow branch of VIEM, the psychology of mental retardation was studied in the pathopsychological laboratory under the direction of Vygotsky, Birenbaum, and Zeigarnik. Pathopsychological studies were developed at the Psychoneurological Institute under the direction of Bekhterev, and then Myasishchev.