Most modern people are familiar with the name Julius Caesar. It is mentioned as the name for a salad, one of the months of summer, and in movies and television. How did this conquer people so that they remember who Caesar was, even two thousand years after his death?

Origin

The future commander, politician, and writer was from the patrician Yuli family. At one time, this family played a significant role in the life of Rome. Like any ancient family, they had their own mythical version of origin. The line of their surname led to the goddess Venus.

Guy's mother was Aurelia Cotta, who came from a family of wealthy plebeians. From the name it is clear that her family was named Aurelius. The father was the eldest. He belonged to the patricians.

Intense debate continues regarding the year of the dictator's birth. Most often referred to as 100 or 101 BC. There is also no consensus on the number. As a rule, three versions are called: March 17, July 12, July 13.

To understand who Caesar is, one should look at his childhood. He grew up in a Roman area that had a rather bad reputation. He studied at home, mastering the Greek language, literature, and rhetoric. Knowledge of Greek allowed him to receive further education, since most scientific works were written in it. One of his teachers was the famous rhetorician Gniphon, who once taught Cicero.

Presumably in 85 BC. Guy had to lead the Yuli family due to the unexpected death of his father.

Personality: appearance, character, habits

Quite a lot of descriptions have been left about the appearance of Guy Julius; many sculptural portraits have been made of him, including those during his lifetime. Caesar, whose photo (reconstruction) is presented above, was, according to Suetonius, tall, with fair skin. He was well built and had dark, lively eyes.

The politician and military leader took care of himself quite carefully. He cut his nails, shaved, plucked his hair. Having a bald spot on the front of his head, he hid it in every possible way, combing his hair from the crown of his head to his forehead. According to Plutarch, Caesar's physique was very frail.

Ancient authors are unanimous that the dictator had energy. He responded quickly to changing circumstances. According to Pliny the Elder, he communicated with many people through correspondence. If desired, the dictator could simultaneously read and dictate letters to several secretaries to different addressees. At the same time, he could write something himself at that moment.

Gaius Julius practically did not drink wine and was very unpretentious in food. At the same time, he brought from his military campaigns elements of luxury, such as expensive dishes. He bought paintings, statues, beautiful slaves.

Family and personal life

Julius Caesar, whose biography is being considered, was officially married three times. Although there is also information that before these marriages he was engaged to Cossucia. His wives were:

• Cornelia is from the consul's family.
• Pompeia is the granddaughter of the dictator Sulla.
• Calpurnia is a representative of a wealthy plebeian family.

Cornelia and the commander had a daughter, whom he married to his comrade-in-arms Gnaeus Pompey. As for his relationship with Cleopatra, it took place while Gaius Julius was in Egypt. After this, Cleopatra gave birth to a child, to whom the Alexandrians gave the name Caesarion. However, Julius Caesar did not recognize him as his son and did not include him in his will.

Military and political activities

The beginning of his career was the position of Flamin of Jupiter, which Guy took in the 80s BC. To do this, he broke the engagement and married the daughter of Cornelius Cinna, who nominated him to this honorable position. But everything quickly changed when the government changed in Rome, and Guy had to leave the city.

Many examples from his life allow us to understand who Caesar is. One of them is when he was captured by pirates demanding a ransom. The politician was ransomed, but immediately after that he organized the capture of his kidnappers and executed them by crucifying them.

Who was Julius Caesar in Ancient Rome? He held the following positions:

• pontiff;
• military tribune;
• Quaestor for financial matters in Further Spain;
• caretaker of the Appian Way, which he repaired at his own expense;
• curule aedile - was involved in organizing urban construction, trade, and ceremonial events;
• head of the permanent criminal court;
• Pontifex Maximus for life;
• Governor of Further Spain.

All of these positions required large expenses. He took funds from his creditors, who provided them with understanding.

First triumvirate

After a successful governorship in Farther Spain, the politician was awaiting Triumph in Rome. However, he declined such honors for reasons of career advancement. The fact is that the time had come (due to age) when he could be elected consul to the Senate. But this required personally registering your candidacy. At the same time, a person awaiting Triumph should not appear in the city ahead of time. He had to make a choice in favor of a further career, refusing the honors due to the winner.

After studying who Caesar was, it becomes clear that his ambition was more flattered by taking a seat in the Senate in the first year when it was permissible by law. At that time it was considered very honorable.

As a result of long political combinations, the politician reconciled his two comrades-in-arms, resulting in the first triumvirate. The expression means "the union of three husbands." The year of its creation is not known for certain, since this union was secret. Historians suggest that this happened in 59 or 60 BC. It included Caesar, Pompey, Crassus. As a result of all actions, Gaius Julius managed to become consul.

Participation in the Gallic War

With his triumvirate, Julius Caesar, whose biography is presented in the article, began to disappoint the citizens of Rome. However, due to his departure to the province, all discontent was to fall on Gnaeus Pompey.

At this time, the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed on the territory of present-day France. Caesar arrived in Genava, where Geneva is now located, to negotiate with the leaders of one of the Celtic tribes. Under the onslaught of the Germans, these tribes began to settle in the territory of Guy and had to fight for the lands of the province with the Gauls and Germans. At the same time, he conducted an expedition to Britain.

After a series of victories, Caesar succeeded by 50 BC. subjugate all of Gaul to Rome. At the same time, he did not forget to follow the events in the Eternal City. Sometimes he even intervened in them through his proxies.

Establishment of dictatorship

Returning to Rome, the commander came into conflict with Gnaeus Pompey. In 49-45 BC. this led to the Civil War. Guy Caesar had many supporters throughout Italy. He attracted a significant part of the army to his side and headed to Rome. Pompey was forced to flee to Greece. The war unfolded throughout the republic. The commander and his legions alternated victories and defeats. The decisive battle was the Battle of Pharsalus, which was won by Caesar.

Gney had to flee again. This time he headed to Egypt. Julius followed him. None of the opponents expected that Pompey would be killed in Egypt. Here Gaius Julius was forced to linger. At first, the reason was that the wind was unfavorable for the ships, and then the commander decided to improve his financial situation at the expense of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Thus, he became involved in the struggle for the throne between Ptolemy the Thirteenth and Cleopatra.

He spent several months in Egypt, after which he continued his campaign to restore the territory of Rome, which began to fall apart due to the Civil War.

Caesar became dictator three times:

1. In 49 BC, for a period of 11 days, after which he resigned.
2. In 48 BC, for a period of one year, after which he continued to rule as proconsul and later consul.
3. In 46 BC. became dictator without formal justification for a period of 10 years.

All his power rested on the army, so the election of Caesar to all subsequent positions was a formality.

During his reign, Gaius Julius Caesar (photo of the sculpture can be seen above) together with his associates carried out many reforms. However, it is quite difficult to determine which of them relate directly to the time of his reign. The most famous is the reform of the Roman calendar. Citizens had to switch to the solar calendar, which was developed by the scientist from Alexandria Sosingen. So, from 45 BC. appeared today known to everyone

Death and will

Now it is clear who Julius Caesar is, whose biography ended rather tragically. In 44 BC. a conspiracy was formed against his autocracy. The dictator's opponents and supporters were afraid that he would call himself king. One of the groups was led by Marcus Junius Brutus.

At a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators realized the plan to destroy Caesar. 23 were found on his body after the murder. The citizens of Rome burned his body in the Forum.

Gaius Julius made his nephew Gaius Octavian his successor (by adopting him), who received three-quarters of the inheritance and became known as Gaius Julius Caesar.

During his reign, he pursued a policy of sacralization and clan. Apparently, the success of his actions to popularize himself exceeded his expectations. Perhaps that is why in the modern world, Gaius Julius Caesar is known both to schoolchildren and representatives of the art world.

March 15, 44 BC The murder of the first person of the Roman state, Gaius Julius Caesar, occurred. In front of 800 senators, 60 conspirators rushed at the 56-year-old emperor and stabbed him with short swords. There are 23 wounds left on his body. The main conspirators were Marcus Brutus and Cassius Longinus.

The name Brutus in the mass consciousness is associated with the concept of “traitor.” Caesar is a man of remarkable abilities who manages to do many things at the same time. Of course, there is some truth in these “pop” characteristics. But I wanted to understand this “old criminal case” in more detail. The murder of the first person of the state in the Senate is an extraordinary event. And now there are scandals and fights in parliaments. However, there is no stabbing.

Historians and writers have always been attracted by the outstanding figure of Caesar - the winner, reformer, triumphant. Whose life was also cut short so tragically. Considering his intelligence and insight, a vulgar question comes to mind: “How could he allow this to happen?” Maybe biographical facts will provide the answer?

Citizens, you are free!

After reading several of his biographies, I came to the conclusion that he was a unique person in terms of concentration and speed of reaction. A politician who made virtually no mistakes.

This episode testifies to the strength of his character. At the age of twenty, Caesar was captured at sea by pirates. They demanded a ransom of 20 talents (the largest monetary unit of antiquity, equal to approximately 30 kilograms of silver). “You don’t know yet who you caught,” the victim said brazenly, “demand 50 talents.” Having sent his people to different cities for money, Julius and two servants remained captive among the invaders. He behaved with the robbers in a completely impudent manner: he ordered them not to make noise when he went to bed; wrote poetry (he became a talented writer, leaving behind two classic works: “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War”) and recited them to the bandits. If the creation did not evoke delight (it’s the same as now instead of Shufutinsky, criminals perform Grebenshchikov), he called the listeners ignoramuses and barbarians. And subsequently he promised to execute him. In response, the pirates laughed. Throughout the 38 days that he was with his captors, he behaved “as if they were his bodyguards, without fear he amused himself and joked with them” (Plutarch). When the said amount was collected and the hostages were released, Caesar immediately equipped the ships in pursuit. The pirates were so careless that they remained hanging around the island where the prisoners were kept. Petty-criminal psychology worked: go on a spree after the jackpot. Having captured the pirates, Caesar crucified most of them, as promised.

Maybe he was too cruel, which caused discontent among his subjects? But here are the facts that tell a different story.

Caesar's legionaries had been fighting for several years and were eager to go home. And then it was necessary to go to Africa to finish off the Pompeians, Caesar’s opponents in the civil war. The soldiers were tired and mutinous. They immediately demanded the promised rewards and land plots. They drove away the leaders who were sent to them. The situation became dangerous. Suddenly Caesar appeared in the camp. The soldiers were taken aback, but greeted him. "What would you like?" – the commander asked the soldiers who had lined up. - “Resignations! Resignation! – the veterans began chanting and hitting their shields with their swords. “So get it, citizens!” - Caesar said and went home. Then the incredible happened - several thousand adult men began to cry. From resentment.

The fact is that Caesar always called them “warriors” or “comrades-in-arms.” But since they themselves forcibly demanded resigning to civilian life, it means they became private individuals - citizens. And first of all, in his eyes.

The veterans immediately sent their commanders to ask for forgiveness, the thought was so intolerable to them that Caesar ceased to consider them comrades in arms. Caesar excused the grumbling soldiers.

Modern PR people and political strategists like to use this example to show how Julius skillfully manipulated his subordinates. Rare stupidity! Such gestures are not calculated. They are dictated by feeling. Caesar was actually offended for his legionnaires. It was this feeling that was transmitted to the soldiers and caused a strong response. Caesar and his army were one.

After the civil war, Julius not only pardoned the adherents of his opponent Pompey, but also gave them high positions. The same to Brutus and Cassius. (It would be the same if Stalin had not organized “Red Terror” against the former White Guards, but had appointed them to responsible positions in the commissariats). The grateful Romans wanted to dedicate the Temple of Mercy to Gaius Julius.

Maybe he didn't please the people?

But he was engaged in pleasing the people all his life (not forgetting, of course, about himself). He organized magnificent shows, developed, so to speak, show business, carried out judicial reform, and achieved benefits for veterans. He continued to care for the people even after his death. When Brutus announced at the forum that now there would be a republic again, that the tyrant had been killed, the crowd fell into quiet shock. But she wasn’t particularly upset or happy. And somehow... The people, as you know, are bastards.

When Mark Antony publicly opened Caesar's will, it turned out that he had left 750 drachmas (a very decent amount) to each Roman - the people struck a chord. Everyone started crying. “We lost our dear father, our breadwinner! You see, he threw in some money posthumously and took care of everyone. But you won’t get a penny from the Republicans!” And, having betrayed Caesar's body to the funeral fire, the crowd rushed to look for the killers. But they escaped in time. And their houses, of course, were burned. For order. (These events are reflected in detail in Shakespeare’s play “Julius Caesar,” which was made into a good Hollywood film with Marlon Brando in the role of Mark Antony.)

Gaius Julius possessed brilliant eloquence and artistic charm, which he skillfully used. He did not despise people as such (like, for example, his outstanding predecessor, dictator Sulla), which helped him remain sincere in difficult situations, and sometimes come out of them with humor. One day, Julius grabbed the standard bearer who was running from the battlefield by the shoulders, turned him around and, pointing in the opposite direction, said: “The enemy is there.” His words spread through the ranks of the soldiers and raised their morale.

And in peacetime, Caesar did a lot of useful things. I even got to the calendar. Otherwise, among the priests, with their “intercalary month,” the harvest festival no longer fell in the summer, and the grape harvest festival did not fall in the fall. The month in which Caesar's birthday fell (July 12), the Senate out of fawning named him after him.

Bestial Justice

But if Caesar was so good, why was he treated so mercilessly? Let's look at the key figure of the conspiracy - Brutus. And in general in the historical situation at that time.

At first, Rome was ruled by kings. However, Tarquin the Proud annoyed everyone so much with his unprecedented harshness that in 509 BC. an uprising broke out. It was headed by Junius Brutus, the distant ancestor of Marcus Brutus. Having expelled the tyrant, Junius proclaimed that from now on he was transferring power to the Senate and the people. The Tsarist era ended, and the republican form of government began (republic translated from Latin as “common cause”).

However, as the Roman state grew, the republican form began to slip; it was necessary to control too much territory. Without a firm hand, chaos ensued: robberies, banditry and uprisings. Historically, things were moving toward empire. And Caesar became the first link in this socio-political transition: he received the honorary title of “emperor”, and his nephew Octavian Augustus became “emperor in law” (and the Senate named the month following July in honor of his nephew).

Many in the leadership were dissatisfied with Julius out of envy. Others wanted a return to republican rule. Although Caesar opposed royal privileges, he concentrated power in his own hands. I must say, very skillful.

Young Brutus was a republican. He, as they say, was from the breed of “fighters for justice.” Such people are extremely dangerous because, paradoxically, they place justice above morality. Such principles often lead to a lot of bloodshed. In this row are Robespierre and Lenin. If justice is not based on an internal moral law, it quickly becomes a tool in the hands of executioners, since it is subordinated to the interests of only one social group or to utopian ideas, such as serving an abstract “people”.

Metaphysically, there are two antagonistic justices: divine and diabolical. The first comes from love and heart, the second - from selfishness and calculation. Formally, Caesar is a tyrant, which means death to him, since tyrants are enemies of the Republic. Shakespeare put the main conclusion from this situation into Antony’s mouth: “O justice! You are in the chest of an animal, people have lost their minds. Sorry; Caesar's heart went to the grave. Let me wait for it to return."

But let's return to the personality of the main conspirator. When civil war broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Brutus took the latter's side. Caesar, however, favored Brutus in every possible way - they had fought together before.

After Pompey's army was defeated, his legions went over to Caesar's side. Pompey fled. Brutus wrote a letter of confession to Julius. He was delighted. They met. Caesar asked Brutus if he knew where Pompey had taken refuge? Brutus pointed out that Pompey fled to Egypt. Strong principles in him coexisted with a weak character. Which made it possible to justify any betrayal.

In response to a Roman request for Pompey, the Egyptians sent his head. They had already learned that Pompey had lost. And they vilely killed him. Seeing the head of his enemy, Caesar began to cry - he respected Pompey as a worthy opponent. Julius ordered the execution of amateur executioners.

Caesar's power continued to strengthen. He has already become a dictator for life. There was relative peace and prosperity in the state. But everyone can never be happy. The same Cassius believed that he received fewer favors from Caesar than Brutus. He began to incite the latter into a conspiracy. I remembered his revolutionary ancestor. Like, are you a real Brutus or a rag? Brutus' weak character contributed to the fact that the suggestion worked. He began to see himself in the role of a “fighter against tyranny.”

When Caesar was informed of the nascent conspiracy and that Brutus was at its head, he pointed to himself and said: “He can calmly wait until this body dies itself.” Hinting that after his death Brutus will automatically receive the power of the first person in the country. Where should he rush? But Brutus did not wait.

Without resistance

Here is a detailed description of the murder of Caesar (when the crime has more than half a thousand witnesses, it can be reconstructed with documentary accuracy).

“When Caesar entered, the senate rose from their seats as a sign of respect. The conspirators, led by Brutus, divided into two parts: some stood behind Caesar’s chair, others came forward to ask for his exiled brother together with Tullius Cimbri; With these requests, the conspirators accompanied Caesar to his very chair. Caesar, sitting in a chair, rejected their requests, and when the conspirators approached him with even more persistent requests, he expressed his displeasure to each of them. Then Tullius grabbed Caesar's toga with both hands and began to pull it off his neck, which was a sign of an attack. Casca was the first to strike with his sword in the shoulder; this wound, however, was shallow and not fatal. Casca, apparently, was at first embarrassed by the audacity of his terrible act. Caesar turned, grabbed the hilt and held the sword. Almost simultaneously, both shouted - the wounded Caesar in Latin: “Scoundrel, Casca, what are you doing?”, and Casca in Greek, turning to his brother: “Brother, help!” (Plutarch).

The conspirator Casca was more frightened than the victim: he called his brother for help. Conventionally, the situation can be called “a tiger surrounded by jackals.”

“The senators who were not privy to the conspiracy, struck by fear, did not dare to run, nor to defend Caesar, nor even to scream. All the conspirators, ready to kill, surrounded Caesar with drawn swords: wherever he turned his gaze, he, like a wild beast surrounded by hunters, met the blows of swords aimed at his face and eyes, since it was agreed that all the conspirators would accept participation in the murder and, as it were, taste the sacrificial blood. Fighting off the conspirators, Caesar rushed about and screamed, but when he saw Brutus with a drawn sword, he threw a toga over his head and exposed himself to blows. Many conspirators injured each other, directing so many blows to one body. After the murder of Caesar, Brutus stepped forward, as if wanting to say something about what had been done, but the senators, unable to bear it, rushed to run, spreading confusion and fear among the people” (Plutarch).

Regarding Caesar, Plutarch revealed one contradictory detail: why did Caesar, seeing Brutus with a sword, throw a toga over his head and stop resisting?

When I asked friends in the humanities (including historians) if they could explain Julius’s reaction, they said that he was struck by his friend’s betrayal.

Just think! In the life of Caesar, a man who won seven major battles and became the dictator of Rome, there were a lot of betrayals. As you know, betrayal is a normal component of political life. As Gaft’s hero said in the film “Garage”: “To betray in time is not to betray, it is to foresee.” This act, of course, does not become any less disgusting, but it can hardly surprise a seasoned politician.

When an ordinary person is betrayed, what is his reaction? That's right - he will get angry. And he will even become furious. Moreover, Caesar, an extraordinary man, would have done this. No wonder Casca was scared! Caesar, as a professional warrior, could well have snatched the sword from him (or from another conspirator) (especially since he was already holding the weapon by the handle) and tried to escape from the Senate building. During the war, he got into troubles no less dangerous hundreds of times. Moreover, the conspirators interfered with each other, and it was possible to take advantage of the confusion. They say that of all the blows, only one was fatal. Finally, Julius could have died fighting. But no - he defiantly threw his clothes over his head and gave himself up to be torn to pieces. This act did not go well with Caesar’s nature. What's the matter? There was no answer in numerous historical reference books and encyclopedias.

I delved into the detailed biography of Brutus by the same Plutarch. The answer turned out to be obvious: “Caesar was very worried about Brutus and asked the commanders not to kill him in battle, but to spare him in every possible way and bring him to him if he agreed to surrender voluntarily, and in case of resistance on his part, to leave him alone. He did this to please Brutus' mother, Servilia. Apparently, while still a young man, he was in a close relationship with Servilia, who loved him madly. And since at the very time when their love was in full swing, Brutus was born, Caesar was almost sure that Brutus was born from him.”

Brutus was Caesar's illegitimate son! To verify this, let’s take a closer look at the images of one and the other. The similarity between the profiles of Brutus and Caesar is immediately noticeable. Everything fell into place.

And you…

Let's imagine the same situation again.

After Casca's first blow, Caesar naturally became furious. And turning, he grabbed the hilt of the sword. Julius immediately realized that this was an assassination attempt and began to act. In all battles (both on the battlefield and in oratorical battles), his instant reaction saved him. Frightened, the helmet calls his brother for help. The conspirators attack en masse, but due to crowding, they inflict more wounds on each other than on their victims.

What does a tiger do when surrounded by jackals: getting ready to jump. Caesar, screaming, tries to break through the ring of enemies. And at that moment he suddenly sees his own son with a sword in his hands. The son whom he took care of reverently. This was probably the only time that everything broke inside Caesar. The phrase “And you, Brutus,” which has become sacramental, means that if his son went against him, life simply loses its meaning. This powerful man throws clothes over his head and allows himself to be killed without resistance. Brutus, in the name of not too clear political ideals for him, which he formally followed, raised his hand against his father.

Fate decreed that everyone who participated in this crime subsequently died.

Cassius and Brutus met for a decisive battle near Philippi with Caesar's nephew Octavian, who vowed to avenge his uncle, and Caesar's friend Antony.

The killers were haunted by fatal bad luck. Twice on the eve of the battle an ominous ghost appeared to Brutus. Although the senator was not a mystical person, he considered this a bad omen.

Cassius, mistakenly (his eyesight weakened with age) mistaking Brutus' horsemen from afar for Antony's soldiers, committed suicide, and with the same sword with which he killed Caesar.

Brutus, having lost his comrade-in-arms, completely lost heart and lost the battle of Philippi.

He took refuge with his friends in the forest and said, saying goodbye, that “he considers himself happier than the victors, since he leaves behind the glory of virtue.” He was wrong in his forecast. Truly, the road paved with good intentions leads to only one address.

Brutus spoke his last words with the composure characteristic of his great parent. And then he rushed at the sword, which was set up by one of his friends.

Thus ended one of the most tragic confrontations that can happen between father and son and between man and man.

The content of the article

CAESAR, GAI JULIUS(Gaius Iulius Caesar) (100–44 BC), Roman statesman and commander whose dictatorship marked the decisive turn from republicanism to empire. Caesar was born on July 12, 100 BC. (the year of his birth cannot be considered definitively established; there are arguments in favor of 102 or 101 BC). Caesar was the only son in the family (he had a younger sister Julia), he was 15 years old when his father, also Gaius, died. Caesar's mother Aurelius, who died in 54 BC, when he was already 46, supervised his education and retained a significant influence on her son throughout his life. Aunt Julia, my father’s sister, was married to Gaius Marius, who in the year of Caesar’s birth served as consul for the sixth time.

The beginning of a political career.

Caesar's youth came during one of the most turbulent decades in Roman history. Roman armies captured the city twice, first in 87 BC, and the triumphant popularists were led by Caesar's uncle, Marius (d. 86 BC), and Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who was killed by his own soldiers in 84 BC, just the same year that Caesar married his daughter Cornelia. Another time, the city was attacked in 82 BC by the enemy Maria Sulla, the leader of the Optimates, upon returning from a campaign in the East. In both cases, the capture of the city was followed by massacres of political opponents, accompanied by the confiscation of their property. Sulla's proscriptions were especially cruel.

Caesar refused, risking his life, to Sulla’s demand to divorce his wife, who had given birth to a daughter, Julia, and after some time, in 81 BC, he left for the province of Asia. The praetor who ruled it sent Caesar as an ambassador to the court of the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes.

Upon receiving news of Sulla's death, Caesar returned to Rome in 78 BC. and gained fame here for bringing prominent politicians to trial. Caesar then went to Rhodes, as Cicero had done a few years earlier, to study rhetoric under the renowned Molon. Winter 75–74 BC In the Aegean Sea, Caesar fell into the hands of pirates. While in their captivity, waiting for the money that the pirates demanded as a ransom to arrive, Caesar, as if jokingly, promised to crucify them and, as soon as he was free, he carried out his threat. In 73 BC Caesar was elected pontiff, after which he returned to Rome to begin his normal political career. Caesar served as a quaestor (financial magistrate) from 69–68 BC. in the province of Farther Spain.

In the political life of Rome in the 60s, the dominance of the optimates was contested by Pompey and Crassus. Among the optimates, led by Quintus Lutatius Catulus (consul of 78 BC) and Lucius Licinius Lucullus (consul of 74 BC, whose campaign in Asia Minor against Mithridates began very successfully, but did not end in final victory), belonged mainly to people who made a career under Sulla. In contrast, Pompey and Crassus, as consuls in 70 BC, repealed the most reactionary sections of Sulla's constitution.

In the absence of Pompey, who spent from 67 to 62 BC. a brilliant campaign first against the Mediterranean pirates and then against Mithridates, Crassus, his ever-zealous rival, discovered Caesar's promising talents and provided him with a significant loan. Caesar, who entered into a new marriage with Pompeia (granddaughter of Sulla and relative of Pompey) after the death of Cornelia (in 68 BC), became in 65 BC. curule aedile. Being an aedile, i.e. the person responsible for the condition of public buildings, Caesar returned the trophies of Marius to their former place of honor in the Capitol, thereby making a bid for the role of leader of the popularists.

But what really caused a sensation in Rome was the election of Caesar, an aspiring politician, as high priest (pontifex maximus). This took place in 63 BC, when Cicero was consul. Using funds provided by Crassus, Caesar secured votes for himself in the election of the high priest, beating out the oldest members of the priestly college. All of Caesar's rivals (chief among them was Catulus) were former supporters of Sulla's regime. December 5, 63 BC Caesar spoke in the Senate against Marcus Cato, his most implacable opponent on the issue of punishing Catiline's accomplices, whose arrest marked the failure of the famous conspiracy. Cato insisted on the immediate execution of all attackers, and he managed to carry out the appropriate decision, and Caesar, showing magnanimity, spoke in favor of life imprisonment.

While occupying the position of praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported the people's tribune Quintus Metellus Nepos, who demanded that Pompey be recalled to Rome and given powers to restore order. As a result, Caesar was temporarily removed from office and once again incurred the hostility of Catulus.

In early 61 BC, leaving Rome to rule Further Spain for a year, Caesar divorced Pompeia over suspicions that she was involved in the sacrilege of Publius Clodius. Clodius was awaiting trial for the fact that in December of the previous year he, disguised as a woman, entered Caesar's house, where the festival of the Good Goddess was being celebrated, at which men were not allowed to attend. On this occasion, Caesar is reported to have stated: "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion."

The first triumvirate.

Returning to Rome after successfully ruling Spain for a year, Caesar was elected consul for 59 BC. thanks to a political alliance with Pompey and Crassus (both of whom failed in their political aspirations due to the resistance they received from Cato and his followers). Their union, the so-called The “first triumvirate” (named by analogy with the triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus, enshrined in law in 43 BC), made it possible to unite the voices of the adherents (clients) of these political figures. Caesar wanted to command a large army. Pompey sought approval of the activities that he carried out in the East, and land plots for his retired veterans. Crassus, defending the interests of his followers, insisted on revising the contract for collecting taxes in the province of Asia (a company of farmers, friends of Crassus, acquired the right to collect taxes in this province in 61 BC, at a price that they now considered unrealistic).

A law for the purchase of land for distribution among Pompey's veterans was passed in January 59 BC. at a stormy public meeting, Caesar’s colleague in office, optimate Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who, like his father-in-law Cato, opposed the adoption of this decree, was thrown off the stage, breaking the fasces - signs of consular dignity. Bibulus responded by attempting to prevent Caesar and his followers from making any new laws. To do this, he maliciously took advantage of the traditional practice, according to which the consideration of business in the popular assembly of Rome did not begin until the presiding consul announced, after observing the sky, that the heavenly signs were favorable. Now Bibulus has announced that he is making appropriate observations. In earlier times this would have brought all public life to a standstill. However, Caesar, with his characteristic determination and equanimity, ignored Bibulus's antics, after which he retired from business, locking himself in his home, which brought him a lot of ridicule. As a result, Caesar remained virtually the sole consul, so that the legislative program of the “troika” was carried out throughout the year. The strong-willed actions, which greatly embarrassed Pompey, brought upon Caesar and his associates a lot of sharp criticism. Their political opponents argued for years that all laws passed in 59 BC were unconstitutional and therefore invalid.

Gallic Wars.

The law, proposed by the tribune of the people Publius Vatinius and ratified by decree of the Senate, placed at Caesar's disposal three provinces for a period of five years (Caesar's tenure as proconsul was then extended for another five years): Cisalpine Gaul (the region of Italy north of the Apennines, bordered by the river Rubicon), Transalpine Gaul (modern Provence) on the other side of the Alps and Illyricum along the northeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the spring of 58 BC. Caesar left Rome and remained in Gaul until his invasion of Italy in January 49 BC. Every summer, Caesar opened a military campaign north of the Alps, in the winter he withdrew the army to winter quarters, and he himself returned to the south in order to exercise civil administration of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum and, communicating with the politicians who visited him, not to lose contact with Rome. Every winter, Caesar wrote a report on his summer campaign, and in 51 BC. These diaries, magnificent in their clarity, cover the period from 58 to 52 BC. (i.e. the first 7 books that have come down to us Notes on the Gallic War, De bello Gallico) were published in Rome. Book VIII, covering the events of 51–50 BC, was compiled by Aulus Hirtius in 44 BC, after the death of Caesar.

Thus, the main source of information about Caesar's actions in Gaul is Caesar himself. Of course, he downplayed or even completely hid his own mistakes, but he had few mistakes, and therefore his reports can be trusted. Events 58–52 BC showed both Caesar himself and the Roman world that he was a brilliant commander. In addition, during these years he became fabulously rich (due to the robbery of Gaul) and acquired great strength: when Caesar took over the provinces, there were four legions (about 20 thousand soldiers), Caesar increased the number of troops to eleven legions, not counting the cavalry and auxiliary units.

The northern border of Transalpine Gaul ran approximately along the Cevennes Mountains and the Rhone River. The country located north of this line (according to Caesar, it was divided into three parts, inhabited respectively by the Belgae, Aquitani and Gauls), the Romans called “shaggy Gaul” (Gallia comata). Roman traders managed to penetrate this region; the Aedui, who lived near the border, became allies of Rome back in 121 BC. Caesar's campaigns in 58 BC, undertaken at the request and in the interests of the Aedui, were aimed at repelling two enemy invasions. The first attempt to seize these lands was made by the Gallic tribe of the Helvetii, numbering 368 thousand people and wishing to move from the northern coast of Leman (modern Lake Geneva) to the Santon region off the Atlantic coast. The second group of conquerors was led by Ariovistus, a leader from the Germanic Suebi tribe, with the help of whom the Sequani, another Gallic tribe, had already managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the Aedui in 61 BC. Ariovistus captured a third of the territory of the Sequani, and was joined by a large number of compatriots who came from the eastern banks of the Rhine. Now, under the command of Caesar, the Helvetii were defeated: one part on the banks of the Arar (now the Saone), and the other near the Aedui city of Bibracte (near the modern city of Autun). The Romans put Ariovistus and his Germans to flight east of Vesontion (modern Besançon) in eastern France: they were again driven across the Rhine, and Ariovistus himself soon died.

Now Caesar decided to conquer and turn into a province all of Gaul. In 57 BC he defeated the Belgae tribes in the north and conquered the coastal tribes along the Atlantic coast, after which he considered his task completed. The revolt of the coastal tribes in 56 BC, which was suppressed by one of Caesar's officers, Publius Licinius Crassus (son of Crassus), was an unexpected shock. In 55 BC Caesar undertook two short reconnaissance expeditions, one to the other side of the Rhine (which gave his engineers the opportunity to demonstrate their skills in the construction of the famous bridge over the Rhine), and the second across the English Channel to Britain. During the next, longer and better prepared invasion of Britain (54 BC), Caesar crossed the Thames and accepted submissions from the supreme ruler of the south-eastern Britons, Cassivellaunus, but Britain was not occupied this time either.

In the same winter, an attack was made on Caesar's camps in Gaul, one of them was taken, and one and a half legions stationed there were almost completely destroyed. There was also unrest in 53 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rhine for the second time, and in 52 BC, while he was still south of the Alps, the conquered tribes of Gaul broke away from Rome, and later that year even rebelled edui. The fragmentation of the Gallic tribes, which Caesar had skillfully exploited since 58 BC, was replaced by an alliance, so this time Caesar was dealing with a united Gallic army, led by the prudent and reasonable Vercingetorix from the Arverni tribe. At the beginning of the war, Caesar gained the upper hand, managing to break through to his legions through the snow-covered Cevennes. However, in the city of Gergovia (near modern Clermont-Ferrand) he suffered a setback. Having defeated Vercingetorix in an open battle, Caesar locked his opponents in Alesia, located on a hill (not far from modern Dijon), but fell into the ring of the Gallic army that arrived to the rescue. The victory won over this army by Caesar, and the subsequent capitulation of Alesia, were the most remarkable of his military achievements. All that remained was to suppress the last pockets of resistance (51 BC).

Resumption of the triumvirate.

After five years of power given to Caesar in 59 BC, he avoided being recalled to Rome by concluding a new agreement with Pompey and Crassus in Luca (modern Lucca), a border city on the border of Cisalpine Gaul and Roman Italy, in April 56 BC. As a result of this agreement, Pompey and Crassus secured the position of consuls in the elections of 55 BC. and achieved the adoption of the Pompey-Licinius law, which extended Caesar’s power over Gaul for another five years. However, the extension of Caesar's powers was balanced by the introduction of two more extraordinary appointments for a period of also five years: Crassus received Syria for this period, and Pompey received Spain.

The collapse of the union.

Nevertheless, the optimates who controlled the Senate, finally noticing the incredible growth of Caesar’s personal power, wealth and power, kept Pompey in Italy, allowing him to rule the province through deputies. The personal relationship between Pompey and Caesar fell apart in 54 BC, when Caesar's daughter Julia, to whom Pompey had been married since 59 BC, died. Then in 53 BC. the third member of the triumvirate, Crassus, died at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, having been defeated by the Parthians. As he contemplated plans to return to a civilian career in Rome, Caesar guessed that once he lost the immunity status guaranteed by the empire, the supreme military power, political opponents would try to force him into exile, using charges in court of bribery and illegal use of force in 59 BC. .e. To ruin their plans, Caesar should have extended his immunity until his election as consul in 48 BC. (the first year in which, according to the then Roman laws, a person who held this position in 59 BC could become consul for a second time). At the same time, Caesar wanted to retain the title of commander-in-chief until the end of 49 BC, citing the Pompey-Licinius law . The only obstacle to this plan that could have been foreseen in advance, namely the law according to which candidates for the office of consul had to attend the elections in person, and as a private citizen, was removed by a law passed by all ten tribunes as early as 52 BC. Now Caesar was allowed to seek consulate in absentia. However, the former consul in 51 BC. Optimate supporter Marcus Claudius Marcellus made it clear that the Senate was not ready to recognize this decree.

Caesar accepted the challenge thrown at him. He carefully avoided even hints of military pressure, left most of the army north of the Alps and obeyed the Senate's decrees, according to which in 50 BC. he should have handed over two of his legions (one of which he had previously borrowed from Pompey) to be sent to the East. He willingly did this, since it was beneficial for him to have loyal troops in Italy. At the same time, Caesar tried to influence the authorities in Rome through his adherents-tribunes: in 50 BC. it was Gaius Scribonius Curio, whose support Caesar bought by paying his huge debts, and in 49 BC. Caesar's main support was Mark Antony, who served under his command in Gaul from 54 to 51 BC. Curio and then Antony were given the task of creating a stalemate by vetoing any attempt by the Senate to appoint new proconsuls to the provinces.

The overwhelming majority of the Senate wanted a compromise, which was revealed during the vote on December 1, 50 BC, when Curio’s proposal received 370 votes (only 22 against), according to which Caesar had to renounce the status of commander and personally appear at the consular elections 49 before AD, so that Pompey, who still remained in Italy, simultaneously resigned. But here extremists from among Caesar’s opponents took extreme measures. On December 2, the day after the above-mentioned resolution was adopted in the Senate, the consul of 50 BC. Gaius Claudius Marcellus put a sword into Pompey's hands and called on him to save the state. On January 1, the Senate adopted a resolution according to which, if Caesar did not resign, he was declared an enemy of the state. However, while the tribunes cast their veto, the resolution could not enter into force. Finally, on January 6, Antony and one of his fellow tribunes, Quintus Cassius Longinus, were intimidated and not allowed to attend the Senate meeting, and in their absence, a law introducing a state of emergency was passed. Moreover, the tribunes had to flee to Caesar, since the law threatened them with punishment. On January 10–11 (dates are given according to the calendar of that time), Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Italy under the plausible pretext of protecting the rights of the tribunes. He had only one legion at his disposal (XIII), the other two (VIII and XII) were summoned from Transalpine Gaul and were in a hurry to join Caesar.

Civil War.

Although Pompey had seven legions in Spain, the government forces in Italy itself, not counting the small number of recruits, since conscription began only now, were reduced to the same two legions that Caesar in 50 BC. placed at the disposal of the Senate and who were still waiting to be sent to the East. Caesar, undoubtedly, hoped through Pompey to persuade the Senate to come to the desired agreement, but Pompey stubbornly refused to meet with Caesar. Pompey decided to leave Italy, transporting all the magistrates, the Senate and the army through Brundisium (modern Brindisi), a port on the east coast of the peninsula, to Epirus in northwestern Greece. There he hoped to recruit an army, since, given the complete lack of ships, Caesar could not get to him on the other side of the Adriatic very soon. Caesar was abandoned by his deputy Titus Labienus, who went over to Pompey's side. However, for the enemy this was perhaps the only gratifying event: as Caesar rapidly advanced towards Rome along the eastern coast of Italy, one city after another, to the horror of the Senate, readily opened its gates to him. In Corfinia, Caesar besieged the republican army sent to meet him (30 cohorts, i.e. about three legions) led by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and, practically without a fight, lured the soldiers to his side, and released the commander in peace. And yet he was late and could not prevent Pompey from crossing from Brundisium to Dyrrhachium.

The civil war lasted four years. The first two are described by Caesar himself in Notes on the Civil War (De bello civili). In 49 BC, while ships were gathering from various places in Brundisium, Caesar crossed to Spain and there, near Ilerda, he defeated two of Pompey’s legates, Marcus Petreius and Lucius Afranius. He then returned to Italy and at the beginning of winter crossed over to Epirus with seven legions. When trying to capture Pompey's camp near Dyrrachium (modern Durres), Caesar almost suffered a crushing defeat. Then both armies went east, and although Caesar's army was inferior in number to Pompey's army (22,000 legionnaires versus 47,000), on August 9, 48 BC. Caesar achieved a final victory over him at the Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey fled, but was killed upon arrival in Egypt.

Pursuing the enemy, Caesar encountered resistance in Alexandria; the winter passed in a bitter struggle against Ptolemy XIII and the inhabitants of the Egyptian capital. The Roman commander again won a victory, after which he elevated Cleopatra, who had by that time become his mistress, to the Egyptian throne, and made her other younger brother and new husband Ptolemy XIV her co-ruler. After a brief acquaintance with Egypt during a trip along the Nile, Caesar moved to Asia Minor against Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates, who had captured the province of Pontus. In August 47 BC. Caesar immediately put Pharnaces' army to flight at the Battle of Zela. In the future triumph, this victory was mentioned with the famous phrase “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) - it was carried written on a special tablet. Caesar returned to Rome, but almost immediately set out again for Africa, where the surviving Republicans, including Cato, managed to gather a new army under the command of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (consul of 52 BC, whose daughter Pompey married after his death Julia). The Republicans were defeated at Thapsus in April 46 BC, and Cato committed suicide in Utica. Those who managed to escape or joined Pompey’s sons Gnaeus and Sextus in Spain were defeated by Caesar at Munda on March 17, 45 BC. in the last and perhaps most stubborn battle of this war. In October, Caesar returned to Rome.

Apparently, Caesar was not too worried about the threat from Sextus Pompey, who survived the Battle of Munda, for the victorious commander intended in the spring of 44 BC. left Italy again, accompanied by 18-year-old Octavius, the grandson of his sister Julia, at the head of an army that was to concentrate on the other side of the Adriatic Sea during the winter. Caesar was planning a full-scale expedition beyond the Danube, to the north of which the new state of Dacia had recently been formed, led by King Burebista. After this, Caesar was planning to move to Syria and possibly invade Parthia in order to restore the prestige of Roman arms, which had suffered significant damage after the defeat and death of Crassus.

Dictator in Rome.

There is no doubt that ever since Caesar began active military operations in Gaul, the problems of the army and the empire occupied him constantly and relentlessly. In his eyes, these problems stood much higher than the task of revising the state structure. In this area, it was necessary to find a solution that, without hurting deeply rooted republican feelings, would allow the introduction of those elements of the authoritarian system that were necessary to overcome corruption and general chaos in governance.

The five months Caesar spent in Rome, from October 45 BC, turned out to be his first long stay here since 59 BC. Since 49 BC Caesar's personal dictatorship began to influence the traditional republican way of life. The Senate continued to sit, the number of which increased to 900 people thanks to Caesar’s addition to the list of senators; elections were still held, albeit under strict control; appointments were made to traditional positions. Meanwhile, Caesar had the same full power that Sulla had previously had. First dictatorship of Caesar in 49 BC. was a regular commission, which he carried out for only eleven days, to carry out the elections in the absence of the consuls of that year, who had joined Pompey. But after receiving news of the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar was again elected dictator, and after the battle at Thapsus he became dictator for a period of 10 years, in the winter of 45 BC. he was declared dictator for life. Moreover, Caesar was elected consul in 48, 46, 45 and again in 44 BC.

When Caesar left Italy after 49 BC, real power was in the hands of his deputies. While he was serving as dictator, his first deputy was considered to be his “chief of cavalry.” In 48–47 BC. he was Mark Antony, and starting from 46 BC. - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Prominent senators, including Cicero, were deeply outraged by the enormous power and influence of such followers of Caesar as Gaius Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus, to whom, although they were not even members of the Senate, they had to bow down to inquire about the wishes of the ruler.

When, after Thapsus and Munda, Caesar's military superiority was established to such an extent that no rivalry with him could even be thought of, the Senate showered him with an avalanche of personal honors, which had no analogues in the Roman tradition, but rather imitated the extravagant insignia with which Hellenistic kings were previously honored. The month of the Quintilis was renamed July (Julius), a statue of Caesar was installed in the temple of the god Quirinus, and even a special priest, “flamen Julius,” was assigned to him, like a deity.

In 46 BC. Caesar stationed four Roman legions in Egypt and brought Cleopatra to Rome along with Ptolemy XIV. The statue of Cleopatra now stood in the temple of Venus Genetrix (Ancestor) in the new Forum of Caesar. However, there is no evidence that Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra when she was in Rome, and the hypothesis that allegedly all of Rome was afraid of his divorce from Calpurnia (whom Caesar married in 59 BC), marriage with Cleopatra and transfer of the court of the newly founded royal dynasty to Egypt. Cleopatra's son Caesarion (later called Ptolemy XV Caesar) was probably born in 47 or 46 BC, and although later political benefits led Cleopatra herself and Antony to claim that the boy was Caesar's son, these claims are unreliable.

Historians disagree about whether Caesar, corrupted by power and success, actually intended to perpetuate strong autocratic rule. Undoubtedly, in the last years of his life he was tactless and arrogant. While the triumph of 46 BC was held in honor of victories over the external enemies of Rome (including the Gaul Vercingetorix, who was kept alive until his triumph and then executed), in 45 BC. there was not even an attempt to hide the fact that the triumph was celebrated on the occasion of the victory over the Roman citizens. At the beginning of 44 BC. Caesar insulted the senators by not rising from his seat when they appeared in full force to honor him, and the expulsion of two tribunes from the Senate was equally tactless. However, either out of hypocrisy or out of sincere disgust, Caesar constantly expressed furious disgust for all manifestations of servility. Having discovered the inscription "Demi-god" on a statue erected by the Senate in 46 BC, Caesar ordered its removal. In January 44 BC. he stubbornly resisted attempts to hail him as "king", repeating "I am not a king, but Caesar", he also, with obvious signs of anger, refused the crown, which Antony, along with two other noble youths (both of whom later participated in the murder of Caesar), tried to give him crowned at the Lupercalia festival in February 44 BC.

Role in history.

Caesar's greatest achievement was the conquest and first attempt to romanize "shaggy Gaul", as well as the establishment of the borders of the empire along the Rhine. As consul of 59 BC he passed legislation to prevent abuses by the provincial administration and founded a daily newspaper, Acta Diurna (Daily Events), which was distributed throughout the Roman world. As a dictator, Caesar was able to come to a reasonable agreement with the moneylenders, relieving the Romans of the burden of huge debts. In 46 BC. Caesar corrected the calendar, which had fallen into complete disarray, by introducing instead the calculation of time, which, with minor changes made in the Middle Ages, is used by the entire modern world. Caesar planned, but did not have time to complete the creation of a unified system of municipal government in Italy. Even more important was the unification of Italy, carried out by Caesar through the extension of Roman citizenship to the entire peninsula up to the Alps (49 BC). Caesar also granted citizenship rights to some non-Romans, particularly certain Gallic tribes.

There is no doubt that Caesar was subject to periodic epileptic seizures. Accessible and frank, loved by his soldiers, attractive to women, insightful in assessing human qualities, Caesar was distinguished by genuine and sincere generosity. His exceptional human qualities are confirmed, for example, by the order he gave after the Battle of Pharsalus to destroy Pompey’s personal papers and by the mercy with which he, having won, granted forgiveness to all who fought against him (Cicero received forgiveness in 48 BC, Marcus Marcellus, consul in 51 BC - in 46). Unlike Marius and Sulla, Octavian and his fellow triumvirs, Caesar never resorted to proscriptions. In the eyes of many people he was the greatest of the Romans. So, Plutarch Parallel biographies, a series of paired biographies of prominent Romans and Greeks, examines Caesar alongside Alexander the Great. Pliny the Elder calls him the most energetic of historical characters.

Caesar was an extremely versatile man, perhaps the most gifted in the history of Rome. The beauty of his literary style, transparently clear and devoid of any pomposity, was appreciated by the best of Caesar's contemporary critics. Caesar turned out to be a more successful commander than Pompey, although not at all more skillful - he took desperate risks in Britain, almost losing his entire fleet there, and was close to defeat at Gergovia in 52 BC. and at Dyrrachium. Caesar owed his victory over Pompey to several circumstances. Firstly, he retained self-confidence, whereas Pompey lost it towards the end of his life. Then Caesar, unlike Pompey, was never bothered by influential politicians. In addition, Caesar, again unlike Pompey, had an army that, through his own efforts, was united into a formidable force. In the face of all difficulties and adversity, the troops did not lose faith in the “luck of Caesar.” Caesar's opponents were amazed by the willingness of his army to follow their commander to the conquest of Italy in 49 BC, and when some legions rebelled (in 49 BC and in 47 BC), Caesar easily achieved them obedience.

Two circumstances make it difficult to make a final judgment about Caesar. Firstly, Cicero, his contemporary, hated Caesar as an enemy of the republican system. Secondly, Augustus, in his political interests, considered it expedient to obscure Caesar's advance to dictatorial power. As a result, the name of Caesar was hardly mentioned by the poets of the Augustan era, and Livy, the author of the official history of Rome before the fall of the republic, was subjected to friendly reproaches from Augustus, who nicknamed him a Pompeian. It is impossible to guess what kind of government system Caesar would have introduced in Rome, had he remained alive and turned his talent to rebuilding the Roman system of government.

Murder on the Ides of March.

Whatever Caesar's intentions regarding the government, he became so hated by a significant part of the Senate that 60 senators took part in the conspiracy organized by Marcus Brutus to assassinate Caesar. The degree of bitterness can be judged by the fact that with such a large number of participants, their plan was kept secret. On the Ides of March, i.e. On March 15, 44 BC, two days before Caesar was scheduled to leave Rome for his great eastern campaign, he was stabbed to death at a Senate meeting in Pompey's new theater.

After Antony’s funeral speech, with which he tried to inflame passions, the crowd put Caesar’s body to fire right in the forum. During the games held in memory of Caesar in July, a comet appeared in the sky, perceived by the people as a sign of his divinity. January 1, 42 BC Caesar was officially proclaimed “divine” - divus Caesar. Octavius, adopted by Caesar according to his will and after that taking the name Caesar Octavian, subsequently became Emperor Augustus and, having created the principate, resolved the problems of government, doing what Caesar failed to do.

Literature:

Plutarch. Caesar.– In the book: Plutarch. Comparative biographies, vol. 2. M., 1964
Utchenko S.L. Julius Caesar. M., 1984
Egorov A.B. Rome on the brink of eras: problems of the birth and formation of the principate. L., 1985
Parfenov V.N. Rome from Caesar to Augustus: essays on socio-political history. Saratov, 1987
Gaius Julius Caesar. Notes on the Gallic War. M., 1993
Mommsen T. History of Rome, vol. 3. St. Petersburg, 1995
Ferrero G. Julius Caesar. Rostov-on-Don, 1997



Gaius Julius Caesar had many talents, but he remained in history thanks to the main one, his ability to please people. Origin played a significant role in Caesar's success - the Julian family, according to biographical sources, was one of the most ancient in Rome. Julia traced her ancestry back to the legendary Aeneas (son of the goddess Venus), who fled from Troy and founded the dynasty of Roman kings. Caesar was born in 102 BC, at that time his aunt's husband Gaius Mari defeated an army of thousands of Germans on the Italian border. His father, whose name was also Gaius Julius Caesar, did not achieve heights in his career. He was proconsul of Asia. But Caesar the Younger’s relationship with Marius opened up a brilliant future for the young man.

At the age of 16, young Caesar marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, Marius's closest ally. Around 83 BC. they had a daughter, Julia, Caesar’s only legitimate child, although he already had illegitimate children in his youth. Often leaving his wife alone, Caesar wandered around the taverns in the company of his drinking buddies. He differed from his peers only in that he loved to read - Caesar read all the books in Latin and Greek that he could find, and more than once amazed his interlocutors with his knowledge in a wide variety of fields.

Being an admirer of the ancient sages, he did not believe in the constancy of his life, peaceful and prosperous. And he was right - when Mari died, a civil war began in Rome. The leader of the aristocratic party, Sulla, took power into his own hands and began repressions against the Marians. Guy, who refused to divorce Cinna's daughter, was deprived of his property, and he himself was forced to go into hiding. “Look for the wolf cub, there are a hundred Maries sitting in it!” - the dictator demanded. However, Guy, meanwhile, had already gone to Asia Minor, to the friends of his recently deceased father.

Not far from Miletus, his ship was captured by pirates. The smartly dressed young man interested them, and they demanded a large ransom for him - 20 talents of silver. “You value me inexpensively!” - the descendant of Venus answered and offered 50 talents for himself. Having sent his servant to collect the ransom, he was “guest” with the pirates for two months.

Julius Caesar behaved quite defiantly with the pirates - he forbade them to sit in his presence, called them boors and threatened to crucify them on the cross. Having finally received the money, the pirates were relieved to let the impudent man go. Guy immediately went to the Roman military authorities, equipped several ships and overtook his captors in the same place where he was captured. Having taken their money, he actually crucified the pirates - however, those who were more sympathetic to him, he first ordered to be strangled.

Sulla, meanwhile, died, but his party supporters retained power, and Julius Caesar was in no hurry to return to the capital. He spent a year in Rhodes, studying eloquence - the ability to speak was necessary for the politician he firmly decided to become.

From the school of Apollonius Molon, where Cicero himself studied, Caesar emerged as a brilliant orator, ready to conquer Rome. He gave his first speech in 68 BC. at the funeral of his aunt, the widow Maria, he passionately praised the disgraced commander and his reforms, thereby causing a stir among the Sullans. An interesting fact is that at the funeral of his wife, who died during an unsuccessful birth a year earlier, he did not utter a word.

A speech in defense of Marius became the beginning of his election campaign - Julius Caesar nominated himself for the post of quaestor. Such an insignificant post provided the opportunity to become a praetor, and then a consul - the highest representative of power in the Roman Republic. Having borrowed from whomever he could a huge sum, 1000 talents, the descendant of Venus spent it on magnificent feasts and gifts to those on whom his election depended. At that time, two generals, Pompey and Crassus, were fighting for power in Rome, to whom Guy alternately offered his support.

This brought him the position of quaestor, and then aedile, the official in charge of the festivities in Rome. Unlike other politicians, he generously gave the people not bread, but entertainment - either gladiator fights, or music competitions, or the anniversary of a long-forgotten victory. Ordinary Romans were delighted with him. He earned the sympathy of the educated Roman stratum of society by creating a public museum on Capitol Hill, where he exhibited his rich collection of Greek statues. As a result, he was chosen for the position of supreme pontiff, that is, priest.

Believing in nothing but my luck. Julius Caesar had difficulty maintaining seriousness during lavish religious ceremonies. However, the position of pontiff made him inviolable. This saved his life when the Catalina conspiracy was discovered in 62. The conspirators gathered to offer Guy the post of dictator. They were executed, but Caesar survived.

In the same 62 BC. he becomes praetor, but got into such debt that he was forced to leave the Eternal City and go to Spain as governor. There he quickly made a fortune, bringing rebellious cities to ruin. He generously shared the surplus with his soldiers, saying: “Power is strengthened by two things - troops and money, and one is unthinkable without the other.” The grateful soldiers declared him emperor - this ancient title was given as a reward for a major victory, although the governor had not won a single such victory.

After this, Guy was elected consul, but this position was too small for him. The days of the republican system were coming to an end, things were moving toward autocracy, and Julius Caesar was determined to become the true ruler of Rome. To do this, he had to enter into an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, whom he did not manage to reconcile for long.

60 BC - a triumvirate of new allies seized power. To consolidate the alliance, Caesar gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, and he himself married his niece. Moreover, rumor attributed to him a relationship with the wives of Crassus and Pompey. And, according to rumors, he did not ignore other Roman matrons. The soldiers sang a song about him: “Hide your wives - we are leading a bald libertine into the city!”

He actually went bald at an early age, was embarrassed about it, and obtained permission from the Senate to wear the triumphant laurel wreath on his head all the time. Baldness, according to Suetonius, was the only flaw in the biography of Julius Caesar. He was tall, well built, his skin was fair, his eyes were black and lively. He knew moderation when it came to food, and he also drank quite little for a Roman; even his enemy Cato said that “Caesar was the only one who carried out a coup d’etat while sober.”

He also had another nickname - “the husband of all wives and the wife of all husbands.” There were rumors that in Asia Minor the young Caesar had a relationship with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes. Well, the morals in ancient Rome were such that this could well be true. In any case, Guy never tried to silence the scoffers, professing the completely modern principle of “no matter what they say, as long as they say it.” As a rule, they said good things - at his new post, as before, he generously supplied the Roman mob with spectacles, to which he now added bread. People's love was not cheap, the consul again fell into debt and, in irritation, called himself “the poorest of citizens.”

He breathed a sigh of relief when, after a year as consul, he had to resign, according to Roman customs. Caesar got the Senate to send him to rule Schlia - present-day France. The Romans owned only a small part of this rich country. In 8 years, Julius Caesar was able to conquer all of Scotland. But, oddly enough, many Gauls loved him - having learned their language, he curiously asked about their religion and customs.

Today, his “Notes on the Gallic War” is not only the main source of biography about the Gauls, who went into oblivion not without the help of Caesar, but one of the first historical examples of political PR. The descendant of Venus showed off in them. that they stormed 800 cities, exterminated a million enemies, and enslaved another million, giving their lands to Roman veterans. Veterans spoke with gratitude on all corners that during the campaigns Julius Caesar walked next to them, encouraging those lagging behind. He rode his horse like a natural rider. He spent the night in a cart under the open sky, only taking shelter under a canopy when it rained. At a halt, he dictated two or even three letters to several secretaries on various topics.

Caesar's correspondence was so lively in those days due to the fact that after the death of Crassus in the Persian campaign, the triumvirate came to an end. Pompey increasingly did not trust Caesar, who already surpassed him in both fame and wealth. At his insistence, the Senate recalled Julius Caesar from Gillia and ordered him to report to the Eternal City, leaving the army on the border.

The decisive moment has arrived. At the beginning of 49 BC. Caesar approached the border river Rubicon north of Rimini and ordered 5,000 of his soldiers to cross it and advance to Rome. They say that at the same time he once again uttered the historical phrase - “the die is cast.” In fact, the die was cast much earlier, even when the young Caesar was mastering the intricacies of politics.

Already in those days, he realized that power is given into the hands only of those who can sacrifice everything else for it - friendship, family, a sense of gratitude. Pompey's former son-in-law, who helped him a lot at the beginning of his career, now became his main enemy and, not having time to gather his strength, fled to Greece. Caesar and his army set off after him and, without allowing him to come to his senses, defeated his army at Pharsalus. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where local dignitaries killed him, deciding to earn the favor of Julius Caesar.

This outcome was quite beneficial for Tom, especially since it gave him a reason to send an army against the Egyptians, accusing them of murdering a Roman citizen. Having demanded a huge ransom for this, he wanted to pay off the army, but everything turned out differently. Young Cleopatra, the sister of the ruling king Ptolemy XTV, who came to the commander, suddenly offered herself to him - and along with her, her kingdom.

Before going to Gaul, Guy married for the third time - to the rich heiress Calpurnia, but did not have feelings for her. He fell in love with Cleopatra as if she had bewitched him. But over time, she also experienced a real feeling for the aging Caesar. Later, the conqueror of the world, under a hail of reproaches, received Cleopatra in the Eternal City, and she listened to even worse reproaches for going to him, the first of the Egyptian rulers to leave the sacred Nile Valley.

In the meantime, the lovers found themselves besieged by the rebel Egyptians in the harbor of Alexandria. To save themselves, the Romans set the city on fire. destroying the famous Library of Alexandria. They were able to hold out until reinforcements arrived, and the uprising was crushed. On his way home, Julius Caesar casually defeated the army of the Pontic king Pharnaces, reporting this to Rome with the famous phrase: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

He had the opportunity to fight two more times with Pompey’s followers - in Africa and Spain. Only in 45 BC. he returned to Rome, devastated by civil wars, and was declared dictator for life. Julius Caesar himself preferred to call himself emperor - this emphasized his connection with the army and military victories.

Having achieved the desired power, the descendant of Venus managed to do three important things. First, he reformed the Roman calendar, which the malicious Greeks called “the worst in the world.” With the help of Egyptian astronomers sent by Cleopatra, he divided the year into 12 months and ordered an extra leap day to be added to it every 4 years. The new Julian calendar turned out to be the most accurate of the existing ones and lasted one and a half thousand years, and the Russian Church uses it to this day. Secondly, he granted amnesty to all his political opponents. Third, he began minting gold coins on which, instead of gods, Caesar himself was depicted wearing a laurel wreath. After Caesar, they began to officially call him the Son of God.

From this there was only one step left to the royal title. Flatterers had long offered him the crown, and the Egyptian queen had just given birth to his son Caesarion, who could be his heir. It seemed tempting to Caesar to found a new dynasty, uniting the two great powers. But when his closest ally Mark Antony publicly wanted to put a golden royal crown on him, Caesar pushed him away. Maybe he decided that the time had not yet come, maybe he didn’t want to turn from the only emperor in the world into an ordinary king, of which there were many around.

The little that was done is easily explained - Julius Caesar ruled Rome peacefully for less than two years. The fact that he was remembered for centuries as a great statesman is another manifestation of his charisma, which influenced his descendants as strongly as his contemporaries. They planned new transformations, but the treasury of Rome was empty. To replenish it. Caesar decided to set out on a new military campaign that promised to make him the greatest conqueror in history. He wanted to crush the Persian kingdom, and then return to the Eternal City by the northern route, conquering the Armenians, Scythians and Germans.

Leaving Rome, he had to leave reliable people “on the farm” in order to avoid a possible rebellion. Gaius Julius Caesar had three such people: his devoted comrade-in-arms Mark Antony, his adopted Gaius Octavian, and the son of his longtime mistress Servilia Mark Brutus. Antony attracted the emperor with the decisiveness of a warrior, Octavian - with the cold prudence of a politician. It is more difficult to understand what could connect Caesar with the already middle-aged Brutus, a boring pedant, an ardent supporter of the republic. And yet Caesar promoted him in power, publicly calling him his “dear son.” Perhaps, with the sober mind of a politician, he understood that someone should remind him of the republican virtues, without which the Eternal City would rot and perish. At the same time, Brutus could try on his two comrades, who clearly did not like each other.

The Emperor, who knew everything and everyone, did not know - or did not want to know or believe - that his “son”, along with other Republicans, was plotting against him. Caesar was informed about this more than once, but he brushed it off, saying: “If this is so, then it is better to die once than to constantly live in fear.” The assassination attempt was scheduled for the Ides of March - the 15th day of the month, when Guy was supposed to appear in the Senate. Suetonius's detailed account of this event creates the impression of a tragic action in which the emperor, as if to perfection, played the role of a victim, a martyr of the monarchical idea. Outside the Senate building, a warning note was handed to him, but he shrugged it off.

One of the conspirators, Decimus Brutus, distracted the burly Anthony at the entrance so as not to interfere. Tillius Cymbrus grabbed Julius Caesar by the toga - this was a signal to the others - and Servilius Casca hit him first. Then the blows rained down one after another - each of the killers tried to make their contribution, and in the melee they even wounded each other. Afterwards, the conspirators parted, and Brutus approached the barely alive emperor, leaning against a column. The “Son” silently raised the dagger, and the struck descendant of Venus fell dead, having managed to utter the last historical phrase: “And you, Brutus!”

As soon as this happened, the horror-stricken senators, who became unwitting spectators of the murder, rushed to run. The killers also fled, throwing away their bloody daggers. The corpse of Julius Caesar lay for a long time in an empty building, until the faithful Calpurnia sent slaves to retrieve it. The emperor's body was burned in the Roman Forum, where the temple of the divine Julius was subsequently erected. The month of the quintiles was renamed July (Iulius) in his honor.

The conspirators hoped that the Romans would be faithful to the spirit of the republic, but the firm power established by the dictator seemed more attractive than republican chaos. Pretty soon, the townspeople rushed to look for Caesar's killers and put them to brutal death. Suetonius ends his story about the biography of Gaius Julia with the words: “None of his murderers lived after this for more than 3 years. They all died in different ways, and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves with the same dagger with which they killed Caesar.”

Gaius Julius Caesar is the greatest commander and statesman of all times and peoples, whose name has become a household name. Caesar was born on July 12, 102 BC. As a representative of the ancient patrician Julius family, Caesar plunged into politics as a young man, becoming one of the leaders of the popular party, which, however, contradicted family tradition, since members of the family of the future emperor belonged to the optimates party, which represented the interests of the old Roman aristocracy in the Senate. In Ancient Rome, as well as in the modern world, politics was closely intertwined with family relationships: Caesar’s aunt, Julia, was the wife of Gaius Maria, who in turn was the then ruler of Rome, and Caesar’s first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, the successor of all that same Maria.

The development of Caesar's personality was influenced by the early death of his father, who died when the young man was only 15 years old. Therefore, the upbringing and education of the teenager fell entirely on the shoulders of the mother. And the home tutor of the future great ruler and commander was the famous Roman teacher Mark Antony Gnifon, the author of the book “On the Latin Language”. Gniphon taught Guy to read and write, and also instilled a love of oratory, and instilled in the young man respect for his interlocutor - a quality necessary for any politician. The lessons of the teacher, a true professional of his time, gave Caesar the opportunity to truly develop his personality: read the ancient Greek epic, the works of many philosophers, get acquainted with the victories of Alexander the Great, master the techniques and tricks of oratory - in a word, become an extremely developed and versatile person.

Surrender of the Gallic leader Versirengetorix to Caesar. (Painting by Lionel Royer. 1899)

However, young Caesar showed particular interest in the art of eloquence. Before Caesar stood the example of Cicero, who made his career largely thanks to his excellent mastery of oratory - an amazing ability to convince listeners that he was right. In 87 BC, a year after his father’s death, on his sixteenth birthday, Caesar donned a one-color toga (toga virilis), which symbolized his maturity.
The matured Caesar began his career by becoming a priest of the supreme god of Rome, Jupiter, and asked for Cornelia's hand in marriage. The girl’s consent allowed the young politician to receive the necessary support in power, which would become one of the starting points that predetermined his great future.

However, the political career of young Caesar was not destined to take off too quickly - power in Rome was seized by Sulla (82 BC). He ordered Guy to divorce his young wife, but upon hearing a categorical refusal, he deprived him of the title of priest and all his property. Only the protective position of Caesar's relatives, who were in Sulla's inner circle, saved his life.

However, this sharp turn in fate did not break Caesar, but only contributed to the development of his personality. Having lost his priestly privileges in 81 BC, Caesar began his military career, going to the East to take part in his first military campaign under the leadership of Minucius (Marcus) Thermus, the purpose of which was to suppress pockets of resistance to power in the Roman province of Asia Minor Asia, Pergamon). During the campaign, Caesar's first military glory came. In 78 BC, during the storming of the city of Mytilene (Lesbos island), he was awarded the “oak wreath” badge for saving the life of a Roman citizen.

However, Caesar decided not to devote himself exclusively to military affairs. He continued his career as a politician, returning to Rome after Sulla's death. Caesar spoke at trials. The young speaker’s speech was so captivating and temperamental that crowds of people from the street gathered to listen to him. Thus Caesar multiplied his supporters. Although Caesar did not win a single judicial victory, his speech was recorded, and his phrases were divided into quotes. Caesar was truly passionate about oratory and constantly improved. To develop his oratorical talents, he went to Fr. Rhodes to learn the art of eloquence from the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon.

In politics, Gaius Julius Caesar remained loyal to the popular party - a party whose loyalty had already brought him certain political successes. But after in 67-66. BC. The Senate and consuls Manilius and Gabinius endowed Pompey with enormous powers, Caesar began to increasingly speak out for democracy in his public speeches. In particular, Caesar proposed to revive the half-forgotten procedure of holding a trial by a popular assembly. In addition to his democratic initiatives, Caesar was a model of generosity. Having become an aedile (an official who monitored the state of the city's infrastructure), he did not skimp on decorating the city and organizing mass events - games and shows, which gained enormous popularity among the common people, for which he was also elected great pontiff. In a word, Caesar sought in every possible way to increase his popularity among citizens, playing an increasingly important role in the life of the state.

62-60 BC can be called a turning point in the biography of Caesar. During these years, he served as governor in the province of Farther Spain, where for the first time he truly revealed his extraordinary managerial and military talent. Service in Farther Spain allowed him to get rich and is paying off the debts that for a long time did not allow him to breathe deeply.

In 60 BC. Caesar returns to Rome in triumph, where a year later he is elected to the post of senior consul of the Roman Republic. In this regard, the so-called triumvirate was formed on the Roman political Olympus. Caesar's consulate suited both Caesar himself and Pompey - both claimed a leading role in the state. Pompey, who disbanded his army, which triumphantly crushed the Spanish uprising of Sertorius, did not have enough supporters; a unique combination of forces was needed. Therefore, the alliance of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus (the winner of Spartacus) was most welcome. In short, the triumvirate was a kind of union of mutually beneficial cooperation of money and political influence.

The beginning of Caesar's military leadership was his Gallic proconsulate, when large military forces came under Caesar's control, allowing him to begin his invasion of Transalpine Gaul in 58 BC. After victories over the Celts and Germans in 58-57. BC. Caesar begins to conquer the Gallic tribes. Already in 56 BC. e. the vast territory between the Alps, Pyrenees and the Rhine came under Roman rule.
Caesar rapidly developed his success: he crossed the Rhine and inflicted a number of defeats on the German tribes. Caesar's next stunning success was two campaigns in Britain and its complete subordination to Rome.

Caesar did not forget about politics. While Caesar and his political companions - Crassus and Pompey - were on the verge of a break. Their meeting took place in the city of Luca, where they again confirmed the validity of the agreements adopted, distributing the provinces: Pompey got control of Spain and Africa, Crassus - Syria. Caesar's powers in Gaul were extended for the next 5 years.

However, the situation in Gaul left much to be desired. Neither thanksgiving prayers nor festivities organized in honor of Caesar's victories were able to tame the spirit of the freedom-loving Gauls, who did not give up trying to get rid of Roman rule.

In order to prevent an uprising in Gaul, Caesar decided to adhere to a policy of mercy, the basic principles of which formed the basis of all his policies in the future. Avoiding excessive bloodshed, he forgave those who repented, believing that the living Gauls who owed their lives to him were more needed than the dead.

But even this did not help prevent the impending storm, and 52 BC. e. was marked by the beginning of the Pan-Gallic uprising under the leadership of the young leader Vircingetorix. Caesar's position was very difficult. The number of his army did not exceed 60 thousand people, while the number of rebels reached 250-300 thousand people. After a series of defeats, the Gauls switched to guerrilla warfare tactics. Caesar's conquests were in jeopardy. However, in 51 BC. e. in the battle of Alesia, the Romans, although not without difficulty, defeated the rebels. Vircingetorix himself was captured and the uprising began to subside.

In 53 BC. e. A fateful event for the Roman state occurred: Crassus died in the Parthian campaign. From that moment on, the fate of the triumvirate was predetermined. Pompey did not want to comply with previous agreements with Caesar and began to pursue an independent policy. The Roman Republic was on the verge of collapse. The dispute between Caesar and Pompey for power began to take on the character of an armed confrontation.

Moreover, the law was not on Caesar’s side - he was obliged to obey the Senate and renounce his claims to power. However, Caesar decides to fight. “The die is cast,” Caesar said and invaded Italy, having only one legion at his disposal. Caesar advanced towards Rome, and the hitherto invincible Pompey the Great and the Senate surrendered city after city. Roman garrisons, initially loyal to Pompey, joined Caesar's army.

Caesar entered Rome on April 1, 49 BC. e. Caesar carries out a number of democratic reforms: a number of punitive laws of Sulla and Pompey are repealed. An important innovation of Caesar was to give the inhabitants of the provinces the rights of citizens of Rome.

The confrontation between Caesar and Pompey continued in Greece, where Pompey fled after the capture of Rome by Caesar. The first battle with Pompey's army at Dyrrhachium was unsuccessful for Caesar. His troops fled in disgrace, and Caesar himself almost died at the hands of his own standard-bearer.

Cleopatra and Caesar. Painting by artist Jean-Léon Gérôme (1866)

The next battle was Pharsalus, which took place on August 9, 48 BC. e., became much more successful for Caesar, ending in the complete defeat of Pompey, as a result of which he was forced to flee to Egypt. Caesar began to subjugate Greece and Asia Minor. Now Caesar's road lay in Egypt. However, Pompey no longer posed any threat to Caesar - he was killed by the Egyptians, who sensed the direction in which the wind of political change in the world was blowing.

The Senate also felt the global changes and completely went over to Caesar’s side, proclaiming him a permanent dictator. But, instead of taking advantage of the favorable political situation in Rome, Caesar delved into solving Egyptian affairs, being carried away by the Egyptian beauty Cleopatra. Caesar's active position on domestic political issues resulted in an uprising against the Romans, one of the central episodes of which was the burning of the famous Library of Alexandria. However, Caesar did not abandon his interventionist intentions, and Cleopatra ascended the throne, and Egypt came under Roman protection. This was followed by nine months, during which Caesar, smitten by the beauty of Cleopatra, abandoning all state and military concerns, remained in Alexandria.

However, Caesar's carefree life soon ended. A new turmoil was brewing in Rome and on the outskirts of the empire. The Parthian ruler Pharnaces threatened Rome's possessions in Asia Minor. The situation in Italy also became tense - even Caesar’s previously loyal veterans began to rebel. Army of Pharnaces August 2, 47 BC. e. was defeated by Caesar’s army, who notified the Romans of such a quick victory with a short message: “He has arrived. Saw. Won."

And in September 47 BC. e. Caesar returned to Rome, his presence alone was enough to stop the unrest. Returning to Rome, Caesar celebrated a magnificent triumph dedicated to victory in four operations at once: Gallic, Farnacian, Egyptian and Numidian. Caesar's generosity was unprecedented: in Rome 22,000 tables were laid with refreshments for citizens, and the games, in which even war elephants participated, surpassed in entertainment all the mass events ever organized by Roman rulers.

Vasily Surikov. Assassination of Julius Caesar. Around 1875

Caesar becomes dictator for life and is given the title "emperor". The month of his birth is named after him - July. Temples are built in his honor, his statues are placed among the statues of the gods. The oath form “in the name of Caesar” becomes mandatory during court hearings.

Using enormous power and authority, Caesar develops a new set of laws (“Lex Iulia de vi et de majestate”) and reforms the calendar (the Julian calendar appears). Caesar plans to build a new theater, a temple of Mars, and several libraries in Rome. In addition, preparations begin for campaigns against the Parthians and Dacians. However, these grandiose plans of Caesar were not destined to come true.

Even the policy of mercy, steadily pursued by Caesar, could not prevent the emergence of those dissatisfied with his power. So, despite the fact that Pompey's former supporters were forgiven, this act of mercy ended badly for Caesar.

Rumors spread among the Romans about Caesar's desire to further absolutize power and move the capital to Asia Minor. Many of those who considered themselves unfairly deprived in the distribution of ranks and titles, as well as citizens who were sincerely concerned about the fate of the Roman Republic, formed a conspiracy, the number of participants of which reached approximately 60 people. So Caesar suddenly found himself in political isolation.

On March 15, 44 BC, two days before the date of his march to the East, at a meeting of the Senate, Caesar was killed by conspirators led by former supporters of Pompey. The plans of the assassins were realized in front of numerous senators - a crowd of conspirators attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, having noticed his loyal supporter young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed doomedly: “And you, my child!” (or: “And you, Brutus”) and fell at the feet of the statue of his sworn enemy Pompey.

Literature:
Grant M. Julius Caesar. Priest of Jupiter. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.
Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Julius Caesar. M., 1964. T. 3.
Utchenko S. L. Julius Caesar. M., 1984.
Freeman Philip Julius Caesar. - St. Petersburg: AST, Astrel, 2010