It was the result of a long crisis of the feudal system, which led to a conflict between the third estate and the privileged upper class. Despite the difference in class interests of the bourgeoisie, peasantry and urban plebeians (manufactory workers, urban poor), which were part of the third estate, they were united by an interest in the destruction of the feudal-absolutist system. The leader in this struggle was the bourgeoisie.

The main contradictions that predetermined the inevitability of the revolution were exacerbated by state bankruptcy, which began in the year with a commercial and industrial crisis, and lean years that led to famine. In - years, a revolutionary situation developed in the country. Peasant uprisings that engulfed a number of French provinces were intertwined with plebeian uprisings in the cities (in Rennes, Grenoble, Besançon, in the Saint-Antoine Faubourg of Paris, etc.). The monarchy, unable to hold its positions by the old methods, was forced to make concessions: notables were convened in the year, and then the Estates General, which had not met since the year.

The sharp deterioration in the economic and especially food situation as a result of the war contributed to the aggravation of the class struggle in the country. In the year the peasant movement intensified again. In a number of departments (Air, Gard, Nord, and others), the peasants arbitrarily carried out the division of communal lands. The protests of the starving poor in the cities took very sharp forms. Spokesmen for the interests of the plebeians - "mad" (leaders - J. Roux, J. Varlet and others), demanded the establishment of a maximum (fixed prices for consumer goods) and the curbing of speculators. Taking into account the demands of the masses and taking into account the current political situation, the Jacobins agreed to an alliance with the "mad". On May 4, the Convention, despite the resistance of the Girondins, decreed the establishment of fixed prices for grain. A new popular uprising on May 31 - June 2 ended with the expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention and the transfer of power to the Jacobins.

Third stage (June 2, 1793 - July 27/28, 1794)

This period of the revolution is characterized by the Jacobin dictatorship. The interventionist troops invaded from the north, east and south. Counter-revolutionary rebellions (see Vendée Wars) swept the entire north-west of the country, as well as the south. By agrarian legislation (June - July of the year), the Jacobin Convention handed over communal and emigrant lands to the peasants for division and completely abolished all feudal rights and privileges. Thus, the main issue of the revolution - the agrarian one - was resolved on a democratic basis, the former feudally dependent peasants turned into free owners. On June 24, the Convention approved a new constitution instead of the qualifying constitution of 1791 - a much more democratic one. However, the critical situation of the republic compelled the Jacobins to postpone the introduction of the constitutional regime and replace it with a regime of revolutionary democratic dictatorship. On August 23, the convention adopted a historic decree on the mobilization of the entire French nation to fight for the expulsion of enemies from the republic. The Convention, in response to the terrorist acts of the counter-revolution (the assassination of J. P. Marat, the leader of the Lyons Jacobins, J. Challier, and others), introduced revolutionary terror.

The so-called Ventose Decrees, adopted in February and March of the year, were not put into effect due to the resistance of large-scale property-owning elements in the apparatus of the Jacobin dictatorship. The plebeian elements and the rural poor began to partly depart from the Jacobin dictatorship, a number of social requirements of which were not satisfied. At the same time, most of the bourgeoisie, who did not want to continue to put up with the restrictive regime and plebeian methods of the Jacobin dictatorship, switched to counter-revolutionary positions, dragging with them the prosperous peasantry, dissatisfied with the policy of requisitions, and after it the middle peasantry. In the summer of the year, a conspiracy arose against the revolutionary government headed by Robespierre, which led to a counter-revolutionary coup that overthrew the Jacobin dictatorship and thus put an end to the revolution (Thermidorian coup).

July 14, Bastille Day is a national holiday in France; The Marseillaise written at that time is still the national anthem of France.

Used materials

• Dictionary of modern place names, France
• TSB, French Revolution

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and the establishment of the empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, gradually turning into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters, leading to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took loans, the interest on which was unbearable for it. The only way to increase revenues to the treasury was to deprive the tax privileges of the first and second estates. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three classes: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - all the rest. The first two estates had a number of privileges, including being exempted from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting the resistance of the noble parliaments. Parliaments- before the revolution, the highest courts of the fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Parlement of Paris existed, then the remaining thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the Estates General Estates General- a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three classes. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public outcry: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters issued orders to deputies: few people wanted a revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, while at the same time counting on limiting its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as their property; among the townspeople, the ideas of the enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the well-known brochure of Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes “What is the third estate?” was published, containing the following passage: “1. What is the third estate - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something"). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, not the king, should have the highest power in the country, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly defined laws that are the same for all citizens.

The Great French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy

The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Hoehl. 1789

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Beginning of the Estates General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Storming of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the Estates General opened at Versailles. By tradition, each class had one vote during the voting. Deputies from the third estate, who were twice as many as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up for discussion only financial reforms. On June 17, the deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new state system in France.

Soon a rumor spread around Paris that the government was gathering troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the highest authority in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from August 5 to August 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were abolished.

The overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. The laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official who obeyed the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; Church property was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood
". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected in 1789 to the States General from the third estate.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its storming had a symbolic, not pragmatic meaning, although it was taken in the hope of finding weapons there. By decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration of the Rights of Man stated that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and declared human rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression to be natural and inalienable. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

The execution of the king and the establishment of the republic

The last moments of the life of Louis XVI. Engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793

Wellcome Library

Chronology

Beginning of the war with Austria

Deposition of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm II and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military . Girondins Girondins- a circle that has developed around the deputies from the department of the Gironde, who advocated further changes, but adhered to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the king's execution., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to go to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When the French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying the national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned its powers: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, a new legislative body was assembled - the elected National Convention, which first of all proclaimed France a republic.

In December, the trial began, which found the king guilty of maliciously against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, part-time poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost that status under Napoleon, and finally regained it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of left-wing resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870

Alte Nationalgalerie Berlin

Chronology

By decree of the Convention, an Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established, which in October will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal

Creation of the Committee of Public Safety

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Year I Constitution, or Montañar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup of 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to suffer setbacks in the war. Monarchist rebellions broke out inside the country. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to try "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the country's domestic and foreign policy.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Montagnards competing with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, based, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. sent against the Girondins disaffected urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention demanding the exclusion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution adopted in 1793 did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Practically all power was now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissars with great powers to the localities. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotining. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the lands of emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most necessary goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid shortages, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the rebellions were suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the Suspicious Law, which ordered the detention of all people who were not accused of any crime, but could have committed one. From June 1794, interrogations of defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as mandatory interrogations of witnesses, were abolished at the Revolutionary Tribunal; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, the Robespierreists began to talk about the need for a final wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were in danger. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II of the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention who feared for their lives. On July 28 they were executed.

After the coup, terror quickly declined, the Jacobin Club Jacobin club- a political club formed in 1789 and meeting in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assembly, and later to the Convention; they played a big part in the policy of terror that was carried out. was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was handed over to the bicameral Legislative Body, and the executive power to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, who were selected by the Council of Elders (upper house of the Legislative body) from a list submitted by the Council of Five Hundred (lower house). The members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not too successfully: for example, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the results of the elections in The legislature in many regions of France, since they received the majority of the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition.

Coup of 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire, 8th year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also deprived of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. All three conspirators became them.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To the white color of the Bourbons, used on the flag before the revolution, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was put into circulation, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar received new names: time from the revolution had to start anew. In 1806 the calendar was abolished.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public even before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of the empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Fragment of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

The adoption of the Constitution of the X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution of Year VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were actually abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became for life, and the first consul received the right to appoint his successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was uncovered, the purpose of which was to assassinate Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary in order to exclude such a thing in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "Emperor of the French", who declared Napoleon Bonaparte. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of landed property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: due to constant recruitment into the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with an excess of workers, which led to an increase in income. He dealt harshly with the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France, became enormous.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called the Napoleon (Napoléon d’or, literally “golden Napoleon”) received circulation: it depicted the profile of Bonaparte.

Legion of Honor. Order founded by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special merits to France.

Restoration of the Bourbons and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830

Musee du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of King Louis XVIII

Promulgation of the Charter of 1814

Escape of Napoleon from Elba

Capture of Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July ordinances

Mass unrest

Abdication of Charles X

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on he became king of the French, Louis Philippe I.

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and finances put in order. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries subject to him to trade with England - as a result of the industrial revolution, England forced out French goods from the markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis had affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin a retreat from Moscow, which was occupied in September.

Restoration of the Bourbons
On October 16-19, 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two chambers of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was again established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of prosperity.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated again, and on July 15 he surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July Revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chambers of Deputies were closed, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

The ordinances of Charles X caused mass indignation. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution ended, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated and left for England.

The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation, became the new king of France. During his coronation, he took an oath on the Charter of 1830 drawn up by deputies and became not "king by the grace of God" like his predecessors, but "king of the French". The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle returned to replace the coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Liberty Leading the People". Eugène Delacroix's famous painting, centered on Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) holding the French tricolor in her hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux

Musee du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

The beginning of the riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution that consolidated the republican form of government




General presidential election, victory for Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded the expansion of suffrage, others demanded the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. In 1846 and 1847 there was a poor harvest. Hunger has begun. Since rallies were banned, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts to the republic were proclaimed. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd was waiting for him to leave the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired, most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. Parliament (returning the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election took place, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans received only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.

1851 coup and Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

Promulgation of the new constitution. By changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year, the Second Empire was created

Proclamation of Napoleon III as Emperor of the French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of either the President, or the Parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's presidential term was coming to an end. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, supported by the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The riots that began in Paris and in the provinces were harshly suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, extending the presidential powers for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, with the deputies of its upper house appointed by the president for life.

Empire Restoration
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the powers of Parliament were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but from the 1860s the course changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon started new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was chosen, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections were held for the National Assembly, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many citizens perceived as treason.

In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the National Guard's salaries and tried to disarm it.

Parisian Commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally crushed - a week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was saved. In 1875, the Constitutional Laws were passed, which approved the post of president and a parliament elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power passing from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but the members of the commune, among whom were many socialists, preferred a single color red. The paraphernalia of the Paris Commune, one of the key events for the formation of communist ideology, was adopted by Russian revolutionaries as well.

Vendôme column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875 the column was installed again.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine style basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and has become one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material. 

The Great French Revolution is the general name for the processes that swept France in the late 1780s - the first half of the 1790s. Revolutionary changes were radical, they caused:

• breaking the old system
• liquidation of the monarchy
• gradual transition to democracy.

In general, the revolution was bourgeois, directed against the monarchy and feudal remnants.

Chronologically, the revolution covers the period from 1789 to 1794, although some historians believe that it ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Members

The Great French Revolution was based on the opposition of the privileged nobility, which was the backbone of the monarchical system, and the "third estate". The latter was represented by such groups as:

• Peasants;
• Bourgeoisie;
• Manufactory workers;
• Urban poor or plebs.

The uprising was led by representatives of the bourgeoisie, who did not always take into account the needs of other groups of the population.

Background and main causes of the revolution

At the end of the 1780s. in France, a protracted political, economic and social crisis erupted. Changes were demanded by the plebs, the peasants, the bourgeoisie and the workers, who did not want to put up with this state of affairs.

One of the most difficult issues was agrarian, which was constantly becoming more complicated due to the deep crisis of the feudal system. Its remnants prevented the development of market relations, the penetration of capitalist principles into agriculture and industry, the emergence of new professions and production areas.

Among the main causes of the French Revolution, it is worth noting such as:

• Commercial and industrial crisis that began in 1787;
• The bankruptcy of the king and the country's budget deficit;
• Several lean years that led to the peasant uprisings of 1788-1789. In a number of cities - Grenoble, Besançon, Rennes and the suburbs of Paris - there was a series of speeches by the plebs;
• Crisis of the monarchical regime. At the royal court, attempts were made to solve the problems that had arisen, but the methods of overcoming the systemic crisis, which officials resorted to, were hopelessly outdated and did not work. Therefore, King Louis XVI decided to make certain concessions. In particular, notables and the States General were convened, which last met in 1614. Representatives of the third estate were also present at the meeting of the Estates General. The latter created the National Assembly, which soon became Constituent.

The nobility and the privileged strata of French society, including the clergy, spoke out against such equality, and began to prepare to disperse the assembly. In addition, they did not accept the king's proposal to tax them. The peasants, the bourgeoisie, the workers and the plebs began to prepare for a popular uprising. On July 13 and 14, 1789, an attempt to disperse it brought many representatives of the third estate to the streets of Paris. Thus began the French Revolution, which changed France forever.

Stages of the revolution

Subsequent events are usually divided into several periods:

• From July 14, 1789 - to August 10, 1792;
• From August 10, 1792 - to June 3, 1793;
• June 3, 1793 - July 28, 1794;
• July 28, 1794 - November 9, 1799

The first stage began with the capture of the most famous French prison - the Bastille fortress. The following events also belong to this period:

• Replacing old authorities with new ones;
• Creation of the National Guard, subordinate to the bourgeoisie;
• The adoption in the fall of 1789 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen;
• The adoption of a number of decrees concerning the rights of the bourgeoisie and the plebs. In particular, class division was abolished, church property was confiscated, the clergy came under the control of secular authorities, the old administrative division of the country was abolished and workshops were abolished. The most intense was the abolition of feudal duties, but in the end the rebels managed to achieve this as well;
• The emergence of the so-called Varna crisis in the first half of the summer of 1791. The crisis was connected with the king's attempt to escape abroad. This event is associated with: the execution of a demonstration on the Champ de Mars; the beginning of the confrontation between the poorest segments of the population and the bourgeoisie, who went over to the side of the nobility; as well as the separation from the revolutionary Jacobin club of the moderate political party of the Feuillants;
• Constant contradictions between the main political forces - the Girondins, Feuillants and Jacobins, which made it easier for other European states to penetrate French territory. During 1792-1792. The following declared war on the state torn apart by the revolution: Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Spain, the Netherlands and some German principalities. The French army was not ready for such a turn of events, especially since most of the generals fled the country. Because of the threat of an attack on the capital, detachments of volunteers began to appear in Paris;
• Activation of the anti-monarchist movement. On August 10, 1792, the final overthrow of the monarchy and the creation of the Paris Commune took place.

The main feature of the second stage of the revolution was the confrontation between the Girondins and the Jacobins. The leaders of the first were Zh.P. Brissot, J.M. Roland and P.V. Vergniaud, who were on the side of the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. This party wanted a speedy end to the revolution and the establishment of political stability. The Jacobins were led by M. Robespierre, J.P. Marat and J.J. Danton, who were representatives of the middle class and the poor bourgeois. They defended the interests of the workers and peasants, and also advocated the further development of the revolution, since their demands remained unheeded.

The main events of the second period of the French Revolution were:

• Struggle between the Jacobin-controlled Paris Commune and the Girondin Legislative Assembly. The result of the confrontation was the creation of the Convention, whose representatives were elected from the entire male population of France over 21 years old on the basis of universal suffrage;
• France declared a republic on September 21, 1792;
• Execution of the last king of the Bourbon dynasty on January 21, 1793;
• Continuation of peasant uprisings caused by poverty, landlessness and hunger. The poor seized the estates of their masters and divided the communal land. The townspeople also rioted, demanding fixed food prices;
• The expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention in late May - early June 1793. This ended the second period of the uprising.

Getting rid of opponents allowed the Jacobins to concentrate all power in their own hands. The third period of the Great French Revolution is known as the Jacobin dictatorship and, first of all, is associated with the name of the head of the Jacobins - Maximilian Robespierre. It was a rather difficult period for the young republic - while internal contradictions were tearing the country apart, the troops of neighboring powers were advancing to the borders of the state. France was involved in the Vendean Wars, which engulfed the southern and northwestern provinces.

The Jacobins, first of all, took up the solution of the agrarian question. All communal lands and lands of the fleeing nobles were transferred to the peasants. Then feudal rights and privileges were abolished, which contributed to the formation of a new class of society - free owners.

The next step was the adoption of a new Constitution, which was distinguished by its democratic character. It was supposed to introduce constitutional government, but a complex socio-political and economic crisis forced the Jacobins to establish a regime of revolutionary democratic dictatorship.

At the end of August 1793, a decree was adopted on the mobilization of the French in the fight against foreign invaders. In response, the opponents of the Jacobins who were inside the country began to massively carry out terrorist acts in all cities of France. As a result of one of these actions, Marat was also killed.

At the end of July 1796, the republican troops defeated the interventionist troops near Fleurus. The last decisions of the Jacobins were the adoption of the Vantoise decrees, which were not destined to come true. Dictatorship, repression and the policy of requisition (expropriation) turned the peasants against the Jacobin regime. As a result, a conspiracy arose to overthrow the government of Robespierre. The so-called Thermidorian coup ended Jacobin rule and brought moderate republicans and the bourgeoisie to power. They created a new governing body - the Directory. The new government carried out a number of transformations in the country:

• Adopted a new Constitution;
• Replaced universal suffrage with census (admission to elections was received only by those citizens who possessed property for a certain amount);
• Established the principle of equality;
• Gave the right to elect and be elected only to those citizens of the republic who are 25 years old;
• She created the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the Elders, who monitored the political situation in France;
• She waged wars against Prussia and Spain, culminating in the signing of peace treaties. Continued hostilities against England and Austria.

The Board of the Directory ended on November 9, 1799, when another coup took place in the republic. It was led by General of the Army Napoleon Bonaparte, who was very popular among the soldiers. Relying on the military, he managed to seize power in Paris, which was the beginning of a new era in the life of the country.

Outcomes and results of the revolution

• The elimination of the remnants of the feudal system, which contributed to the rapid development of capitalist relations;
• Establishment of a republican system based on democratic principles;
• The final consolidation of the French nation;
• Formation of authorities formed on the basis of suffrage;
• The adoption of the first constitutions, the provisions of which guaranteed citizens equality before the law and the opportunity to enjoy national wealth;
• Solving the agrarian question;
• Liquidation of the monarchy;
• Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

However, positive transformations also contained a number of negative features:

• Introduction of property qualification;
• Ignoring the opinion of the majority of citizens, which led to new unrest;
• The establishment of a complex administrative division, which prevented the formation of an effective management system.

Among non-Marxist historians, two views on the nature of the Great French Revolution prevail, which do not contradict each other. The traditional view that arose in the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. (Sieyes, Barnave, Guizot), considers the revolution as a popular uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppression of the masses, from where the revolutionary terror against the privileged classes, the desire of the revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with the Old Order, and build a new free and democratic society . From these aspirations flowed the main slogans of the revolution - freedom, equality, fraternity.

According to the second view, which is shared by a large number of modern historians (including V. Tomsinov, I. Wallerstein, P. Huber, A. Cobbo, D. Guerin, E. Leroy Ladurie, B. Moore, Huneke, and others), the revolution was anti-capitalist in nature and was an explosion of mass protest against capitalism or against those methods of its dissemination that were used by the ruling elite.

There are other opinions about the nature of the revolution. For example, historians F. Furet and D. Richet consider the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between various groups that replaced each other several times during 1789-1799. . There is a view of the revolution as the liberation of the bulk of the population (peasants) from a monstrous system of oppression or some kind of slavery, whence the main slogan of the revolution - freedom, equality, brotherhood. However, there is evidence that the vast majority of the French peasantry at the time of the revolution were personally free, and state taxes and feudal requisitions were not at all high. The reasons for the revolution are seen in the fact that it was a peasant revolution caused by the last filling of the reservoir. From this point of view, the French Revolution was systemic and belonged to the same type of revolution as the Dutch Revolution, the English Revolution, or the Russian Revolution. .

Convocation of the Estates General

After a number of unsuccessful attempts to get out of a difficult financial situation, Louis XVI announced in December 1787 that he would convene the government officials of France to a meeting of the States General in five years. When Jacques Necker became a parliamentarian for the second time, he insisted that the Estates-General be convened as early as 1789; the government, however, had no definite program.

The rebellious peasants burned the castles of the lords, seizing their lands. In some provinces, about half of the landowners' estates were burned or destroyed; these events of 1789 were called The Great Fear.

Revocation of class privileges

By decrees of August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, ecclesiastical tithes, the privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations, and declared the equality of all before the law in paying state taxes and in the right to hold civil, military and church posts. But at the same time, it announced the elimination of only "indirect" duties (the so-called banalities): the "real" duties of the peasants were left, in particular, land and poll taxes.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Activities of the Constituent Assembly

Was held administrative reform: the provinces were united into 83 departments with a single judiciary.

Following the principle of civil equality, the assembly abolished class privileges, abolished the institution of hereditary nobility, noble titles and coats of arms.

Policy has been established economic liberalism: the lifting of all restrictions on trade was announced; Medieval guilds and state regulation of business were liquidated, but at the same time, strikes and workers' organizations - companions - were prohibited under the Le Chapelier law.

In July 1790, the Constituent Assembly completed church reform: bishops were appointed in all 83 departments of the country; all ministers of the church began to receive salaries from the state. The Constituent Assembly required the clergy to swear allegiance not to the Pope, but to the French state. Only half of the priests and only 7 bishops decided to take this step. The Pope responded by condemning the French Revolution, all the reforms of the Constituent Assembly, and especially the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen".

adoption of the constitution

Arrest of Louis XVI

On June 20, 1791, the king tried to escape the country, but was recognized at the border in Varennes by a postal employee, returned to Paris, where he actually ended up in custody in his own palace (the so-called "Varenne Crisis").

On September 3, 1791, the National Assembly proclaimed the fourth in the history of Europe (after the Constitution of Pylyp Orlik, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of May 3, and the Constitution of San Marino) and the fifth in the world (the US Constitution of 1787) constitution. According to it, it was proposed to convene the Legislative Assembly - a unicameral parliament based on a high property qualification. There were only 4.3 million "active" citizens who received the right to vote under the constitution, and only 50 thousand electors who elected deputies. Deputies of the National Assembly could not be elected to the new parliament. The Legislative Assembly opened on October 1, 1791. This fact testified to the establishment of a limited monarchy in the country.

At meetings of the Legislative Assembly, the issue of unleashing a war in Europe was raised, first of all, as a means of solving internal problems. On April 20, 1792, the King of France, under pressure from the Legislative Assembly, declared war on the Holy Roman Empire. On April 28, 1792, the National Guard launched an offensive against the positions of Belgium, which ended in complete failure.

From the Storming of the Tuileries to the Execution of the King

On August 10, 1792, about 20 thousand rebels (the so-called sans-culottes) surrounded the royal palace. His assault was short-lived, but bloody. The attackers were resisted by several thousand soldiers of the Swiss Guard, almost all of them fell at the Tuileries or were killed in prisons during the "September murders". One of the results of this assault was the actual removal of Louis XVI from power and the emigration of Lafayette.

From that moment on, for several months, the highest revolutionary bodies - the National Assembly and the Convention - were under the strong influence and pressure of the popular masses (sans-culottes) and in a number of cases were forced to fulfill the immediate demands of the crowd of rebels who surrounded the building of the National Assembly. These demands included curtailing previous trade liberalization, freezing prices and wages, and cracking down on speculators. These measures were taken and lasted until the arrest of Robespierre in July 1794. All this took place against the backdrop of a growing mass terror, which, although directed mainly against the aristocracy, led to the execution and murder of tens of thousands of people from all walks of life.

At the end of August, the Prussian army launched an offensive against Paris and took Verdun on 2 September 1792. The confusion that arose in society and fear of the return of the old order led to the “September murders” of aristocrats and former soldiers of the Swiss guard of the king, who were imprisoned in Paris and a number of other cities, which took place in early September, during which more than 5 thousand people were killed.

Accusations and attacks on the Girondins

Trial of Marie Antoinette

The revolution took a huge toll. According to estimates, from 1789 to 1815. only from revolutionary terror in France, up to 2 million civilians died, and even up to 2 million soldiers and officers died in wars. Thus, only in revolutionary battles and wars, 7.5% of the population of France died (in the city the population was 27,282,000), not counting those who died over the years from famine and epidemics. By the end of the Napoleonic era, there were almost no grown men left in France capable of fighting.

At the same time, a number of authors point out that the revolution brought liberation from heavy oppression to the people of France, which could not have been achieved in any other way. A "balanced" view of the revolution sees it as a great tragedy in the history of France, but at the same time inevitable, arising from the severity of class contradictions and the accumulated economic and political problems.

Most historians believe that the Great French Revolution was of great international importance, contributed to the spread of progressive ideas throughout the world, influenced a series of revolutions in Latin America, as a result of which the latter was freed from colonial dependence, and a number of other events of the first half of the 19th century.

Songs of Revolutionary France

A revolution in philately

Literature

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• Actual problems of studying the history of the Great French Revolution (materials of the "round table" September 19-20, 1988). M., 1989.
• Bachko B.. How to get out of Terror? Thermidor and Revolution. Per. from fr. and last D. Yu. Bovykina. M.: BALTRUS, 2006.
• Bovykin D. Yu. Is the revolution over? Results of Thermidor. M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 2005.
• Gordon A.V. Fall of the Girondins. Popular uprising in Paris May 31 - June 2, 1793. M .: Nauka, 2002 .
• Dzhivelegov A.K. The army of the French Revolution and its leaders: a historical essay. M., 2006.
• Historical studies of the French Revolution. In memory of V. M. Dalin (on the occasion of his 95th birthday). Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences. M., 1998.
• Zacher J. M."Mad", their activities and historical significance / / French Yearbook, 1964. M., 1965
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• Cochin O. Small people and revolution. M.: Iris-Press, 2003.
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• Lewandowski A. Danton. M .: Young Guard, 1964. (ZhZL)
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• The first explosion of the French Revolution. From the reports of the Russian envoy in Paris I. M. Simolin to Vice-Chancellor A. I. Osterman// Russian archive, 1875. - Prince. 2. - Issue. 8. - S. 410-413.
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see also

Notes

1. Wallerstein I. The Modern World-System III. The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730-1840s. San Diego, 1989, pp. 40-49; Palmer R. The World of the French Revolution. New York, 1971, p. 265
2. See, for example: Goubert P. L'Ancien Regime. Paris, Vol. 1, 1969, p. 235
3. The imposition of market relations began in 1763-1771. under Louis XV and continued in subsequent years, until 1789 (see Old order). The leading role in this was played by liberal economists (physiocrats), who were almost all representatives of the aristocracy (including the head of the government, the physiocrat Turgot), and kings Louis XV and Louis XVI were active supporters of these ideas. See Kaplan S. Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the reign of Louis XV. Hague, 1976
4. See old order. One such example is the uprising of October 1795 (shot from cannons by Napoleon), in which 24,000 armed bourgeois - residents of the central districts of Paris - participated. World History: In 24 volumes. A. Badak, I. Voynich, N. Volchek et al., Minsk, 1997-1999, v. 16, p. 86-90. Another example is the uprising of the sans-culottes on August 10, 1792, which for the most part represented the petty bourgeoisie (small business, artisans, etc.), who opposed big business - the aristocracy. Palmer R. The World of the French Revolution. New York, 1971, p. 109
5. Goubert P. L'Ancien Regime. Paris, Vol. 2, 1973, p. 247
6. Palmer R. The World of the French Revolution. New York, 1971, p. 255
7. Wallerstein I. The Modern World-System III. The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730-1840s. San Diego, 1989, pp. 40-49
8. Furet F. et Richet D. La revolution francaise. Paris, 1973, pp. 213, 217
9. Goubert P. L'Ancien Regime. Paris, T. 1, 1969; Kuzovkov Yu. World history of corruption. M., 2010, chapter XIII
10. Aleksakha A. G. Introduction to progressology. Moscow, 2004 p. 208-233 alexakha.ucoz.com/vvedenie_v_progressologiju.doc
11. World History: In 24 volumes. A. Badak, I. Voynich, N. Volchek et al., Minsk, 1998, v. 16, p. 7-9
12. World History: In 24 volumes. A. Badak, I. Voynich, N. Volchek et al., Minsk, 1998, v. 16, p. fourteen
13. Palmer R. The World of the French Revolution. New York, 1971, p. 71
14. Palmer R. The World of the French Revolution. New York, 1971, p. 111, 118
15. World History: In 24 volumes. A. Badak, I. Voynich, N. Volchek et al., Minsk, 1998, v. 16, p. 37-38

The last decade of the 18th century was marked by an event that not only changed the existing order in a single European country, but also influenced the entire course of world history. The French Revolution of 1789-1799 became the preachers of the class struggle of several succeeding generations. Its dramatic events brought heroes out of the shadows and exposed anti-heroes, destroying the habitual attitude of millions of inhabitants of monarchical states. The main prerequisites and the French Revolution of 1789 itself are briefly described below.

What led to the revolution?

The causes of the French Revolution of 1789-1799 have been repeatedly rewritten from one history textbook to another and boil down to the thesis that the patience of that large part of the population of France, which, in conditions of hard daily work and extreme poverty, was forced to provide a luxurious existence for representatives of the privileged classes.

Grounds for the revolution in France at the end of the 18th century:

• huge external debt of the country;
• unlimited power of the monarch;
• bureaucracy of officials and lawlessness of high-ranking officials;
• heavy tax burden;
• harsh exploitation of the peasants;
• exorbitant demands of the ruling elite.

More about the causes of the revolution

Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty headed the French monarchy at the end of the 18th century. The power of his crowned majesty was unlimited. It was believed that she was given to him by God by chrismation during the coronation. In making a decision, the monarch relied on the support of the smallest, but the most senior and wealthy residents of the country - the nobility and representatives of the clergy. By that time, the state's external debts had grown to monstrous proportions and became an unbearable burden not only for the mercilessly exploited peasants, but also for the bourgeoisie, whose industrial and commercial activities were subject to exorbitant taxes.

The main reasons for the French Revolution of 1789 are the discontent and gradual impoverishment of the bourgeoisie, which until recently put up with absolutism, which patronized the development of industrial production in the interests of national welfare. However, it became more and more difficult to satisfy the demands of the upper classes and the big bourgeoisie. There was a need to reform the archaic system of government and the national economy, choking on bureaucracy and corruption of state officials. At the same time, the enlightened part of French society was infected with the ideas of philosopher writers of that time - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu, who insisted that absolute monarchy infringes on the rights of the main population of the country.

Also, the causes of the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1799 can be attributed to the natural disasters preceding it, which worsened the already difficult living conditions of the peasants and reduced the income of a few industrial productions.

The first stage of the French Revolution 1789-1799

Let us consider in detail all the stages of the French Revolution of 1789-1799.

The first stage began on January 24, 1789, with the convocation of the Estates General at the behest of the French monarch. This event was out of the ordinary, since the last time a meeting of the highest class-representative body of France took place at the beginning of the 16th century. However, the situation, in which the government had to be dismissed and a new chief financial officer in the person of Jacques Necker urgently elected, was an emergency and required drastic measures. Representatives of the upper classes set the goal of the meeting to find funds to replenish the state treasury, while the whole country expected total reforms. Disagreements began between the estates, which led to the formation of the National Assembly on June 17, 1789. It included delegates from the third estate and two dozen deputies from the clergy who joined them.

Formation of the Constituent National Assembly

Soon after the meeting, the king made a unilateral decision to cancel all the decisions adopted at it, and already at the next meeting the deputies were placed according to their class affiliation. A few days later, 47 more deputies joined the majority, and Louis XVI, forced to make a compromise, ordered the remaining representatives to join the ranks of the assembly. Later, on July 9, 1789, the abolished States General were reorganized into the Constituent National Assembly.

The position of the newly formed representative body was extremely shaky due to the unwillingness of the royal court to put up with defeat. The news that the royal troops were put on alert to disperse the Constituent Assembly stirred up a wave of popular discontent, which led to dramatic events that decided the fate of the French Revolution of 1789-1799. Necker was removed from office, and it seemed that the short life of the Constituent Assembly was drawing to a close.

Storming of the Bastille

In response to events in Parliament, an uprising broke out in Paris, which began on July 12, reached its climax the next day and was marked by the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. The capture of this fortress, which was in the minds of the people a symbol of absolutism and despotic power of the state, entered the history of France forever as the first victory of the insurgent people, forcing the king to admit that the French Revolution of 1789 had begun.

Declaration of Human Rights

Riots and unrest swept the whole country. Large-scale peasant uprisings secured the victory of the French Revolution. In August of the same year, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen - a landmark document that marked the beginning of the construction of democracy throughout the world. However, not all representatives of the lower class had a chance to taste the fruits of the revolution. The assembly abolished only indirect taxes, leaving direct ones in force, and after a while, when the fog of romantic illusions dissipated, numerous townspeople and peasants realized that the big bourgeoisie had removed them from making state decisions, providing themselves with financial well-being and legal protection.

Hike to Versailles. reforms

The food crisis that broke out in Paris in early October 1789 provoked another wave of discontent, culminating in a campaign against Versailles. Under pressure from the crowd that broke into the palace, the king agreed to sanction the Declaration and other decrees adopted in August 1789.

The state headed for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. This meant that the king exercised his rule within the framework of existing legislation. The changes affected the structure of the government, which lost the royal councils and secretaries of state. The administrative division of France was greatly simplified, and instead of a multi-stage complex structure, 83 departments of equal size appeared.

The reforms affected the judiciary, which lost its corrupt positions and acquired a new structure.

The clergy, part of which did not recognize the new civil status of France, was in the grip of a split.

Next stage

The Great French Revolution of 1789 was only the beginning in a chain of events, including the attempted escape of Louis XVI and the subsequent fall of the monarchy, military conflicts with the leading European powers that did not recognize the new state structure of France, and the subsequent proclamation of the French Republic. In December 1792, a trial took place over the king, who found him guilty. Louis XVI was beheaded on January 21, 1793.

Thus began the second stage of the French Revolution of 1789-1799, marked by a struggle between the moderate party of the Girondins, seeking to stop the further development of the revolution, and the more radical Jacobins, who insisted on expanding its activities.

Final stage

The deterioration of the economic situation in the country as a result of the political crisis and hostilities aggravated the class struggle. Peasant uprisings broke out again, leading to the unauthorized division of communal lands. The Girondins, who colluded with the counter-revolutionary forces, were expelled from the Convention, the highest legislative body of the First French Republic, and the Jacobins came to power alone.

In the following years, the Jacobin dictatorship culminated in an uprising of the National Guard, which ended with the transfer of power to the Directory at the end of 1795. Her further actions were aimed at suppressing pockets of extremist resistance. Thus ended the ten-year French bourgeois revolution of 1789 - a period of socio-economic upheaval, which was brought to an end by a coup d'état that took place on November 9, 1799.