Describe the specific methods in physical and geographical research (comparative-descriptive, expeditionary, literary-cartographic)

Comparative descriptive method-- the oldest in physical geography. It was and remains henceforth not only the main, but the main method of all geographical science. The underestimation of this method by some scientists stems from superficial ideas about it and about the essence of geography.

A. Humboldt (1959) wrote that comparing the distinctive features of the nature of distant countries and presenting in brief the results of these comparisons is a grateful, albeit difficult, task of general geography. Comparison performs several functions: it determines the area of ​​similar phenomena and objects, delimits at first glance close objects and phenomena, makes the unfamiliar familiar through a system of images.

The expression of the comparative descriptive method is various kinds of isolines - isotherms, isohypses, isobars, isohyets (the amount of precipitation per unit time), isophenes (lines of the simultaneous onset of any seasonal phenomenon). Without them, it is impossible to imagine any branch or complex scientific discipline of the physical and geographical cycle.

The comparative-descriptive method finds the most complete and versatile application in regional studies, where it requires simplicity and clarity of presentation. Here, however, this method was for a long time limited to answering two questions: what, where?, thereby giving a reasonable reason to see in geography a purely chorological (from the Greek choros - place, space) science. At present, the comparative descriptive method must include answers to at least five questions: what, where, when, in what state, in what relationships? When means time, historical approach to the object under study; in what state-- modern dynamics, trends in the development of the object; in what relationships - the impact of the object on the immediate environment and the reverse influence of the latter on the object.

Let us give an example of the application of the comparative descriptive method - a description of the tropical rain forest of Java at an altitude of about 2000 m, owned by A. N. Krasnov: “From a distance, such a forest is nothing special. This is in appearance the same broad-leaved forest of the temperate zone. It is noteworthy that even here you never see those palm crowns that are drawn at the thought of the tropics. Palm trees in the forest landscape appear only in the hot lower zone: above we see only rattans, are-ki and similar species nestling in the shade of other trees. The mass of the forest is formed by deciduous trees, and between them, against the background of the edges, the white-gray trunks of Liguidambar, the most characteristic of the trees of the virgin forests of Java, stand out sharply. The backdrop of forest foliage presents either endless variations such as the glossy leathery ficus, or the delicate feathery mimosa leaf. But on the other hand, finding himself under the very canopy of the forest, not only a tourist, but also the most experienced botanist becomes the position of a village boy who first came to a big noisy metropolitan city. You don’t know where to look: down on the ground, at the level with your head, higher on the trunks - everywhere there is a mass of plants, infinitely diverse, one more bizarre than the other. Trees do not form, as we do, a common vault. Above the bushes, barely exceeding human height, rise half-trees; their crowns are hidden behind the growth trees of our lindens; they are covered with even taller trees, above which, like tents, the branches of giants are stretched out, already completely invisible through the covers of this four-story forest ...

It is clear that under the fourth arch there is dampness and twilight, as under the arches of a mysterious temple. Like the huge chandeliers of some cathedral hanging over your head, hanging from thin vines or attached to the trunk, like gigantic nests, whole-leaved rosettes of the fern Aspidium nidus avis. The vegetation of this forest belt is not like ours. Here you will not find tender and fragrant flowers on earth or charming eyes with the beauty of the corolla. Everywhere there is only the greenery of a delicate thin frond of a fern, sometimes small and graceful, sheltering to the trunk of a tree, sometimes huge, tree-like, capable of covering a person with its frond rising from the ground, now rising like a crown of vai on a tall scaly trunk, like a palm tree.

The expedition method of research is called the field method.. The field material collected on expeditions is the bread and butter of geography, its foundation, on the basis of which alone theory can develop.

Expeditions as a method of collecting field material originate from ancient times. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. made a long journey, which gave him the necessary material on the history and nature of the visited countries. In particular, without visiting Scythia - the Black Sea steppes - he would not have been able to provide many accurate details about its nature - flatness, treelessness, and the severity of the climate. The journey of the Italian Marco Polo to China lasted 24 years (1271-1295).

The era of the great geographical discoveries of the late XI-XVII centuries is a series of selfless, complete hardships of expeditions in search of new lands, deciphering white spots on the geographical map (travels of Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gama, etc.). The Great Northern Expedition in Russia (1733-1743) should be put on a par with them. Even by modern standards, it seems to be a grandiose event, striking in the number of participants, the variety and scope of the tasks set. During the Great Northern Expedition, also known as the Second Kamchatka Expedition, the nature of Kamchatka was studied, the northwest of North America was discovered, the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kara Sea to the East Siberian Sea was described, and the extreme northern point of Asia, Cape Chelyuskin, was mapped.

The academic expeditions of 1768-1774 left a deep mark on the history of Russian geography. They were complex, their task was to describe the nature, population and economy of a vast territory - European Russia, the Urals, part of Siberia. P. S. Pallas, I. I. Lepekhin, S. Gmelin and other prominent scientists took part in the expedition.

1 Krasnov A.N. Under the tropics of Asia. M., 1956. S. 52---53.

Devotion to science, courage, the ability to see in nature the main, new and interconnected, the talent of a writer-prose writer are the features of the best representatives of a large army of geographers-travelers. Scientific reports of N. M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), explorer of Central Asia, D. Livingston (1813-1873), discoverer of lakes and rivers in South and East Africa, last diary entries of Robert Scott (1868-1912) full of tragedy , frozen on the way back from the South Pole, like the works of many other travelers, are read in one breath, leaving no one indifferent.

as geographical science differentiated, expeditions became more specialized, with a limited range of tasks. At the same time, some of the issues that were previously resolved by geographers were relegated to geology, biology, and geophysics. Nevertheless, many expeditions of the Soviet period, being interdisciplinary in terms of the composition of the participants, including geologists, climatologists, hydrologists, botanists, and zoologists, were essentially complex geographical ones. Such are the expeditions of the Council for the Study of Productive Forces (SOPS), which until 1960 was attached to the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Many institutes of the Academy of Sciences took part in the complex SOPS expeditions to study the Kola Peninsula, Karakum, Bashkiria, Yakutia, Tuva and other regions.

Some researchers doubted the possibility of conducting complex geographical research in the field by one person. Their implementation is allegedly only possible for a whole team of narrow specialists, and the geographer is left with the role of the organizer of the work, responsible for the synthesis of the material collected by others. Without denying the geographer such an organizational function in those cases where it is possible, let us pay attention to something else - the physico-geographer can and is obliged to conduct, like other narrow specialists, his own field research, moreover, such that no one can do it for him different. Revealing, mapping, analysis of intercomponent connections of landscape complexes is a range of tasks solved by physical geographers in the field. These tasks can only be performed by a specialist with serious and extensive training. But at the same time, one should not exaggerate the difficulties, not think that the landscape scientist in one person is obliged to combine a geologist, climatologist, botanist, zoologist, hydrologist, and soil scientist. He must remain a specialist of a relatively narrow profile, mastering the methods of studying natural-territorial complexes.

Modern geographical expeditions, with or without the participation of narrow landscape scientists, have an interdisciplinary composition with a tendency, not always realized, towards complexity. Of particular interest are the ships of science, plowing the Ocean under the flags of different countries. These are not even laboratories, but targeted scientific institutes equipped with the most advanced equipment for the study of water and air oceans. The ship "Akademik Mstislav Keldysh", one of the Soviet ships of science, has a navigation autonomy of about 20 thousand miles.

In the Central Arctic, on multi-year ice, the scientific stations "North Pole" are constantly drifting, replacing one another. They started in 1937-1938. the drift of the brave four, which went down in history under the name of Papanin (I. D. Papanin, E. T. Krenkel, E. K. Fedorov, P. P. Shirshov).

In the postwar years, there was an active scientific attack on the mainland of Antarctica. The outskirts of the icy continent are covered by a network of scientific stations from the USSR, USA, Great Britain, Austria, France, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Chile, South Africa. Of the six Soviet stations operating (1986) in Antarctica, Vostok is located in the most extreme conditions. It is located in East Antarctica on a high glacial plateau (3488 m) in the region of the magnetic and terrestrial cold poles.

Being interdisciplinary, with a high proportion of geophysicists, geologists, biologists and other specialists, marine, arctic and antarctic expeditions make an invaluable contribution to the knowledge of the structure and dynamics of the geographical envelope and its landscape sphere. We have to admit, however, that geographical synthesis does not always keep pace with new facts and discoveries obtained in the course of expeditions by subdivisions of science adjacent to geography.

A variation of the expeditionary (field) method is the physical-geographic stations. The initiative to create them belongs to A. A. Grigoriev. The first station, the Tien Shan Alpine Station, was opened by the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1945. There are still few stations. Well-established programs of physical-geographic stations have not been developed. Initially, they were limited to the study of landscape geophysics (radiation, heat, water balances), later, with the inclusion of the biotic component in the program, they lost the qualitative line separating them from biogeocenological stations.

The usefulness of physical-geographical stations in the development of geographical theory is indisputable, but so far the results of these studies have not come into practice and there is no reason to expect the development of a wide network of them in the near future, similar to, say, a network of runoff stations.

The field research of a physical geographer is not limited to expeditions and hospitals. When solving private, especially local history, issues (drawing up a geographical outline of the area, choosing places for placing ponds, forest plantations, etc.), there is a need for field excursions to collect the missing material. Scientific excursions - mini-expeditions - are a common type of field geographical research in higher education. Here they are closely connected with educational geographical excursions and educational field practice of students-geographers. The methodology of field physical and geographical practice and general issues of the methodology of complex physical and geographical research are reflected in a number of textbooks and manuals (V.K. Zhuchkova, 1977; A.G. Isachenko, 1980; Integrated geographical practice in the Moscow region, 1980, etc.) .

Literary-cartographic method unlike the expeditionary and field methods, it is a desk method. This method has two aspects. The first is the preparatory, cameral stage in preparation for the expedition. Preliminary literary and cartographic acquaintance with the nature of the area is a necessary condition for any field research, but in landscape studies its significance is especially great. A landscape specialist in any area subject to field research finds a large amount of literary and cartographic material devoted to individual components of the landscape, and its analysis requires great effort and good preparation. A cameral literary and cartographic study of the nature of the area will not only help identify landscape complexes in the field, but will also reveal possible gaps in the study of landscape components that the researcher is obliged to fill either personally or by inviting relevant specialists (geobotanist, soil scientist, geologist, etc.). ).

The second aspect is the literary cartographic method as the main one, the beginning and end of the knowledge of a geographical object. It is in this way that the majority of country studies works are created. The authors of regional studies monographs may be personally familiar with the described territory, but even under this condition, their work, with rare exceptions, is based on an analysis of the available literary and cartographic material.

The literary-cartographic method is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. To use it, one must be able to read industry literature, special maps and atlases. They contain a lot of various information, which can be sorted out and the main thing from the secondary can be sorted out only by mastering the entire amount of informative material. The most concentrated form of geographic information is represented by atlases, and among them are such milestone works for cartography as the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (vol. I, 1937), the three-volume Marine Atlas, and the Physical Geographic Atlas of the World (1964). The preface to the latest Atlas begins with the words: “The Physiographic Atlas of the World lying before you is intended to give the most complete and accurate picture of the nature of the world, based on the latest geographical materials and modern theory of the Earth sciences.” And this is not an exaggeration; on hundreds of special maps of the Atlas, a picture of the physical geography of the World is drawn, which would be difficult to unfold on the pages of a multi-volume series of monographs.

The comparative geographical method of research is a method of comparing various countries, economic regions, cities, industrial centers, types of agriculture, and other economic and geographical objects, according to their development, specialization, etc. The comparative method replaces experiment in economic geography. It allows us to approach the problem of the typology of the phenomena under study. The comparative geographic method is used in close connection with the cartographic method of research. But approaches to the definition of objects and subjects of the study of geography have changed throughout the history of the development of science. One thing remained in common: most scientists considered the surface of the Earth as the main object of geographical science. At the same time, K. Ritter considered the entire globe to be an object of geography, A. Gettner - countries that are studied from the point of view of the spatial distribution of objects and phenomena, F. Richt-hofen - the earth's surface, E. Martonne - the distribution of physical, biological and phenomena associated with human activity, as well as the reasons for this distribution, O. Peschel - the nature of the Earth, etc. Various terms were proposed to define the object of geography: geographical shell, landscape shell, geosphere, landscape sphere, biogenosphere, epigeosphere, etc. The greatest recognition received the term "geographical envelope". Prominent Soviet geographer, acad. A. A. Grigoriev believed that the main task of science is to understand the structure of the geographical shell. Another outstanding Soviet geographer, acad. S. V. Kalesnik specified the definition of the object of geography, including in it the structure of the geographical shell, the laws of its formation, spatial distribution and development. So, geographers have established a specific object of their research. This is a geographic shell, which is a complex formation consisting of interacting main earthly spheres or their elements - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere1 Over the years, experience has been accumulating that makes it possible to refine the specialization depending on a number of points that were not previously taken into account. Such moments include, for example, differences from place to place in water supplies for irrigation, in temperatures (beets need more water, and cotton needs more heat); but along with the moments of the natural order, others have to be taken into account, such as: proximity to the city market (which is important for vegetable growing), the presence or absence of labor reserves, the labor skills and traditions of the population, the possibility of production linkage with other industries (for example, beet sugar crop with intensive animal husbandry), etc. e. In all this very complex set of various kinds of factors and moments, factors of the natural order always play one role or another, but not as the only ones, but in combination with a number of factors, although also regional, but of a different order - socio-historical or transport- market. In all studies on the influence of natural conditions on the production direction of the economy, it is necessary to take into account the technique of production, which in turn is closely connected with the social system.

Methods of geographical research - ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. Map -; unique source of information! It gives an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: ​​the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of ​​​​the territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource provision, GDP per capita

5) The method of geographical zoning. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material, which is the subject of study.

8) Method of remote observations. Modern aerial and space photography is a great help in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Method of geographical modeling. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems.

2. Scientists say that Antarctica is rich in minerals, but the natural features of this continent make it difficult to develop. What are these features? How does the level of development of science and technology affect the possibilities of using the wealth of Antarctica?

On the territory of Antarctica, according to scientists, there are huge deposits of many minerals. However, their extraction is hampered, first of all, by the huge ice shell, reaching 2.5-4.7 km thickness and the most difficult climatic conditions. Indeed, in the central regions of Antarctica, average temperatures drop below -60 ° C and the strongest winds in the world blow here (up to 80 m / s.). The ice sliding into the sea gradually moves many polar stations to the shores of Antarctica, so the stations periodically have to be moved deep into the mainland.

The development of aviation, technology, the emergence of special materials for equipment and human clothing that can withstand ultra-low temperatures help people in the exploration and development of the wealth of Antarctica.

3. Determine on the map the factors that influenced the location of ferrous metallurgy enterprises (at the choice of the teacher).

For ferrous metallurgy enterprises, the main placement factors are:

1) The raw material factor is a determining factor for most full-cycle metallurgical plants that consume a huge amount of raw materials and process fuel - coke, so most metallurgical plants were built either near iron ore deposits (Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil, Novotroitsk, Stary Oskol), or near deposits coking coal (Novokuznetsk).

2) The consumer factor is typical for pig metallurgy, which uses scrap metal as raw materials (Moscow, Elektrostal, Vyksa, Kulebaki, Kolpino, Volgograd, Taganrog, Krasnoyarsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur), as well as for the production of pipes (Moscow, Volzhsky, Almetyevsk) .

3) Only the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant has a transport location factor, which uses iron ores from the Kola-Karelsky region and KMA, coking coal from the Pechora and Donetsk basins, and sends finished products - steel and rolled products - to St. Petersburg, Moscow, other machine-building centers and export.

4) The environmental factor in our country was practically not taken into account in the construction of ferrous metallurgy enterprises, which adversely affects the environment and human health.

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§ 3. Classification of methods of geographical research. Traditional Methods

Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:

Ø to deepen and systematize knowledge of traditional methods of geographical research obtained in elementary grades;

Methods(ways) research- these are specific methods of studying geographical objects and phenomena. To geographical methods(methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.

Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge - forwarding method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence description method. The very name of science geography(from Greek. geo– earth and grapho- I describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, testifies to the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a country-specific nature, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive country-specific characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description (literary works of I. A. Bunin, K. G. Paustovsky, M. M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.

With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus arose a very important and necessary geography cartographic method research.

The origins of geographical maps come from graphic images (on a tree, on a rock, on a bone, etc.) intended for orientation in space. Maps were used for navigation purposes, to establish the boundaries of possessions, lands, orientation in the area, etc. In Italy, starting from the 14th century. began to create maps of coastlines - partholans.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development comparative research method which has been successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Later, on the basis of a comparison of objects and phenomena, a analogy method(from Greek. apology - similarity, correspondence). The analogy method is also widely used by modern geographers. Having noticed the similarity of objects in some way, we can assume that they are similar to each other and to others. The use of analogies will be more reliable if the similarity is established not by external, but by the main (essential) features. For example, in geography, knowledge about the processes occurring in one landscape can be transferred to another. In science, this technique is widely used. Often analogies serve as the basis of scientific hypotheses, without which science cannot develop.

Society gradually began to ask geography questions of a completely different nature, for example, such as: why is the river wide in the plains and narrow in the mountains? How much water flows in it in general and at different times of the year? Why do forests grow in one place and steppes in another? etc. . In search of answers to these and other questions, mathematical and statistical methods geographical studies, which can be attributed to the traditional ones, since already in the Middle Ages there were geographical works performed using mathematical approaches.

At the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. in connection with the development of chemistry in geographical research began to be actively used laboratory-analytical methods. This made it possible to qualitatively assess the state of natural complexes and resources, and to create an objective database.

Questions and tasks:

1. What methods of studying geographical objects appeared first in the history of science and why?

2. What tasks does the descriptive method solve in geography? What is its current role?

3. What is the essence of the method of observations?

4. Name the activities in which various types of geographical research are widely used.

5. Why is there a need for the integrated use of geographical and non-geographical methods for studying geographical objects? Give examples.

Methods (methods) of research are specific methods for studying geographical objects and phenomena. Geographic methods (methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.

Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge, is the expeditionary method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence of a method of description. The very name of science - geography (from the Greek geo - Earth and grapho - describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, indicates the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a country-specific nature, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive country-specific characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description (literary works of I.A. Bunin, K.G. Paustovsky, M.M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.

With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus, a very important and necessary cartographic method of research arose.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development of a comparative method of research, which is successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Geographic information system (geographic information system, GIS) - a system for collecting, storing, analyzing and graphical visualization of spatial (geographical) data and related information about the necessary objects.

The concept of a geographic information system is also used in a narrower sense - as a tool (software product) that allows users to search, analyze and edit both a digital map of the area and additional information about objects.

A geographic information system may include spatial databases (including those under the control of universal DBMS), editors for raster and vector graphics, and various tools for spatial data analysis. They are used in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal government, transport, economics, defense and many other areas. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of geoinformation systems are studied by geoinformatics.

Data in geographic information systems usually describe real objects, such as roads, buildings, water bodies, forests. Real objects can be divided into two abstract categories: discrete (houses, territorial zones) and continuous (relief, precipitation, average annual temperature). Vector and raster data are used to represent these two categories of objects.