All these oddities did not bother Napoleon yet. According to the emperor, the Spanish "chapter" was coming to a happy end. Quite pleased with the course of events, he left Bayonne for Paris, and there received news that shocked him.

On July 19, General Dupont's 20,000 French corps was surrounded by approximately 32,000 Spaniards under the command of General Casteños in the Bailen area. Pierre Dupont, who was considered the first and most deserved contender for the marshal's baton, after unsuccessful and uncertain maneuvers, without exhausting all the possibilities for resistance, capitulated in an open field on July 22. The Spanish took about 18,000 French prisoners. The guarantees of a safe passage to France were immediately violated by them: unarmed Frenchmen who were not hacked to death on the spot ended up in prison, where most of them died. Only generals and senior officers received the right to return to their homeland.

The Baylen catastrophe was not only a disgrace to the empire. “He dishonored our banners, dishonored the army,” Napoleon repeated many times, demanding that Dupont be brought to justice. But the main significance of these events was different: the news of Bailen spread throughout Europe. It responded especially strongly, again, in Austria, where, with feverish energy, they forced the reforms of their armed forces that had begun earlier. Emperor Franz issued one after another decrees on the formation of a reserve of the army in the field, on the organization of the landwehr, on general mobilization. The news from Spain inspired the Austrians with the idea of ​​taking advantage of France's predicament and going on the offensive themselves. Austria saw that Napoleon suddenly had not one front, but two, and that this new Spanish front would from now on greatly weaken him on the Danube. The French emperor also realized that now all hostile forces would raise their heads.

Bailen proved that the Napoleonic army was no longer invincible. She surrenders to the brave. This fact increased tenfold the strength of the Spanish national liberation movement. Soon the French garrisons became islands in the sea of ​​a war waged with exceptional cruelty. Joseph fled from Madrid, the occupying army was driven back across the Ebro River. Junot's troops in Portugal were cut off from the main forces.

The news of Bailen inspired courage in the Portuguese as well. Two weeks after Dupont's surrender, all of Portugal was in revolt. On August 6, a 17,000-strong English expeditionary force landed north of Lisbon under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. Junot, with his small (14,000 men left) and half-decomposed, like her boss, army was powerless to overcome the growing dangers. “I don’t recognize a person who has been trained in my school,” Napoleon commented on the actions of his old friend.

On August 21, Junot gave an unsuccessful battle near Vimeir, and nothing could save him. On August 30, he signed an act of surrender in Sintra on the condition that the French on British transports be evacuated by sea to their homeland.

Sintra complemented Bailen. Two capitulations of the imperial army in two months - was it possible to doubt the significance of these events? All of Germany was on the move. Three years of French occupation in the allied and conquered German states was more than enough to arouse universal hatred of foreign invaders. In Spain itself, in September 1808, the Central Junta was created to lead the country and military operations. In Portugal, General Wellesley was recalled to London for releasing the French, and General John Moore, who arrived with reinforcements, was appointed in his place. In September, his army of 35,000 marched on Madrid. On the Ebro River, the French were pressed by a 125,000-strong Spanish army.

The situation in the Pyrenees was becoming critical. Napoleon, in annoyance, remarked on this occasion that his army was apparently commanded by postal inspectors. He sent more and more reinforcements to Spain and prepared himself to go there to take command.

But first, in order to keep Austria out of the war, it was necessary to make her understand that Alexander I, bound to France by allied obligations, would invade Austrian possessions from the east, while Napoleon would march on Vienna from the west. For this, the Erfurt demonstration of friendship between the two emperors was started. The meeting in Erfurt disappointed Napoleon, the Russian tsar was uncompromising and, although formally the Franco-Russian alliance remained in force, Napoleon knew that the vassal kings did not believe in his fortress and that Austria did not believe either. It was necessary to finish the Spanish affairs as soon as possible.

On October 19, the French emperor returned to Paris. By this time, the French owned in Spain only the north of the country to the Ebro, and Portugal became an English base. Troops were hastily transferred from Germany and Italy to the Spanish border. The French government has announced an additional set of recruits. In a short time, a 150,000-strong army was concentrated behind the Pyrenees, including the imperial guard and the best, selected units. And the Polish division, instead of fighting for the freedom of Poland, was sent to the south - to stifle the freedom of Spain.

The French newspapers declared that "his imperial majesty would quickly bring the wild Spanish rabble to reason" and that this war was being waged for the safety of France. It is designed to liberate Spain from the yoke of the "tyrants of the sea ... the enemies of the world" - England. "English gold, the intrigues of the agents of the Inquisition ... the influence of the monks" were declared the main sources of unrest. But in private conversations, without strangers, Napoleon expressed his thoughts much more frankly: "It is necessary that Spain become French ... It is for the sake of France that I conquer Spain."

On October 29, the emperor left the capital; he himself led an army that marched into Spain to wash away the shame of Bailen and Sintra. In early November, with 200,000 men under his command, Napoleon launched an offensive against four Spanish armies deployed on the line of the Ebro. The best soldiers of the empire were with him: veterans of Marengo, Austerlitz, Jena - his guard. The most famous commanders - Lannes, Ney, Soult, Bessieres, Saint-Cyr - marched under the command of the emperor. Napoleon threw all the best he had against Spain, and this alone proves what great importance the French emperor attached to the crushing of the enemy, whom yesterday he still called the "Spanish rabble."

Nothing could resist such an army: neither regular units, nor partisan detachments. On November 10, at Burgos, Napoleon inflicted a terrible defeat on the Spaniards; in the next few days there were two more battles, and the Spanish army seemed to be completely destroyed. Its remnants rolled back under the blows of the iron regiments. True, when crossing the mountain ranges of the Sierra de Guadarrama, the French army encountered fierce resistance. The battle of Somosnerra on November 30, in which the Polish regiments especially distinguished themselves, was won at the cost of enormous effort. The road to Madrid was open.

Spanish-French War. 1808-1814 years.

On December 4, Napoleon entered the capital of Spain and immediately declared martial law in the country and introduced courts-martial. At the same time, under his signature, the emperor issued a number of decrees that abolished feudal rights, the courts of the Inquisition, and class privileges. These decrees had a pronounced anti-feudal content, and their progressive nature did not raise the slightest doubt. The defect of these decrees was not in their character, but in the manner in which they were forced upon the Spanish people. The Madrid Decrees did not play the role that Napoleon had hoped for. The Spaniards dismissed them from the threshold: they did not accept them, not because they were not good enough, but because they were the decrees of the conquerors.

Without stopping in the capital, the French army moved to the northwest. The Emperor received word that Sir John was trying to march on Madrid, bypassing the French troops. Napoleon went against the grain, seeking to cut off the British Expeditionary Force from their stronghold in Portugal.

Pyrenean War(1808-1814) was a major armed conflict during the era of the Napoleonic Wars. The armed forces of Spain and Portugal took part in the war, and their allies - the British against the French.

In 1807, Napoleon sent an army to Spain under the command of Jean-Andoche Junot to invade Portugal because it had refused to join the Continental System. Lisbon was taken on 1 December. Napoleon Bonaparte then began to send troops to Spain, Pamplona and Barcelona. They were busy in February. The Spanish coup dethroned Charles IV, who was replaced by Fernando VII. Napoleon moved the royal family to Bayonne, forced them to abdicate on May 5, and gave the throne to his brother José. When José tried to consolidate his power in the country, popular uprisings arose.

The British were forced to stay away from military operations in continental Europe, but with the uprisings in Spain, they were able to transfer significant forces there. In August 1808 the first British troops, under the command of then General Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in Portugal.

The Spanish army won an amazing victory over the army of Pierre Dupont at Bailen (May 9-21). The British defeated the troops under Delaborde at Rolis on 17 August. On August 21, the British were quickly carried into Vimeiro, fighting the French forces under Junot. The French dynamic tactics soon failed, and the British held their ground. Wellesley was replaced by Harry Burrard and Hugh Dalrymple. British victories led to the eventual liberation of Portugal from the French under the dubious Convention of Sintra. The British command was withdrawn back to England to investigate Sintra, and Sir John Moore was left at the head of the 30,000 British contingent.

British and Spanish victories provoked Napoleon to march an army of 200,000 under his personal command into Spain. The British attacked near Burgos but were soon turned into a long retreat, pursued by the French, and after fighting at Sahagun, Benavente and Cacobelos evacuated from A Coruña in January 1809. Moore was killed in command of the defense of the city. Satisfied, after only two months in Spain, Napoleon handed over command to Jean de Dieu Soult and returned to France.

Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command a combined Anglo-Portuguese force. The reorganized troops defeated Sul at Oporto on May 12 and rushed to Spain to join the army of Gregorio de la Cuesta. The combined Allied forces clashed with King José's army at Talavera on 27-28 July; the alliance forces prevailed at the cost of heavy casualties, leaving them vulnerable, and they were soon forced to retreat to the west. For his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was promoted to Viscount. At the end of the year, the Spanish armies suffered heavy losses in Ocaña and Alba de Tormes. Fearing French attacks, Wellesley orders the construction of defensive works along key roads, as well as lines of trenches and earthworks to defend Lisbon (Line of Torres Vedras).

The French invaded Portugal at the end of 1810 with 60,000 men under the command of Andre Massena, Duke of Esslen. The first significant engagement took place at Busacu on 27 September, the French were held back but soon had to retreat to defensive lines. The fortifications were so imposing that after a small attack at Sobral on October 14, the conflict turned into a stalemate. The French were thrown back from the lines for quite a considerable distance and were forced to wait.

The allied forces were reinforced by fresh British troops in early 1811 and began a new offensive. The French forces were defeated at Barrosa on 5 March, and Kadish was liberated. Massena was forced to leave Portugal after a long standoff at Fuentes de Onoro (May 3-5). Massena was replaced by Auguste Marmont and the new commander sent Sul to the north to defend Badajoz. Soule's forces were intercepted by a combined force under William Beresford at Albuera on 16 May and after bloody fighting the French were forced to retreat. Then the war temporarily took on a protracted character, since the clearly superior French forces did not have an advantage, being under the constant threat of partisan activity.

Wellesley resumed the Allied advance into Spain just after the New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing Ciudad Rodrigo on January 19 and Badajoz on April 6 after strong resistance, but both cities were sacked by British troops. The combined forces took Salamanca on June 17, while Marmont was approaching the city. The two armies finally met on July 22 at the Battle of Salamanca, which ended in a crushing defeat for the French. While the French were regrouping, Wellesley's army entered Madrid on 6 August and moved forward towards Burgos before retreating back to Ciudad Rodrigo itself. French hopes were then dealt a blow with the infamous Napoleonic invasion of Russia in 1812, and the weakened and unreinforced French positions became hard to hold when the Alliance forces resumed their offensive in May 1813. Of the 300,000 French soldiers in Spain, 200,000 were thrown into the fight against the partisan movement and the protection of food routes.

Alliance forces pushed north in June and laid siege to Burgos, then drove the army under José into the Zadorra valley. In the Battle of Victoria (June 21), Jose's army was utterly defeated (later she inspired Beethoven to create Opus 91). Allied forces pursued the retreating French as far as the Pyrenees in early July. Soule was given command of the French force and launched a counter-strike, inflicting two serious defeats on the Alliance forces at Maya and at Roncesvalles, but lost the chance after the enemy's victory at Sorauren on 28 July. On October 7, Alliance forces finally enter France, taking the Bydossa River.

The Peninsular War was geographically over, although the Alliance's victories at Bayonne on 10 December, Orthez on 27 February 1814 and Toulouse on 10 April were all part of the same campaign.

War of Liberation (18081814)

and the first Spanish revolution

Both of these events coincided in time and played an important role in the subsequent history of Spain. During the revolution and the war of independence, the struggle between old and new Spain reached a new frontier. The latent accumulated energy broke out and blew up the country. Supporters and opponents of change have taken up arms. The entire 19th century Spain shuddered from bloody clashes between traditionalists and liberals. They started in 1808.

Resistance to the French began with an uprising on May 2, 1808 in Madrid. When it became known about the bloody suppression of this uprising by the French army, all of Spain rose to armed struggle. The initial spontaneous protest soon took on organized forms. Asturias was the first to rise. After the French consulate was destroyed in Gijon and mass anti-French demonstrations took place, Murat sent a punitive detachment to Asturias. In response, a general uprising begins on May 24. A provincial junta is created, which declares war on Napoleon, calling on all cities and provinces to follow its example. The people seize the arsenals. It was decided to create an army. The junta turned to England for help, from where weapons soon began to arrive.

On May 30, a provincial junta was established in Galicia. She also declares war on Napoleon and creates an army to fight against the French. The junta announced its intention to restore Ferdinand VII to the throne, to convene the Cortes to carry out reforms in favor of the people. Juntas spring up all over the country. Armed detachments are created everywhere, military operations against the French begin.

The people's militia inflicted several tangible defeats on the French. French attempts to take Zaragoza were unsuccessful. The people put up such strong resistance that the French had to lift the siege of Zaragoza. In vain were the attempts of the French to take the fortress of Girona in Catalonia. The most painful for the French was their defeat in the south. The army of General Dupont, which broke into Cordoba, plundered it and brutally cracked down on its population, moving north, was surrounded by the army of the Spanish general Castaños and was forced to capitulate near the city of Bailen. About 18 thousand Frenchmen were taken prisoner. Reports of Spanish victories alarmed Joseph, who, fearing their attack on Madrid, left the capital on July 31 and went to Catalonia. In August, Marshal Junot is defeated by the English troops who have arrived in Portugal.

This was only the beginning of the long, heroic war of the Spanish people for independence. Simultaneously with the hostilities, the provincial and local juntas, which removed governors, judges, generals, took over the leadership of all life on the ground, tried to carry out revolutionary socio-economic and political transformations in favor of the people. The war for the independence of the Spanish people thus resulted in the first revolution in the history of Spain.

The course of the war inevitably raised the question of the need to centralize leadership. As a result of negotiations between the provincial juntas, it was decided to create a Central Junta with the rights of the government. It was supposed to include two representatives from all the provincial juntas and one from the Canary Islands. The place of its meetings was determined by Aranjuez. The 35 people who arrived at the meetings of the Central Junta in September 1808 represented only the ruling classes of Spain there were grandees, large landowners, clergymen, senior officers and state dignitaries. But even this fairly homogeneous social composition did not guarantee the Central Junta against internal contradictions; a struggle between two currents immediately began in it. The main subject of controversy was the future of Spain whether it would be an absolutist kingdom after the war of independence, where the old order would be preserved, as the head of one of the currents in the Central Junta of Floridablanca, an implacable opponent of the revolution, wanted to reduce everything that happens in the country only to an anti-French struggle. Or Spain will become a constitutional monarchy with a parliament expressing the interests of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, and where bourgeois reforms will be gradually carried out. This was wanted by the supporters of Gaspar Jovellanos, who headed his second current, which remained in the minority in the Junta. The Junta spent a lot of time discussing the issue of its own status: as a result, it appropriated the title of “Majesty”, the Chairman of the Junta “Highness”, and the members “Excellency”. The junta not only did not carry out social and economic transformations in favor of the people, it embarked on the path of strangling the revolution. Soon after its creation, the Junta imposed censorship on printed publications, some newspapers and magazines were closed; the Inquisition was restored, the sale of church and aristocratic lands, initiated by local juntas, was suspended, some local juntas were dissolved. The central junta also opposed the democratization of the Spanish army. When the central junta began to work, only a third of the country's territory was occupied by French troops. But, having created a unified command of the army (the only positive act in the activity of the Junta), she did nothing to organize a rebuff to the French on a national scale.

Meanwhile, Spanish affairs began to irritate Napoleon Bonaparte. Rightly considering the Spanish Bourbons worthless and eliminating them, Napoleon did not attach due importance to the fortitude and ability to resist the Spanish people. He attributed the failures of the Spanish campaign to the mistakes of his generals. Therefore, he decided to go himself to conquer Spain. In November 1808, at the head of a large army, Napoleon arrives in Spain. Napoleon's well-armed, heavily shelled army is engaged in battle with the poorly armed, inexperienced Spanish army, which has begun to suffer defeat. Soon the French troops occupied Aragon. The siege of Zaragoza begins again. The Spanish army and the English army that came to its aid are failing in Catalonia. December 2, 1808 Napoleon approached Madrid. To the ultimatum demand of the French to capitulate, the Madrid authorities proudly replied: “Madrid would rather bury itself under the ruins than surrender.” However, the Madrid authorities did not dare to organize the defense of the capital, turning to the people for support, they capitulated and let Napoleon into the city.

Wanting to secure the support of the Spanish bourgeoisie, Napoleon issues several decrees: on the liquidation of the seigneurial rights of the feudal lords, on the liquidation of the Inquisition, on the reduction by two-thirds of the number of monasteries. 72 days after Napoleon's arrival in Spain, French troops advanced to the south of the country. But the struggle in various parts of Spain still continued. The siege of Zaragoza lasted 52 days, then another 25 days of bloody battles went on in the city itself. The people fought hard. Only at the end of February 1809 did the capital of Aragon sign an honorable truce. The fortress of Heron also held firm. Its second siege lasted more than seven months. Only the physical destruction of its defenders (two-thirds of the inhabitants of Girona died) allowed the French to take this fortress. In March 1809, General Wellesley's English army launched an attack on Madrid. At the end of July, there was a battle at Talavera (100 km from Madrid), in which the French army, commanded by Joseph Bonaparte, was defeated. General Wellesley for this victory received the title of Duke of Talavera and Lord of Wellington.

But still, the French were able to defeat the disunited Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish units, which forced the British to evacuate their troops from the territory of the Iberian Peninsula. In general, the military operations of the French army were successful. In 1810, when more than 300 thousand French soldiers were already concentrated in Spain, the whole of Andalusia was occupied. Only Cadiz was not occupied by the French, where the Central Junta moved. The Spanish regular army in 1810 was completely defeated. But the French still could not celebrate the victory. The Spanish people did not give up. He waged a guerrilla war.

guerrilla war– guerilla

The partisan movement began to emerge spontaneously already in May 1808 after the news of the uprising in Madrid and the reprisals against it by the French. But it acquired a special scope after the Central Junta, created in September 1808, called on the population to organize resistance. The partisan movement became massive - the entire population took part in it, but its main force was the peasants. Partisan detachments dealt unexpected tangible blows to French military units. Because of the guerrillas, it was difficult for the French to maintain contact between individual garrisons, partisans intercepted couriers, which prevented King Joseph from maintaining regular communications with Paris. It was the guerrilla that forced Joseph to insist before Napoleon on increasing the size of the French army in Spain.

Gradually, from a spontaneous movement, guerrilla warfare acquires more and more organized features. As early as the end of 1809, partisan detachments of 50 to 600 people appeared, which operate in individual provinces with the support of the entire local population. These mobile detachments carry out fairly successful operations, their surprise attacks on the French often ended in the establishment of control over entire provinces. In 1811-1812 guerrilla units began to use the methods of the regular army. The number of such detachments increases to 36 thousand people. Entering into battles with the French units, these detachments turned out to be more vulnerable and sometimes the French struggle with them was successful. Guerrilla revealed many talented leaders of partisan detachments who came from the people. The names of many guerrilla leaders such as Francisco Mina, Lacy, Erolles, Juan Martin Diaz, Juan Porlier were known in entire provinces and beyond. For skillful actions against the French troops, some partisan leaders received the rank of generals, colonels. But until 1812, the French still held Spain.

Cortes of Cadiz. Constitution of 1812

The blame for the failures in the war with the French lay largely with the Central Junta. She was unable to organize a rebuff to them. Caused indignation in the country and the conservative social policy of the Central Junta.

Therefore, already at the end of 1808, demands began to be heard for the convocation of the Cortes, which could not only take over the organization of the war for independence, but also recognized and legally approved those revolutionary transformations that were carried out by local juntas. The central junta, aristocratic in its composition, opposed this for a long time. And only under the pressure of circumstances, she was forced to give in.

In early 1810, the French attempted to storm Cadiz, the only city that remained unoccupied. This attempt ended in failure. But the members of the Central Junta were frightened, left the city, moving to the island de Leon, located in the bay of Cadiz. Here they announced their self-dissolution, having previously announced a decision to hold elections to unicameral constituent cortes. Spaniards at least 25 years old could participate in the elections. The provincial juntas and the largest cities were to send one of their representatives to the Cortes. Representation from the colonies was also supposed. The organization and conduct of elections in the territory occupied by the French were impossible. But since there were residents of all the provinces in Cadiz, those who did not want to remain under the rule of the French and evacuated to this city, then all the Spanish provinces were represented in the Cortes. And it was the most progressive part of Spanish society. There were also conservative elements in the composition of the Cortes, but they were in a clear minority. Among the deputies were priests, large landowners, representatives of the small landed nobility, lawyers, senior officials, army and navy officers, professors, merchants, writers, doctors. There were no representatives of peasants, workers, artisans in the composition of the Cortes.

On September 24, 1810, the Cortes began their work on about. de Leon, and after the threat of the capture of Cadiz was eliminated, they moved to the city.

A struggle immediately broke out in the Cortes, dividing all the deputies into three groups: the serviles, or servile ones, who sought to preserve the absolute monarchy and the privileges of the king, feudal lords and the church; liberals supporters of bourgeois freedoms; a vacillating middle group that included most of the deputies from the American colonies, so the members of this group began to be called "Americans".

The most important document developed by the Cadiz Cortes was the constitution. Even before its adoption, the Cortes issued several important laws, including the abolition of most of the feudal exactions from small landowners and the equalization of the rights of the inhabitants of the colonies and metropolises.

The constitution was approved by the Cortes on March 19, 1812. Its most important provision was the proclamation of the principle of the rule of the people. “The Spanish nation is free. It is not and cannot be the heritage of any surname, any person. ... The bearer of supreme power is the nation, which therefore has the exclusive right to establish basic laws.” The Constitution declared the unicameral Cortes elected by universal suffrage once every two years as the supreme legislative body of the country. Men over the age of 25 had the right to vote. Bankrupts, criminals and domestic servants did not have the right to vote. The Cortes were required to sit for at least three months annually. During the breaks between sessions of the Cortes, the Permanent Commission elected by the Cortes oversaw the execution of laws. She, if necessary, announced the convening of an extraordinary session of the Cortes. The king could not dissolve, postpone the convocation or convene the Cortes for an extraordinary meeting. He was not allowed to attend parliamentary sessions. The deputies were declared inviolable. They were forbidden to accept any awards, pensions or honorary distinctions from the king. They could not be elected twice. They received salaries from the provinces. The competence of the Cortes included the establishment, at the suggestion of the king, of the annual composition of the armed forces, the protection of freedom of the press, the approval of the state budget and the plan for public education.

Executive power, according to the constitution, belonged to the king and the government. The king had to swear allegiance to the constitution. He appointed ministers, but they were responsible to parliament. The king approved the laws passed by the Cortes. He had the power of veto, but if the Cortes confirmed their original decision twice, the law came into force. The king had the right to declare war and make peace, to sign treaties with foreign states. All international acts signed by the king were subject to approval by the Cortes.

The constitution provided for the reform of the judiciary, which was declared independent of the king and government. State officials could not be deputies.

The Cadiz constitution of 1812 was a reflection of the progressive thought of the then Spain. It did not proclaim a republic (there were few Republicans in Spain at that time), but it eliminated absolute monarchy, and universal suffrage guaranteed popular representation.

The anti-feudal nature of the constitution dictated the need to develop decrees that would eliminate the contradiction between the state system declared by the constitution and the feudal way of life. The Cortes issued decrees on the liquidation of the Inquisition, on the abolition of church tithes, on the closing of a number of monasteries, on the liquidation of workshops and guilds.

But it still wasn't enough. In a country with a mass of landless peasantry, the most important question was an agrarian reform that would eliminate large-scale feudal landownership. But the debate in the Cortes on this issue was fruitless. Not only the servile, but also part of the liberals opposed the abolition of feudal property. Having adopted a decree on the abolition of the seigneurial rights of feudal lords, on the forthcoming sale of royal and communal lands and their transfer to participants in the war of independence and landless peasants, the Cortes of Cadiz stopped there.

Nor were they able to resolve the ecclesiastical question at the level of advanced thought: the Constitution of 1812 declared the Catholic religion the only true religion of the Spanish nation. Church censorship was also preserved.

Despite these shortcomings, the Constitution of 1812 and other legislative acts of the Cadiz Cortes testified to a serious victory for the new Spain over the old. But while the war was going on, while the country was occupied, there could be no question of putting the Constitution into effect.

End of the War of Independence and Revolution

The situation of the French, who did not know peace because of the guerrilla war, became even more difficult when Napoleon Bonaparte launched an aggressive campaign in Russia. To implement it, Napoleon transferred part of the troops from Spain to the East. This opened up more favorable prospects in the fight against the invaders in Spain. In addition, Spain strengthened its international position by signing in June 1812 in Velikiye Luki an agreement with Russia on a joint struggle against the French.

The French army began to suffer one defeat after another from the Spaniards and the British. Madrid was liberated from the French, the siege of Cadiz was lifted, and several regions were liberated. When the Napoleonic army was defeated in Russia, things went even further.

faster. In the spring of 1813, the French, pressed by the Spaniards and the British, retreated across the Ebro River, in June 1813, in the battle of Vitoria (Basque Country), the combined Spanish-English forces under the command of Wellington inflicted a serious defeat on the French. November 7, 1813 Spanish-English troops entered the territory of France. Napoleon was extremely displeased. He put Joseph in the fortress. In an attempt to save his position, Napoleon in November 1813 forced Ferdinand, who had been in France throughout the war, to sign an agreement in Valence, according to which Ferdinand received the Spanish throne, but pledged to break off relations with England. The Cortes, who had already moved to Madrid at that time, refused to recognize the agreement in Valence, they published a special declaration obliging Ferdinand to swear to the constitution before the Cortes so that his rights to the throne would be recognized by the nation.

Summing up the dramatic events of 1808-1814, it should be noted that the decisive role in the defeat of the French troops was played not by the regular Spanish army and not by the British, led by the Duke of Wellington, but by the Spanish partisans. The guerrilla war brought forth many new heroes: Generals Francisco Mina and Juan Martinez Diaz, better known as “El Empesinado” (“Persistent”), Colonels Lasi and Garcia Navarro and others. All of them came from the lower classes and subsequently took part in the political struggle flared up in Spain.

It is necessary to pay attention to the remarkable fact that the banner of the Spanish guerrillas was the Spanish king in exile, Ferdinand VII, who, it would seem, did not deserve it at all. But there was no contradiction in this. Most of the Spaniards of that time considered Ferdinand VII to be their legitimate monarch, and therefore it was with him that they pinned their hopes for the revival of the country. Napoleon and the Napoleonides, who tried to reform the country by force, were, from their point of view, usurpers and devils. Traditional consciousness prevailed in the minds of the Spanish people.

However, at the same time, the war of independence and the first revolution showed the presence in Spain of other forces ready for transformation. They even managed to achieve at the beginning of the XIX century. some success. These include, first of all, the adoption on March 19, 1812 in Cadiz of a constitution that provided for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Spain and proclaimed the principle of separation of powers. Both that, and another was not something new in the then constitutional law. The American Constitution of 1787 was already in force, with its priority of the natural rights of man, the French constitutions of 1791 and 1793 were widely known, and case law actually created a similar system in England. However, for Spain, the significant restriction of the power of the king through the introduction of a system of separation of powers was a truly revolutionary event. The Cadiz legislators swung at the holy of holies of the Spanish great power - an absolute monarchy.

In addition, we must not forget about the laws that were issued after the adoption of the constitution, as if in its execution. The liquidation of the Inquisition, the tithe, the closure of monasteries, the sale of royal and communal lands, the abolition of the feudal system of land lease and the slave trade all these measures were intended to create more favorable conditions for Spain to move forward along the path of progress.

But the constitution was adopted in the conditions of the occupation of the whole country by the French, the deputies of the Cadiz Cortes were not elected by anyone and rather represented themselves than the whole nation. In addition, there were quite a lot of supporters of the old order (serviles) in the Cortes. The champions of freedom, the supporters of New Spain (liberals) literally wrested from them every progressive article of the Constitution. That is why the country's new fundamental law preserved Catholicism as the only and obligatory religion for all Spaniards, and the social and economic legislation did not affect landownership.

And this was not the only defeat of the liberals of that time. Their main loss was that they did not see or did not want to see that they did not and could not have mass support. Traditional Spain at the beginning of the 19th century. was stronger. This became evident when Ferdinand VII, after a six-year absence, returned to the country in 1814. On May 4, 1814, he published a manifesto declaring the Constitution of 1812 "a product of the French Revolution, anarchy and terror", and therefore annulled it and other legislative acts of the Cortes. Liberal ministers and deputies were subjected to repression. It should be noted that the return to absolutism did not cause much indignation among the Spanish people. The liberals never forgave Ferdinand for this decree. Traditional Spain has won so far, but the supporters of the new were not going to give up either.

The whole struggle was yet to come. Revolutions and reforms in the 19th century. sometimes they reconciled, sometimes they divorced the two Spains, until in the second half of the 20th century. a worthy compromise was not found in the political, economic and social spheres. The forceful way of solving Spanish problems turned out to be a dead end. But this became obvious and understandable to politicians and the people only in the 70s. XX century, when it was possible to find a compromise between traditions and new realities of life. Until the 19th century did not promise anyone a quiet life.

Plan
Introduction
1 Statistics of the War in the Iberian Peninsula
2 Results
Bibliography
Spanish-French War

Introduction

The Spanish-French War (Peninsular War) was the main conflict in the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The alliance of Spain, Portugal and England fought against the Napoleonic French Empire.

Another name for this war is also known - the war for the independence of Spain. (Guerra de la Independencia Española). In Russian and Soviet historiography, the war is sometimes called the Spanish Revolution of 1808-1814.

The war lasted from 1808, that is, from the occupation of Spain by the French, until 1814, the year of the defeat of France.

1. Statistics of the War in the Iberian Peninsula

The liberation struggle in Spain was one of the first national wars and one of the first appearances of large guerrilla movements. Although during the French occupation, the French destroyed the Spanish administration, which split into provincial juntas (in 1810, a revived national government was consolidated in Cadiz) and was unable to recruit, train, or equip an effective army, Napoleon's inability to calm the people of Spain allowed the Spanish, British and the Portuguese forces to remain in Portugal and occupy the French forces on the borders, and the Spanish partisans to destroy the occupiers in Spain itself. Acting in concert, regular and irregular Allied forces prevented the subjugation of the rebellious Spanish provinces. Years of fighting in Spain gradually wore down Napoleon and his Grand Army. Although the French troops often won in battle, their lines of communication were often cut by partisan detachments, which made fighting difficult. Although the French defeated the Spanish army and pushed it back to the borders, it was not destroyed and continued to fight. In 1812, when France was seriously weakened during Napoleon's invasion of Russia, the united allied armies under the command of Arthur Wellesley began to move deep into Spain. Having liberated Madrid, they pursued Marshal Soult with his demoralized army during his withdrawal through the Pyrenees to France during the winter of 1813. War and revolution against the occupiers led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which later became the cornerstone of European liberalism. The burden of the war destroyed the social and economic base of Spain and Portugal, paving the way for an era of social unrest, political instability, and economic stagnation. The devastating civil wars between the liberal and absolutist factions, started by units trained in this war, continued in Iberia well into the 1850s. The crisis caused by the upheavals of the invasion and revolution contributed to the independence of most of Spain's colonies in the Americas and the separation of Brazil from Portugal.

Bibliography:

1. Glover, p. 45. Some historians consider the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal the beginning of the war.

2. Glover, p 335. Armistice between France and the Sixth Coalition.

3. Here is the strength of the Spanish army at the time of the invasion of Spain by French troops. The number of Spanish troops by the end of the war had risen to 300,000 soldiers.

4. Here is the strength of the French army at the time of the invasion of Spain. The number of French soldiers in Spain grew all the time. So in 1810 there were 325,000, and in July 1811 there were 355,000 French soldiers in Spain. ¾ of all the Napoleonic troops in Spain were sent to fight the partisans and only ¼ to the war with the regular Spanish-English army. At the time of the invasion of Russia, Napoleon was forced to keep 400,000 of his soldiers in Spain, which greatly facilitated the fate of the Russian troops.

France and the Pyrenean states (1800–1808)

Charles IV and Bonaparte. The news of the coup of 18 Brumaire was very sympathetically received in Spain. The ministers had little regret about the Directory, which constantly annoyed them with its demands and nit-picking. Charles IV often admired General Bonaparte and expected him to restore European peace.

The first time of the Consulate was a real honeymoon of France and Spain. In place of the former member of the Guillemarde Convention, Alquier, an amiable, tactful and subtle skeptic, was appointed French ambassador in Madrid, who charmed the ministers with his courteous manners. Alquier very soon realized that Godoy, although officially no longer a minister, still remains the most influential person at court thanks to the blind trust of the king in him. Alquier became close to the favorite and, taking advantage of his weakness - vanity, promised him on behalf of the first consul a truly royal gift - full armament. One cannot imagine how flattered Godoy felt and how happy the king was with Bonaparte's attention to his dear Manuel! Then Alquier ventured to offer a gift to the king himself, and Charles IV accepted with childish joy several elegant pieces of hunting equipment presented to him. The Queen immediately asked if General Bonaparte would give her something as well. She was promised whatever she wanted; she chose a tea service of Sevres porcelain and several dresses: "gas, cambric or embroidered muslin, in the most fashionable colors and the latest styles." The complacent Charles IV did not want to yield in generosity to his friend - the first consul; even before receiving the gifts promised to him, he sent Bonaparte sixteen beautiful horses from his Aranjuez stables.

The victory at Marengo brought the delight of the Spanish king to enthusiasm. Bonaparte bribed the Queen by promising her a kingdom in Italy for her daughter, the Infanta of Parma. By Godoy, he inspired a vague hope that in time a principality might be found for him. When the king, queen and favorite were in his hands, a small palace coup overthrew the obedient Urquijo, and Godoy was again placed at the head of the government in his place.

Treaty of Aranjuez. When Lucien Bonaparte, appointed ambassador instead of Alquier, arrived in Madrid, the court was already so disposed towards the first consul that the queen expressed her desire that he divorce and marry her daughter, Infanta Isabella, who at that time was thirteen years old. Bonaparte prudently rejected this offer, but forced Charles IV to conclude the Treaty of Aranjuez (March 21, 1801). Spain returned Louisiana to the French and pledged to start a war with Portugal in order to force her to abandon her alliance with England. As a reward for these sacrifices, Tuscany was turned into the kingdom of Etruria and given to the Infante of Parma, son-in-law of Charles IV.

The treaty of Aranjuez could satisfy the ambition of the queen and flatter the fatherly feelings of Charles IV; but in reality he was very dangerous to Spain, who was not slow to see it.

Less than two years after the cession of Louisiana, Bonaparte sold it to the United States, in defiance of an article in the Treaty of Arayahuez that gave Spain a pre-emptive right to purchase it.

The Kingdom of Etruria did not last long. Napoleon: looked at him "as the ugliness of the Italian peninsula." He abolished it with a stroke of the pen on October 27, 1807.

The war with Portugal almost brought Spain into a quarrel with France. Charles IV, who had close ties with the House of Braganza, waged war against his will, under duress, on the condition that Portugal would not be dismembered in any case. Godoy, appointed generalissimo, took three months to prepare and set out on a campaign only on May 20, 1801, when the French general Leclerc was already encamped in Ciudad Rodrigo with a corps of 12,000 people, and Lucien Bonaparte threatened the court with the strongest wrath of the first consul, if the Spanish the army will not cross the border.

War with Portugal. A strange sight now presented these two belligerent nations, using all their efforts not to meet on the battlefield. “Why should we fight? - said the Duke of Lafones, the Portuguese generalissimo, to the Spanish general Solano. - Portugal and Spain - pack mules. England pushed us, France pushes you; we will jump and ring bells, but, for God's sake, we will not harm each other, so as not to become a laughingstock. Spanish and Portuguese troops maneuvered in such a way as not to meet. Olivenza, Herumenga, Campo Mayor surrendered without resistance, and after this ostensible campaign at Vadajoz, a treaty was concluded between Charles IV and the Portuguese regent (June 6, 1801). Spain received Olivenza on the left bank of the Guadiana, and Portugal undertook to pay France a reward of 20 million.

It remained only to achieve the ratification of the treaty by Bonaparte. Lucien busied himself with the matter. He had already received for the Treaty of Aranjuez twenty valuable paintings and 100,000 crowns of set diamonds; Godoy offered him the title of grandee, the Order of the Golden Fleece, a pension of 100,000 francs, several bags of rough diamonds and a chest with a portrait of the king, surrounded by a paper rim, which contained six million francs of precious stones. Lucien eventually secured the ratification of the Treaty of Badajoz (September 29, 1801). The peace of Amiens, concluded on March 26 of the following year, was supposed to pull Spain out of the abyss into which she was sinking. In July 1802, the court undertook a magnificent tour of Catalonia and Valencia. It was marked by brilliant festivities. In Barcelona, ​​the Prince of Asturias married Marie Antoinette of Naples, and his sister Isabella married the Crown Prince of the Two Sicilies.

Termination of the Treaty of Amiens. From the very first months of 1803, it became obvious even to people of little insight that the war between France and England must inevitably resume. Spain again became the object of ambition for both rival nations, and the incurable weakness of her government prevented her from deriving any advantage from this privileged position. Charles IV, captivated by the glory of the first consul, stood for an alliance with France. The Queen was inclined to do the same in the interests of her daughter, the Queen of Etruria. On the contrary, Cevallos, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, was a supporter of an alliance with England, and Godoy, who would willingly take his side, nevertheless did not dare to approve an opinion contrary to the king’s opinion and incur the wrath of Bonaparte, which was already making itself felt. It seemed to him a clever maneuver to oppose the impatience of the French with a "negative policy", and this exhausted all his political wisdom. He was very kind to the French ambassador Bernonville, promised everything he wanted, and did nothing. Bonaparte did not succumb to the bait. On March 29, 1803, General La Planche Mortier arrived in Aranjuez with a letter from the first consul to the king. On May 17, France declared war on England. On June 22, Bonaparte, informed of the arrival of transport from India in Cadiz, urgently demanded money. Godoy did not dare to refuse subsidies, but, apparently, he was determined to remain neutral in the coming war. He even raised several regiments of militia (milice) in Burgos and Valladolid to guard the frontier. Bonaparte broke his stubbornness by threatening to open palace scandals to the king; moreover, Bernonville, in a public audience, handed Charles IV a letter from Bonaparte filled with horrifying revelations. Godoy. so enjoyed the confidence of Charles IV that he managed to convince him not to read the letters; but he realized that fighting was impossible. On October 19, he undertook to provide France with a monthly subsidy of 6 million francs. Perhaps he thought at this price to buy for Spain the right to remain neutral. The people in Madrid proved to be more perceptive; when Godoy returned to the capital, the crowd greeted his carriage with a cry: “Peace and bread!”

Neither France nor England wanted Spain to remain neutral. Bonaparte wanted to have all the forces of Spain to fight England, Pitt wanted to make Spain the base of his military operations against France. The execution of the Duke of Enghien and the proclamation of the empire, fear and admiration for glory further strengthened the ties that linked Spain with France. When England finally became convinced that the alliance between Spain and France had taken place, she opened hostilities by attacking, without declaring war, four Spanish frigates returning from India to Cadiz (October 1, 1804). On December 4, Charles IV declared war on England.

Trafalgar. Since Spain was already fatally involved in the war, she had to fight at all costs and try to do everything possible just to defeat the common enemy. It must be admitted that she made heroic efforts to help implement Napoleon's grandiose plans. In the course of several months, she equipped three squadrons: in Cartagena, Cadiz and Ferrol. In ships ill-equipped, sparsely supplied with provisions, overloaded with artillery, weighed down by exorbitant spars, the Spaniards placed a crew recruited from fishermen, peasants, vagabonds, and with such bad ships and such a bad crew, commanders like Churruka still managed to cover themselves with glory. Gravina, who barely had the opportunity to stay on the high seas, joined Villeneuve's squadron with seven ships and withstood the battle of Ferrol, where only fog prevented the French from gaining a complete victory over the British. In September 1805, the joint Franco-Spanish squadron stationed in Cadiz consisted of 33 battleships, 5 frigates and 2 military brigs with a crew of 25,000 people and with 2836 guns. The useless Battle of Trafalgar (October 21) cost the Franco-Spanish squadron 6,000 men and 17 ships. Charles IV took all measures to save the wounded and help the survivors, generously rewarded everyone who participated in the battle, but the disaster was irreparable. The ships left in the harbors could not break the blockade, the arsenals were empty, the crews were devastated by fever and desertion, the officers were discouraged. England for many years acquired superiority on the sea.

Napoleon was never soft on the vanquished. Intoxicated by his triumphs at Ulm and Austerlitz, he dealt with Spain mercilessly. Charles IV had to pay a subsidy of 24 million francs and send 5,000 men to Etruria to guard the kingdom, which Napoleon himself had already conceded to be abolished. The Bourbons were expelled from Naples, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was given to Joseph Bonaparte, and since Charles IV hesitated to recognize the new king, Napoleon uttered the formidable words: "Charles IV's successor recognizes him."

Manifesto of 1806. Godoy reluctantly obeyed the arrogant ruler, whom he imposed on himself, and only waited for an opportunity to rise up against him. In August 1806, an English squadron entered Lisbon, and Baron Stroganov, the Russian envoy in Madrid, made an attempt to draw Spain into the newly formed new coalition against France. Portugal was to arm first, Spain was to raise troops as if to defend against the Portuguese invasion, the English army was to land in Portugal, and at an opportune moment England, Portugal and Spain would attack southern France together. Godoy could not hide his joy: on October 5, 1806, still far from having completed preparations for the campaign, he turned to the Spanish people with a warlike manifesto, where, referring to their loyal feelings, he called him to fight the enemy, whom he did not name, but which was easy to guess. Ten days later, Napoleon won the battle of Jena. Great fear seized Godoy at the news of this victory. The French party reproached him for ruining Spain. Charles IV did not know how to appease the emperor. It was reported in the newspapers that the manifesto had been planted. Godoy apologized to Napoleon and tried to convince him that he wanted to arm the Spaniards only in the interests of France. Napoleon seemed to accept the excuses presented to him, but there is reason to think that from that moment he plotted the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons. He showered Charles IV and Godoy with compliments and courtesies. Charles IV, completely calmed down, in the naive hope of pleasing the emperor, bestowed on the “prince of peace” (Godoy) the title of lordship and promoted him to admiral general, but by this he made the favorite even more hated by the prince of Asturias, the nobility and the people. Napoleon sent a new envoy to Madrid, Beaugarnet, who very soon penetrated the secrets of the royal family and learned about the deep hatred with which the Prince of Asturias Ferdinand treated Godoy. He tried to stir up this hatred by assuring Ferdinand that he would find strong support from the emperor against the favorite. Thus, at the moment of approaching a decisive crisis, the royal family was split in two, and the favorite was doomed to popular anger for his excessive exaltation.

Napoleon's intervention in Spanish affairs. On July 7, 1807, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Tilsit. On August 15, he returned to Paris, and a few weeks later he took up Spanish affairs.

Portugal refused to join the continental blockade; Napoleon invited Spain to conquer it with common forces and divide it among themselves (October 27, 1807). According to his plan, the Queen of Etruria was to give up her Italian kingdom and become queen of northern Lusitania; Godoy will receive the principality of the Algarve, and Napoleon himself will occupy the rest of Portugal, which, upon the conclusion of a common peace, will transfer to Charles IV, and the latter will be recognized as sovereignty over Lusitania and the Algarve principality and the title of Indian emperor.

Become an emperor like Napoleon! Poor Charles IV lost his head at this thought and immediately agreed to everything that was demanded of him. On these terms, an agreement was concluded at Fontainebleau (October 27). On October 19, Junot crossed Bidassoa with 20,000 men. On 19 November he entered Portugal. The Prince Regent did not even wait for him: on 27 November he sailed for Brazil with his mother, court staff and treasures; three days later, Junot entered Lisbon with an army of forty thousand.

Under the pretext of sending reinforcements for Junot, Napoleon “continuously sent new troops to Spain. Dupont entered its borders on November 13, 1807, Moncey on January 9, 1808, each with 25,000 people. The French took San Sebastian, Pampeluna, Figueres and Barcelona by surprise; their recruits completed their military training in front of astonished Spaniards. In March, Murat arrived with a detachment of the imperial guard of 6400 people to take the main command over the Pyrenean troops. March 13 he was in Burgos, a few days later - at the gates of Madrid. The Pyrenees were crossed, a third of Spain was in the hands of the French, and Charles IV and Godoy, apparently, did not yet suspect the danger: they were absorbed in the theater all winter.

Conspiracy in Ecurial. Godoy was aware of the deep hatred that the Prince of Asturias had for him. He decided to use all means to save his position, his fortune and his life after the death of Charles IV. He wanted at least to acquire an independent principality, where he could take refuge in a moment of danger. For his part, Ferdinand wanted to warn the dangers that threatened him. He lived alone, away from business, obeying the strict and monotonous palace etiquette; the king did not like him, the queen was suspicious of him. His closest advisers were the Dukes of San Carlos and Infantado and his former teacher, Canon Don Juan Escoikis, vain and frivolous, who taught the classical languages ​​to the prince and expected someday to govern the state on behalf of his student. Eskoikis advised Ferdinand to rely on Napoleon, since the latter despised Godoy. In July 1807, the sly canon had an appointment in the Retiro Park with the French envoy Beauharnais; the latter advised the prince

Asturian to ask for the hand of one of the princesses of the imperial family. Only on October 12 did the prince decide to write to Napoleon. On October 28, the king, warned by Godoy, ordered to seize all the papers of the prince, who himself was arrested the next day. Instead of hushing up the matter, Charles IV immediately wrote to Napoleon, informed all his subjects about it and ordered the Council of Castile to initiate proceedings against the prince's accomplices. Ferdinand humiliated himself so obsequiously that Godoy allowed him to enter the favor of the king again. The council realized how dangerous it would be for them to punish the friends of the crown prince, and acquitted all the defendants. The king turned out to be less indulgent: he sent them to various castles and monasteries (January 25, 1808).

Such was the scandalous affair, which at first was given the grand name of the Escurial conspiracy. One might think that it would not have serious consequences, since the king, having accepted the project of Eskoikis, asked Napoleon for the hand of one of the princesses of the imperial family for the Prince of Asturias (November 18, 1807). But the emperor was now aware of the strife that reigned in the royal family; Godoy became finally hated by everyone because of the cruelty with which he persecuted his opponents; Charles IV made himself ridiculous with his extravagant manifestos; Ferdinand dishonored himself with cowardice: he wept and asked for forgiveness, like a child caught in the act of a crime; he betrayed his friends to avoid punishment.

Aranjuez outrage. At the end of February 1808, don Eugenio Izquierdo suddenly arrived from Paris with strange proposals, whom Godoy instructed to negotiate with Napoleon. Napoleon did not want the renewal of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. He offered to cede Portugal to Charles IV in exchange for the provinces located north of the Ebro; otherwise, he threatened that he would leave all of Portugal behind him, and Spain would have to open a “military route” to the Portuguese border for him.

Godoy never had confidence in Napoleon, but he deceived himself with ghostly dreams. The arrival of Izquierdo opened his eyes: he realized that the monarchy was dead, and, having learned about the approach of Murat to Madrid, he decided to drag the king to Seville, from where, according to the circumstances, resistance could be organized, or to flee to the Canary Islands or Mallorca. Godoy's plan was undoubtedly calculated correctly, but the Prince of Asturias, who still saw the French as allies, tried to destroy this plan.

Aranjuez filled with Madrid residents and peasants. The disguised Count of Montijo, under the nickname "Uncle Peter", tirelessly incited them against Godoy.

On March 16, the king issued a "pragmatic sanction" in which he confirmed his decision to remain among his beloved subjects. In the meantime, he hastened his preparations for his departure. On the night of March 17-18, the patrol of the conspirators met Dona Josef Tudo when she was leaving Godoy's apartment; the alarm was sounded, Aranhuez was instantly filled with an angry crowd, the palace of the “prince of peace” was taken by attack, and the king, in order to stop the indignation, on the 18th morning announced Godoy dismissed from all posts. No one knew what had become of the temporary worker until the morning of March 19, when one of the soldiers of the Wallop Guard saw Godoy in the courtyard of his palace. It turned out that the unfortunate man hid in the attic under a pile of carpets; he spent thirty-eight hours here without food or drink, and now, tormented by hunger and thirst, he was forced to leave his refuge. The people fled to the cries of the soldier. Godoy barely managed to rush into the middle of a platoon of life guards, who offered him, as a former comrade, protection and shelter in their barracks. On foot between two horsemen, convulsively grasping the bows of their saddles, showered with blows of sticks and stones, Godoy reached the guards barracks half dead. He was laid out in the stable on a bed of straw. In this terrible hour, the king and queen were full of anxiety for their friend; they begged their son to take pity on him; Ferdinand went to Godoy and on his own behalf declared him a pardon. "Are you already a king?" Godoy asked him. “Not yet,” answered Ferdinand, “but I will be soon.” Indeed, at seven o'clock in the evening (March 19), the king, fearing a new rebellion, signed his abdication.

At the first news of the events that took place in Aranjuez, Madrid revolted; when it became known that the temporary worker had been overthrown, the crowd rushed to his palace and destroyed it; the house of Godoy's mother, the house of his brother Don Diego, and the houses of his friends were also plundered. At the news of the abdication of the king, the fury of the rebels immediately turned into insane delight. The joy was so great that Murat's entry into Madrid (March 23) passed almost unnoticed. Ferdinand entered the capital the next day with frenzied cries of the people. Women strewed flowers on the road he rode, men spread their cloaks under the hooves of his horse.

These extraordinary events took Napoleon by surprise. It is very likely that he has not yet made a firm decision, although already on March 27 he conditionally offered the Spanish crown to his brother Louis Bonaparte. The stupidity of the old royal couple and Ferdinand's advisers served him admirably.

Charles IV and Marie Louise wanted one thing - to retire to Badajoz, to live there in peace with Godoy, their only friend. Wanting to save Godoy, they decided to turn to Murat, the emperor's viceroy in Spain. Murat immediately realized the benefit that he could derive from this state of affairs. He proposed to Charles IV (March 25, 1808) to protest against his abdication and resort to the intercession of Napoleon. He gave him a guard of French soldiers and persuaded him to stop at the Escurial on his way to France. At one time, Napoleon thought to personally go to Spain, and what he would see here, of course, would reveal to him the true feelings of the people. Unfortunately, he stopped in Bayonne. Beauharnais, Murat and Eskoikis persuaded Ferdinand to go there to meet with the emperor.

Date in Bayonne. Ferdinand left Madrid on April 10, hoping to find Napoleon at Bayonne. He was persuaded to pass to Vitoria. Here several devoted servants—Urquijo, Correa, Alava, and the Duke of Magon—begged him not to go any further; but Savary persuaded him to continue on to France, and on April 20 Ferdinand passed Bidassoa. At first, Napoleon could not believe such blindness: "Is he really here!" the emperor exclaimed. He wished to see Ferdinand before making his final decision. When Napoleon saw him, he immediately made a decision, and the sentence to Ferdinand was signed. "The Prince of Asturias," Napoleon wrote, "is very stupid, very angry and very hostile to France." At first, Napoleon offered Ferdinand to cede the kingdom of Etruria to him in exchange for the Spanish crown. Eskoikis considered himself capable of negotiating with the emperor; he assured him of Ferdinand's good intentions and tried to convince Napoleon that Ferdinand, by marrying a princess of the imperial family, would become the most faithful and constant ally of France. "Bad policy, canon!" Napoleon answered. And he explained that an alliance with Spain was necessary for the security of his state; but he will not be calm in this respect until one of the princes of his house sits on the throne of Madrid. Napoleon did not believe in the possibility of a national war, since he formally declared his intention to preserve the integrity, independence and religion of Spain.

Ferdinand could not bring himself to accept the conditions offered to him by Napoleon. The emperor announced to him that he would negotiate directly with Charles IV, who arrived in Bayonne on April 30.

May 2. During these never-ending negotiations, an important event took place in Madrid. The people had long been irritated by the presence of the French, and a riot almost broke out in the capital; riots broke out in Toledo and Burgos. On May 1, Murat was booed by the crowd at the Prado. Morning, Monday. On May 2, a rumor spread in Madrid that the French wanted to take away by force the king's brother, the Infante don Francisco, the last prince of the royal family, who still remained within Spain. The people began to gather in crowds, threatening cries were heard at the address of the French, and immediately a formidable uprising broke out. Murat was, perhaps, glad of this: the rebellion gave him a reason to teach the people of Madrid a lesson, and he had no doubt that he would break their resistance. The Spanish authorities courageously stood between him and the population. At the first shots, the ministers O "Farril and Asanza mounted horses and went to Murat, who was promised to restore order on the condition that he orders to stop shooting. Murat agreed and gave them General Arizpe as an escort to the council building. Members of the Castilian Council walked through the streets, urging the citizens to go home. A serious fight took place only around the artillery park, which the people almost took possession of. Everything was soon forgotten, and Dos de Mayo would not have remained in the memory of the people in a day of hatred and anger, if Murag had not ordered to shoot several without trial at night hundreds of captured insurgents.Spain to this day has not forgiven these executions after the battle, this gross treachery.

In Bayonne, they learned about the events in Madrid on May 5. Napoleon had not yet found a way to break Ferdinand's stubbornness: the Madrid rebellion gave him an excuse to play one of those theatrical scenes for which he was such a master. Ferdinand was invited to the emperor in the presence of the king and queen. Napoleon declared him the culprit of the bloodshed, showered him with angry reproaches and threatened him with death if he did not submit immediately. At the same time, he hypocritically offered his help to Charles IV to return to Madrid. The old king refused, asking only that they let him end peacefully, his days with his wife and Godoy. He ceded all his rights to the emperor, saying only that Spain should not be divided and the church not left unprotected. On May 10, Ferdinand VII also renounced all his rights and left for Valençay, while Charles IV, the queen and Godoy went to Compiègne. On May 12, Infantes Carlos and Antonio promulgated in Bordeaux the renunciation of all their rights to the Spanish crown. On June 6, Napoleon issued a decree placing Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. The junta, assembled (June 15) in Bayonne, voted in twelve sessions a hastily drafted constitution, which was promulgated on July 7. Two days later, Joseph entered the borders of Spain. He hit her, ”when she was already all engulfed in rebellion.

II. Internal history of the Pyrenean states (1800–1808)

The financial situation of Spain. The Spaniards did not judge Charles IV strictly and remembered only his personal merits. Indeed, compared with his son, Charles IV was an excellent sovereign - humane, loyal and liberal - to the extent that this could be required of the Spanish king of the XVIII century. Despite the generally difficult conditions, during his reign great successes were achieved, and he left Spain more enlightened than he found her when he came to the throne. The attention of the government was especially drawn to finance. War with England (1796–1802) cost 4,268,071,263 reais; public debt increased to 4,108,052,721 reais; Kanga Argüelles estimated the net income from government fees at R$ 644,206,633, while the expenditure, reduced to the extreme, was still R$ 647,329,599, resulting in an annual deficit of R$ 3,122,966. And what was to cover the overdue payments of 700 million? Where can I get money for unexpected expenses?

Charles IV wanted to honestly pay the state debts, but the state of the treasury was so deplorable that the ministers could not be too scrupulous in choosing means. They resorted to all the tricks that financiers who are ready to go bankrupt use to raise money. In just one year, 1801, they made three new loans, instituted a number of new taxes, and taxed the cash registers of public corn shops (positos). The five major corporations of Madrid, the "consulate" in Cadiz (an old association of merchants who traded with the colonies), the San Carlo bank were ruined by the extortion of the fiscus. Canga Argüelles lists at least 114 fiscal edicts issued by Charles IV.

However, with all this need, the government managed to carry out several excellent measures, the audacity of which would have made Aranda and Campomanes (statesmen of the eighteenth century) recoil in horror. On August 30, 1800, banknotes (vales) were declared public debt, and abundant sources were found to replenish the royal treasury for the consolidation of banknotes. Inalienable property was a true ulcer of Spain, now the owners of majorates and tenants of church estates were allowed to sell (sell) their real estate under the condition that the proceeds would be placed in the bank account. The lands that belonged to hospices, hospitals and charitable institutions were put up for sale, and the capital formed in this way was transferred to the bank account. Finally, in 1806, the principle of alienation of church property was boldly put forward, and only the events of 1808 prevented the government from putting them on sale. By March 19, 1808, 400 million reais had already been paid to the owners of banknotes. More could not have been done in a country where industry did not exist at all, trade was paralyzed by war, agriculture suffered from innumerable abuses, and the population perished from yellow fever.

Trade. With the conclusion of the Peace of Amiens, trade seemed to revive at once. As soon as the treaty was signed, the goods, which had long been prepared in the ports of the New World, immediately moved to Spain. In 1802 and 1803 the commercial traffic was unusually lively. In the port of Cadiz alone, in 1802, goods worth 1,636 million reais were delivered. The ministers took up the question of the conditions created by the Peace of Amiepe for Spanish industry, and on this occasion they prepared a detailed note, testifying to a thorough acquaintance with economic questions. After the resumption of hostilities, Portugal began to serve as a transfer point for Spanish trade: English goods and American cotton were sprung from ships in Lisbon and from there were delivered to Spain and even to France. But the huge fiscal demands of the court, excessive taxes and the depreciation of banknotes terribly undermined Spanish trade.

Work on improving the roads, begun already under Charles III, continued now in some provinces. The roads of Navarre and Vascongad were as good as those of France; the roads from Madrid to the royal castles were comfortable and well maintained; the road from the Pyrenees to Cadiz was completed; the passage through the Sierra Guadarrama and the Sierra Morena no longer presented any difficulties. But nothing has been done in other provinces yet. It was hardly possible to travel from Madrid to Valencia; there were no lines of communication between Asturias and the kingdom of León; one of the best Spanish ports - Vigo - was not connected to the interior of the kingdom. Inns were located along the roads, at known distances (posadas, ventasj “for the convenience of travelers”, but the owner of the inn could not sell anything: travelers had to bring everything with them. Most of the vents in Andalusia were rented to gitans ( gypsies). In some provinces, robbers began to fool around again. In 1804, four gangs terrorized the province of Zamora; the bandits extended their raids to Madrid, and once committed a robbery in the capital itself - in the church of Salesas reales. The investigation found out that these gangs constituted a vast association, among whose members there were many officials and clergy.

Administration. Charles IV did little for the general government of the country, but the centralist tendencies of the government were reflected in some reforms and in the formation of several new commissions. The Financial Council was reformed by decree of February 2, 1803. The presidency of the audiences throughout Spain was given to the governors-general of the provinces. The Novisima Recopilacion (Madrid, 1805, 6 vols. in-4) was published, that is, a code of laws that appeared for areas where Castilian law dominated, a rather convenient, albeit overly lengthy code. You have taken measures to reduce the number of judicial officials; certain requirements began to be imposed on lawyers, prosecutors and Algvazils in order to prove their suitability for service; old decrees were pulled out from under the bushel, which forbade judges from taking bribes and "ministerial officials" (bailiffs and notaries) from collecting illegal fees. The criminal code, already very lenient even before, was still significantly relaxed. In large cities, charitable societies arose to help the prisoners. The “Prince of Peace”, through his agents, inspected the condition of the prisons and was interested in the draft prison reforms that were presented to him.

The Inquisition maintained its old structure, but thanks to the humanity of Charles IV and the liberalism of his ministers, the number of its victims was insignificant. In 1800, another "absentee" execution was committed (the symbolic burning of a wooden figure depicting a criminal); secret persecution was initiated against many people, but the Inquisition did not dare to bring it to an end. She only opposed the admission of the Jews to Spain and, forced to renounce the persecution of people, raised the persecution of books. Her Index continued to forbid the reading of the best works of modern literature; but public opinion had already grown so much that, on the eve of the war of independence, voices began to be heard about the need to revise the Index.

Army and Navy. The military power of Spain undoubtedly increased in the reign of Charles IV. True, the fleet was greatly upset, but it took part with honor in the war against France (1793-1795), still managed to field several large squadrons during the fight against England (1796-1802) and at one time, it seemed, was able to challenge the success of Great Britain (1805). Under Charles IV, the Spanish fleet had several brilliant admirals: Gravina, Mazaredo, Galiano, Valdes and Churruca, the hero of Trafalgar. The fleet, however, suffered a shortage of good sailors, and especially of money. However, even after the Battle of Trafalgar, the fleet consisted of forty-two battleships, including eight 100- and 114-gun ships and thirty frigates.

The army was - completely transformed after the French model. The “Prince of Peace” took his title of Generalissimo seriously. He tried to streamline the recruitment system, allowed to join the army for a certain period, increased salaries, provided retired officers with pensions, organized new invalid battalions and softened discipline. He founded a military school in Zamora, created an excellently conceived military medical organization, gave artillery a device that it partially retained until recently, and established a sapper corps. Unfortunately for Spain, Godoy failed to eradicate the Spanish prejudice against military service; he was forced to fill the shelves with shady characters and vagabonds; he was not always able to pay salaries regularly and was powerless to introduce strict legality into the system of production. Godoy worked hard to improve the army, but not always with due prudence. He changed the form of uniforms and the composition of the regiments several times: first he destroyed the dragoon corps, then he restored it; he cared very little about the training of officers, did not create a general staff and did not dare to contradict the king, who did not want to hear about maneuvers or training camps. The Spanish army was deprived of both theoretical training and combat experience. Despite this unsatisfactory organization, the army, numbering 109,000 in 1808, constituted an impressive force due to the sobriety, endurance and courage of the soldiers, and during the war the fighting spirit quickly revived in it.

Public education. The "prince of peace" considered it an honor to encourage the arts and sciences. In 1807, he undertook a general reform of the universities, and although their program remained extremely narrow after that, however, it cannot be denied that the new program was higher than the old one. Small universities like Irach and Onyat were closed. Universities that were unable to organize full courses in medicine and surgery were deprived of the right to issue diplomas for the title of doctor or surgeon. Theological faculties have lost the medieval character that they retained until then: they introduce commentary on St. scriptures and the department of the history of religions is established. At the Faculty of Philosophy, a prominent place is given to the exact sciences: from now on, algebra and trigonometry, physics, chemistry, and natural history are taught here. Departments of physiology and hygiene are being introduced at the Faculty of Medicine; at the department of anatomy, the post of dissector is established. The Faculty of Law, more hostile to the spirit of modern times, is compelled to give more space to national law and to open its doors to political economy; but it still takes ten years to complete all the subjects taught in the faculty, and a student can take no more than one* course a year. Teaching still almost exclusively requires rote memorization. The professor comments on the curriculum, which he cannot change without the permission of the king; students crammed the textbook with all their might, and the exam consisted of a written retelling of lectures. However, the law already encourages teachers to compile independent exemplary manuals and promises whoever writes a good textbook the “favor” of the king. Every Sunday there are ceremonial meetings and solemn debates, so beloved in the old universities; but at the Faculty of Philosophy, one third of the meetings should already be devoted to the mathematical sciences. These modest reforms seemed revolutionary to their contemporaries; the small universities vigorously protested against the decree on their abolition, and their stubbornness was so great that as early as 1808, during the king's trip to Bayonne, that is, at such a moment when the independence of the people was at stake, the city of Ognat sent deputies to greet Ferdinand VII on his journey and ask for the restoration of his university.

The most fruitful was the reform in the field of medical education. In Madrid, the teaching of medicine was organized in full. Until 1801, the medical department was led by a supreme council of three connected faculties: medical, surgical and pharmaceutical. Between 1801 and 1804 each of these three faculties gained full independence. Doctors were subordinate to the highest royal medical council; surgeons, divided into classical (latinos) and new (romancistas), depended on the highest surgical council (Protocirujanato); pharmacists had their own supreme pharmaceutical council, veterinarians had their own royal school. These carefully selected and heavily endowed corporations were entrusted with the direction and supervision of medical education. From now on, anyone who wanted to get the title of a doctor had to listen to lectures at a Madrid clinic for at least a year. Members of the councils were sent for inspection tours in the provinces. Surgeons-barbers and rural doctors without diplomas were still temporarily allowed to practice, but they were subject to heavy taxes, from which they could be freed only by passing a practical exam. Great progress was also made in the teaching of midwifery, which was extremely necessary, judging by the intensified complaints of the cities in this regard. Along with the royal schools and universities, the "economic societies" continued to give practical, often very valuable, courses of study, and by all the means at their disposal awakened the spirit of initiative and activity.

Literature. The utilitarian tendencies of this epoch did not favor the development of literature. The great, bold prose writers of the previous epoch either died or fell silent. We find only a few euphonious, but rather empty poets, who wrote no worse than it should be for people who have nothing new to say. No one will read the poems of Gaspar de Noronha and Cienfuegos now. Iglesias de la Casa successfully imitated the style of Quevedo. Diego Gonzales imitated Fr. - Louis de Leon. Perhaps only Quintana, in some of his works, such as the Dungeons of the Escurial (1805) and the Call to Arms (1806), extorted really strong poetic sounds from the muse. His dramas Duke of Visean and Pelagius are somewhat forgotten.

The theater was extremely fashionable, but the taste of the public was divided between the Italian opera and the national saiiets, and even then it is still impossible to say with certainty whether dances and songs were preferred to everything else: at least the minue afandangado attracted more spectators than the most carefully finished plays.

The old Spanish art was dead, imitative literature was of interest only to bookish people, the first symptoms of the new art were barely beginning to appear, and the censorship was too strict to allow any really original work to enter the stage. The habits of society made the literary revolution impossible without a preliminary political revolution.

Portugal. Portugal was even lower than Spain. Here we would look in vain for that, albeit small, but valiant galaxy of noble figures that existed in Spain. The people lived in ignorance and poverty. The nobility was inactive and dissolute, the clergy were immoral and superstitious. The Prince Regent wandered about his palace in hypochondria and idleness, his hands in his pockets, and stared blankly at the decline of his state. He confessed to the Englishman Beckford that the kingdom was in the hands of the monks and that half of these monks had completely lost their common sense. His wife, Princess Carlotta-Ioaquina, lived in her charming villa Quelus among her ladies of state, maidens and Andalusian dancers. The mad Queen Mary went from despondent to terrified, and uttered tremendous cries as she imagined her father, all charred, standing on a pedestal of red-hot iron, and surrounded by a host of demons.

The regent recognized only one policy - to resist the intrusion of French ideas into the kingdom. The Lisbon police, headed by the commissary Pina Manriquez, represented a real political inquisition; it was her duty to find and seize forbidden books, to pursue Jacobins, Freemasons and suspicious persons. Robespierre was the first antichrist for the quartermaster, Napoleon the second: it is his invincible armies who are destined to destroy the world.

However, despite the efforts of the police, new ideas increasingly penetrated the people. The bookseller Vorelle sold 12,000 copies of the French constitution of 1791 in Lisbon. Merchants, French émigrés, consuls from the United States, Sweden, and even Austria propagated the revolution. On the island of Madeira opened a Masonic lodge. The Duke of Lafones was gathering neophytes (new converts) in his own house. His favorite, the Abbe Correia da Serra, indefatigably distributed seditious manuscripts; the quartermaster of the police considered him the most dangerous of instigators.

In such a society, literature could not flourish. The new Arcadia, founded in 1790, was filled with the works of mediocre poets, who in their sonnets called the lady's legs "snow lizards" and black eyes "devil's figs." Two talented writers, Ratton and Bocage, were persecuted by the Inquisition. More fruitful was the activity of the Brazilian Overseas Academy. In the province of Minas Geranes, a whole school of poetry (os minei-ros) arose, preparing the liberation of the country with its national songs.

The Portuguese found consolation in their decline in the benefits that their neutral position brought them. Lisbon served as a transfer point for Spanish and for one part of European trade. Annually 140,000 bales of cotton were imported through the Tahoe. The old warehouses were no longer enough to store goods, and new barns were built on the squares and embankments. The city grew and became embellished. The saying went: "Portugal is small, but rivers of honey flow in it."

The regent spared nothing to preserve this gracious neutrality. In 1801 he bought peace from Bonaparte for 20 million francs; to pay them, it was necessary to conclude a loan in Holland, pawn the crown diamonds, impose fees on the nobility and clergy, lay a hand on the property of the missing and orphans, withdraw specie and put paper money into circulation. In 1803 the Regent offered France a monthly subsidy of one million francs. The expenditure on the army was reduced, its available composition was reduced, and even a plan arose to keep only the number of soldiers that was necessary to maintain order within the kingdom. Apparently, no one foresaw the dangers that threatened Portugal, when suddenly it became known that Napoleon refused to allow the Portuguese representatives to participate in the Tilsit negotiations.

III. War for independence

Revolt in Spain; Bailen capitulation (1808). At the first news of the Bayonne events, Spain realized that Napoleon was fooling the Spanish royal family and mocking her. An indignant sense of national honor did not want to come to terms with an accomplished fact. Violent popular uprisings broke out in Valencia, Cadiz, Badajoz and Tortosa, accompanied by cries of "Death to the French!" Beginning on May 26, the provincial junta of Oviedo entered into relations with the British. Within weeks, Spain had armed 150,000 men, divided into Asturian, Galician, Castilian, Extremaduran, Valencian, Murcian and Aragonese armies. True, they were nothing more than a disorganized horde of rebellious peasants and artisans, along with a few detachments of militia and a few regiments of the regular army; but they were all animated by the same feeling, and were commanded by such energetic chiefs as Cuesta, Castaños, and Palafox.

Joseph Bonaparte had to work his way to Madrid. Generals Verdier and Lassalle pushed back the rebels as he passed through Logroño and Torquemada. Valladolid tried to delay the French, but his defenders were defeated at the Pont de Cabezon. July 14, 1808 Bessieres at Medina del Rio Seco defeated the united armies - Galician and Castilian; the results of this victory were the submission of Leon and Zamora. The Spaniards lost here four or five thousand men and all their guns. On July 20, Joseph entered Madrid. From minute to minute they expected news of Dupont's entry into Seville and Moncey into Valencia. The nobility of Madrid came with congratulations to Joseph. It seemed that Spain was ready to submit, when suddenly, on July 23, news was received of Dupont's surrender at Bailen.

Indeed, Dupont crossed the Sierra Morena at the end of May and headed for Seville with 8,000 men. Cordova tried to resist him, but on June 7 he entered the city and betrayed it to robbery. Then, not receiving reinforcements and threatened from the front by the Jaén insurgents, from the rear by the Seville ones, he decided to retreat and on June 18 he settled in Andujar, at the entrance to the gorge of the Sierra Morena. His mistake was that he remained here for a whole month, although he knew from the reports of General Wedel that La Mancha was engulfed in a general uprising. On July 15, the first columns of the Seville army approached Andujar. Dupont still did not want to leave and only sent part of his army to the north to occupy the mountain passes and provide communication with La Mancha. The Spanish General Reading overtook him and captured Bailen, thus taking a position between Dupont and Vedel. Dupont hoped to crush the Spaniards and join with Vedel in La Mancha, but he left Andujar too late, with an army whose spirit was already wavering, and whose movements were paralyzed by a huge convoy of looted goods. Reading had the opportunity to slowly prepare for the defense; the French regiments approached one after the other, and at the moment of the decisive attack they were too tired to go on the attack. Dupont failed to break through the battle lines of Re-dipg, and then Castaños hit him from the rear. He asked for a truce. While Dupont was negotiating, Wedel, who arrived in time to rescue him, attacked Reading, capturing two guns and 1,100 prisoners from him. He was now at a distance of two miles from the French line; one more effort - both French troops would unite and the path to La Mancha would be opened. But Dupont refused to make the effort. He sent an order to the Spaniards to return to the Spaniards the prisoners taken from them and retreat to the north. However, Castaños, taking advantage of Dupont's low spirits, demanded that Wedel be included in the surrender, threatening to exterminate DuPont's entire division if Vedel did not surrender. On July 23, both generals capitulated on the condition that they and their troops be taken to France. The junta refused to accept the surrender terms and sent the captives first on pontoons to Cadiz and then to the island of Cabrera. Of the 17,000 who surrendered at Bailen, only 3,000 returned to France after six years of suffering and mistreatment.

Even more pernicious were the moral consequences of this event. The French were no longer considered invincible; the Spanish patriots perked up; many of those who at first took the side of Joseph retreated from him, and he was forced to leave his capital a week after entering it. Almost at the same time, it became known that La Romana, who commanded a Spanish corps of 10,000 people on the island of Zeeland, sailed to Spain on the ships of the English squadron. Joseph retreated to the Ebro and wrote to Napoleon: “To pacify Spain, three active armies of 50,000 men each and another 50,000 to guard the lines of communication are needed. Enormous funds are needed to conquer Spain; this country and this people are unlike any other; here you can not get a scout or a courier.

Joseph's ministers themselves recognized the conquest of Spain as impossible. They believed that Joseph could retain his throne if he offered the insurgents: a separate peace with England, the annexation of Portugal to Spain, the payment of military costs by France and the transfer of land holdings of the “prince of peace” to the treasury. But this plan was completely contrary to the plans of Napoleon. After the first outburst of rage against Dupont, he decided to restore everything lost by arms and wrote to his brother (July 31): "I will find in Spain the Pillars of Hercules, but not the limits of my power." Under the circumstances, a retreat was impossible for Napoleon.

Capitulation of Sintra (1808). In August another disaster struck. Junot occupied Portugal from November 1807 with less than 20,000 men; now the British decided to send an army to Portugal. At the news of British aid, the whole country revolted. In Oporto, a provisional government was formed under the chairmanship of the archbishop, which formed an army and proclaimed a general militia. French troops at first easily defeated the Portuguese rebels, but on August 6, 1808, Arthur Wales Ley landed at the mouth of the Mondego. Sir Wrent Spencer joined him two days later, and both English commanders marched on Lisbon with 18,000 men. Junot could only oppose them with 12,000. After giving them a battle on August 21 at Vimeiro, he was forced to retreat to Torres Vedras and a few days later signed an agreement in Sintra (August 30). The British turned out to be more conscientious than the Spaniards: in fulfillment of the contract, they transported Junot and his soldiers to France.

Napoleon's campaign in Spain (1808-1809). Now, after two severe setbacks - at Bailen and Sintra, Napoleon did not want to dig into the depths of Spain without first securing himself from Russia: this was the reason for the Erfurt “date.

Having eliminated all danger from the north, Napoleon again led his army to the Pyrenees, while Joseph held out in Vitoria, having the right wing of his troops in Bilbao and the left in Logroño. On November 5, 1808, Napoleon arrived in Vitoria. He immediately went on the offensive with 180,000 men, divided into 6 corps; the reserve was the imperial guard of 34,000 men under the command of Bessieres. Napoleon's movement was marked by a series of victories: Marshal Lefebvre defeated the Galician army at Espinosa on November 11; and Soult pursued her to Santander, where he entered on November 16th. The victory at Tudela (November 23) forced the Andalusian army to retreat first to Saragossa, then to Calatayud and Guadalajara.

Entering Vourgos after a minor battle, Napoleon reached the foot of the Somo Sierra gorge on November 30, where don Benito San Juan was waiting for him with 12,000 people. A battery of 12 guns fired at the road, so it seemed that there was no way to pass. The emperor ordered his Polish lancers to take the battery by storm. The Spanish army fell into disarray, fled to Talavera and killed their general. On December 2, Napoleon encamped in sight of Madrid on the heights of Chamartin. The popular masses of Madrid, reinforced by 40,000 armed peasants, wanted to defend themselves, but the wealthy classes preferred to enter into negotiations; The governor of Madrid, the Marquis of Castelar, asked for a truce. Since the negotiations were too slow, Napoleon on December 4, at 10 o'clock in the morning, stormed the Retiro. At 5 pm, General Morla and Don Bernardo Iriarte arrived at the imperial camp. Napoleon gave them until 6 o'clock in the morning to surrender. During the night, Castelar evacuated the city; the next day, December 5, at 10 am, it was occupied by General Belliard. Only a month has passed since the arrival of Napoleon in Spain.

The emperor was dissatisfied with Joseph and believed that the Spanish uprising freed him from the obligation to fulfill the promises he had made. At one time he intended to take direct control of Spain, which he wanted to divide into several large military regions. Joseph was to become king of Italy in this case. However, Napoleon changed his mind and again offered to leave the kingdom untouchable if Spain agreed to recognize Joseph. The inhabitants of Madrid swore allegiance to the king before the holy gifts. Napoleon promised an amnesty to all who lay down their arms within a month, abolished the Council of Castile, the Inquisition, feudal rights, regional customs and two-thirds of the monasteries. A deputation of the most prominent citizens of Madrid, headed by a corregidor, came to thank the emperor for his mercy, and even Joseph, upon his entry into the capital (January 22, 1809), was given a "proper reception."

Napoleon thought that by occupying Madrid he had broken Spanish resistance; but its conquest was far from over. The English generals Baird and Moore were a few days' journey from Madrid; in Saragossa, Palafox still dominated; Venegas and Infantado continued the war in La Mancha; Cuesta and Galiuzo occupied the lower reaches of the Tagus; La Romana stood in Galicia, Ballesteros - in Asturias. On January 1, 1809, the Seville junta protested to all European nations. She produced new sets of militias, and the British supplied her with money, weapons and clothing. The provinces occupied by the French were flooded with partisan detachments, who soon got used to the war and became a dangerous enemy.

Leaving Joseph with 30,000 men, Napoleon set off in pursuit of the British (December 22). On reaching Astorga (January 1, 1809), he handed over command of the army to Soult and returned to France.

Napoleon's first campaign of marshals (1809). Soult overtook the English rearguard on 3 January. Moore, having traveled with his army 25 miles in two days, arrived in Coruña on January 11 and gave battle under the walls of the city (January 16). Moore was mortally wounded; his army managed to board ships on the 18th. The French entered Coruña and Ferrol (January 27), where they found more than 1,500 guns. All north-western Spain expressed their obedience to Joseph. Meanwhile, Venegas was defeated at Ucles (January 13), and Marshal Lannes energetically led the siege of Saragossa. The city capitulated on February 21 after a heroic resistance that cost the lives of 40,000 people.

The fruits of these victories were almost immediately lost. Joseph, who was nominally at the head of the army, did not enjoy the slightest authority with his brother's generals; his chief of staff, Jourdan, impressed them little more; Soult and Ney hated each other, and the departure of Napoleon deprived the command of any unity. He took the guards with him.

Soult was given the task of invading Portugal. Oya entered it on February 24, 1809, defeated 45,000 Portuguese under the walls of Oporto with 20,000 people, took 197 guns from them and entered the city (March 29). But, having few military supplies and worrying about the integrity of his messages, he did not dare to go further. Wales Ley landed in Lisbon on April 22, unexpectedly attacked Soult at Oporto on May 12 and drove him back to Galicia, then to Leon. Soult's retreat forced Ney to evacuate Galicia (July).

Marshal Victor had to wait in Castile for Soult to enter Lisbon and then invade Andalusia. He drove Cuesta to the Portuguese frontier and defeated him at Medellin on the same day that Sebastiani defeated Cartojal at Ciudad Real (March 28).

This double failure - Soult in Portugal and Ney in Galicia - forced Victor and Sebastiani to turn back to Madrid, which was soon approached by 70,000 Spaniards and 28,000 Anglo-Portuguese under the command of Walesley and Beresford. Both French marshals could only oppose the enemy with 32,000 people. Joseph called Soult to his aid, left Belliard in Madrid with only 4,000 men, and on July 27–28 at Talavera gave battle to the armies of Welsley and Cuesta. The battle was extremely bloody, costing the French 7,000 men and remained unresolved; but Soult's approach forced the English to retreat. Mortier overtook Cuesta at the Puente del Artzobispo, put him to flight and took 30 guns from him (August 8). Joseph and Victor, having got rid of Cuesta, moved on Venegas, defeated him at Almonasid (August 11) and forced him to retreat to the Sierra Morena. On August 15, Joseph returned to Madrid and served a thanksgiving service at San Isidro. The army was desperately in need of rest, the baggage train was in disorder, the artillery lacked horses, the cavalry was insufficient, and the regiment could not always put 250 horsemen into battle.

Napoleon's victories in Austria and the Peace of Vienna did not discourage the Spaniards. The Seville junta reorganized the army, defeated under Almonasida, increased its composition to 50,000 people and, having handed over command over it to General Arizaga, ordered him to go to Madrid. On November 18, the battle of Okanya took place, where the Iranians lost 20,000 killed and wounded and 50 guns. A month earlier (October 18) the Duke of Parque was defeated at Tamames, and on November 28 he was defeated a second time at Alba de Tormes. Spanish troops cleared Castile to the Sierra Morena.

On the 8th of Aragon, Vlac was defeated by General Suchet before Saragossa (June 15). In Catalonia, the Spaniards in the battle of Molino del Rey lost 50 guns, and Reading, who led the resistance, was forced to retreat to Tarragona.

Campaign of 1810; Spain is almost conquered. Reading set out from Tarragona, only to be defeated at Walls (February 25, 1810). Thus the new year began with favorable omens for the French and heralded the end of the campaign. Napoleon sent reinforcements: now it was possible to undertake major operations. Joseph should have tried first of all to drive Welsley out of Portugal, who had become Lord Wellington during this time, wait for the subjugation of Valencia, and only after that move to Andalusia. But the conquest of Andalusia was an easier matter; moreover, it was hoped that the occupation of this vast province would lead to peace. Napoleon, to whom Joseph turned for advice, declined to answer.

On January 9, 1810, Joseph left Madrid and moved to Andalusia with 60,000 men. The passage through the gorges of Despeña-Perros was forced at five o'clock (January 20). On January 26, the king entered Cordoba, on February 1 - in Seville. Sebastiani took possession of Jaen, Grenada and Malaga. But the French made the mistake of not hastening to take Cadiz: the Duke of Albuquerque entered here with a superb force of 9,000 men the day before Marshal Victor's arrival at Chiclana. This grave mistake affected the entire course of the campaign. Cadiz, well defended by its location, its garrison and the English squadron, became an impregnable refuge for the Spanish national government. Soult contented himself with blockading the city and made no serious attempt to take it.

The French hoped that the fall of Seville would entail the subjugation of all of southern Spain; but Badajoz and Valencia refused to open their gates, and the Supreme Junta, assembled on the island of León, appointed a regency and expressed its determination to continue the fight with redoubled vigor.

Nevertheless, the conquest of Andalusia made a deep impression. Timid and indecisive people became discouraged, and Joseph, who undertook a detour of the main cities of Andalusia, met here with an almost enthusiastic reception. Perhaps never has Napoleon's plan come closer to being carried out. Spain was busy. Only Galicia, Valencia, Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz and Cadiz did not submit to the French.

Military regime in Spain (1810). Napoleon chose this moment in order to inflict a new insult on the Spanish people, which brought the indignation of all patriots to a paroxysm. By decree of February 8, 1810, the emperor divided Spain into seven large military governorships, completely independent of each other. The governors-general concentrated all civil power in their hands: they collected taxes, spent them on the needs of their province, appointed and dismissed officials, and were responsible only to the emperor. Governors were appointed: Augereau in Catalonia, Suchet in Aragon, Dufour in Navarre, Touvain in the Vascongade, Dorsenn in Burgos, Kellermann in Valladolid and Soult in Andalusia; King Joseph, whose power now extended only to New Castile, was, in his own words, only "the gatekeeper of the Madrid hospitals." Joseph sent d "Azar to Paris. The emperor limited himself to authorizing his brother to enter into negotiations with the Cortes, just convened by the regency in Cadiz. For the agreement of the Cortes to recognize Joseph, Napoleon promised to keep the Spanish monarchy intact; otherwise, he considered himself free from all his promises and assumed to be guided only by the interests of France.

This new decision of Napoleon extremely irritated the Spanish patriots. The national government redoubled its efforts, and England could now incite Europe against France with a new and very weighty argument - an indication of Napoleon's desire to annex Spain to her empire. The extortion of the generals and the robberies of the lower officers drove the population of the conquered regions to despair, in which the continuous guerrilla war continued. Mina in Navarre, Longa in Biscay, Porlier in Asturias, Mendisa Bal in Upper Aragon, Don Julian in Old Castile, Empesinado and Medico in New Castile organized formidable guerrilla units, the struggle against which gradually exhausted the strength of the French. It was a merciless struggle against terrible atrocities on both sides; the war took on a fierce character.

Continuation of the campaign of 1810; Torres Vedras. Having conquered Andalusia, Napoleon decided to drive the British out of Lisbon. The command of the sixty thousandth army destined for Portugal was entrusted to Marshal Massena. Drouet d'Erlon was to join him with 20,000 people, and in his rear, 20,000 young guards were to occupy the country. Wellington had 30,000 British, 40,000 Portuguese under the command of English officers and Portuguese militia. under pain of death, all the Portuguese, without distinction of age and sex, should leave their homes at the approach of the French and take with them or destroy everything that the latter could use.Thus, Massena, who was in great disagreement with Marshal Ney, had to act in a roadless and devastated country against a numerous enemy, abundantly supplied with provisions and firmly determined to offer desperate resistance.

The first operation of the campaign was the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo. The first trench work was started on June 15, 1810, and on July 19 the city surrendered after a 24-day bombardment. The siege of Almeida lasted from 24 July to 26 August. Massena could arrive in Viseu only on September 19. On the 27th he attacked Wellington in a strong position at Busako, from which he failed to dislodge him; but Wellington, fearful of being outflanked, retreated the next day to the line of Torres Vedras, to a pre-fortified position. Between Tagus and the sea stretched three rows of redoubts, in which there were 168 fortifications with 383 guns. Massena stood in sight of the enemy until November 13, waiting in vain for the promised reinforcements. General Foix was sent to Paris to ask for more troops, but Napoleon flatly refused. On November 13, Masséna withdrew to Santarem to station his army in a less depleted country; Wellington followed him and transferred part of his forces to the left bank of the Tahoe.

Campaign of 1811; Fuentos d "Onyoro; Arapila. If Massena were reinforced, he could successfully attack the weakened Wellingtop; if he had pontoon parks, he could have crossed the Tahoe, but he received neither reinforcements nor pontoon parks. Soult, envious of him, contented himself with laying siege to Vadajos. On March 6, 1811, Masséna began his retreat to the Spanish frontier. It was fraught with great difficulties. Marshal Ney covered himself with glory at Redingh (March 12), where, with one cavalry division and six guns, he fought back 30,000 British for several hours. April 8, the entire army crossed back the Spanish border; the French, of all their conquests in Portugal, had only one Almeida fortress left. It was besieged by 20,000 British. Massena decided to go to her rescue; On May 5, 1811, he gave battle to the British at Fuentos d'Onyoro, but failed to drive them out of position. General Brenier, who commanded the fortress, blew it up and connected with General Reignier in San Felice. On May 10, instead of Massena, he was appointed commander of the Portuguese corps Marmont The expedition, on which so many hopes were placed, ended in complete failure.

In Spain, the situation remained unchanged. While the war was going on in Portugal, Soult defeated Ballesteros at Castilejos and captured Olivenza and Badajoz (March 11, 1811). But on April 4, Olivenza was again occupied by the British, who then proceeded to lay siege to Badajoz. On March 5, the corps blockading Cadiz was attacked at Chiclana by 22,000 British and could not prevent them from establishing themselves on the island of Leon. Wanting to save Badajoz, Soult gave Beresford the battle of Albufera (May 16), which remained unresolved, and had to retreat to Lieren. In June, Marmont came to his aid, and, in addition, Drouet d'Erlon brought seven or eight thousand people to him. Now the Portuguese and Andalusian corps could hit Wellington with combined forces, but both marshals competed with each other and dispersed, doing nothing. Soult marched back to Andalusia and saved Seville, which was threatened by two corps of the Spanish army. Black, defeated at the Base, was driven back to Valencia; Ballesteros had to retreat under the protection of the guns of Gibraltar. These successes were paralyzed by Guillem and Castaños, who were taken by surprise attacked General Gerard at Arroyo Molinos (October 26) and cut communication between the southern army and the Portuguese corps. Marmont was only able to protect Ciudad Rodrigo from the attack of the British, but refused to accept the battle imposed on him by Wellington at Fuente Guinaldo. Marmont left all his siege a park in Ciudad Rodrigo, which was a great mistake, since this first-class fortress was the first to incur the blows of the enemy.

While in the west and south the French struggled to hold on to the conquered areas, Suchet made great strides in Catalonia. Tarragona, besieged on May 4, was taken on June 28, 1811, and delivered 9,700 prisoners and 384 guns to the French. From here, Suchet moved to Valencia, took successively the forts of Oropesa and Sagunto, defeated General Black, who defended Valencia, in two battles, and on January 10, 1812 entered the city. The emperor granted Suchet the rank of marshal and the title of Duke of Albufera, in addition, he awarded luxurious estates in Valencia, including more than 200 million land holdings in his huge domain. By this, Napoleon once again proved that his goal was the division of Spain.

Campaign of 1812. Already at the beginning of 1812 it was easy to see that the French were tired of the war. In Madrid bread cost 30 sous a pound; the Portuguese corps had to disperse to find food; the blockade of Cadiz was called "eternal" by the soldiers themselves; French troops were barely enough to occupy the conquered points, and everywhere they were forced to confine themselves to defense. Wellington, who had managed to hold out in Portugal, realized that the moment had come when he could go on the offensive. Taking advantage of the fact that Marmont was isolated, he took possession of Ciudad Rodrigo (January 19, 1812), then turned against Soult and recaptured Vadajos from him (April 6). Enraged by the failures of his generals, Napoleon handed over the supreme command to his brother. in Joseph, having attached Jourdan to him as chief of staff, to the great displeasure of Soult, who rightly hoped that the leadership would be entrusted to him.

Jourdan's report to Joseph on May 28 shows that most of the troops were already in the most deplorable state: there were no stores or vehicles, field artillery was negligible, siege weapons were captured by the British in Ciudad Rodrigo, salaries were not paid, soldiers indulged in robbery. And if Wellington with his 60,000 men moved on Madrid, Joseph could not even oppose him with 50,000 fighters, despite the fact that France had 230,000 people on the peninsula. Jourdan suggested that a reserve corps of 20,000 men be formed in the vicinity of Madrid, which would always be ready to support the Portuguese or Andalusian corps in the event of an attack by Wellington on one or the other. But not one of the commanding generals wanted to weaken his corps, and Jourdan had no choice but to inform the Minister of War about this sad. state of affairs.

On the same day that Jourdan announced the impending danger, Wellington set out on a campaign (June 12). Marmont, forced to retreat to the Duero, received some reinforcements here and crossed the river back. Wellington retreated to Salamanca, pursued by Marmont. Both armies moved in parallel at a distance of half a cannon shot. Marmont should have attacked Wellington during the march, but he allowed him to return to his camp at Aldea Nueva and, without waiting for the reinforcements that Joseph was leading towards him, gave battle on the Aropile plain (July 22). Marmont was wounded in action, lost 6,000 men and 9 guns, and retreated to Burgos. Joseph, endangered by Marmont's retreat, left Madrid on 10 August, occupied by Wellington on 12 August. Joseph summoned the Andalusian army to his side.

While Soult reluctantly prepared to evacuate Seville, General Clausel, who had succeeded Marmont in the Portuguese army, waged a brilliant campaign against Wellington. Having attached to himself the garrisons of Toro and Zamora, he slowly rose towards the Ebro; in the citadel of Burgos, he left General Dubreton, who could not be driven out of here. In mid-October, Sugam, Clausel's successor, had 40,000 men at his disposal; he recaptured Burgos and forced Wellington to cross back to the Duero (25 October).

Soult lifted the siege of Cadiz on 25 August and marched through Grenada and Güescar to Almansa, where he joined the central army on 2 October. On November 2, Joseph returned to Madrid. On November 10, all three French armies - southern, central and Portuguese - were united in the form of an allied Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese army. Soult, Joseph and Sugam had 70,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 120 cannons. Joseph wanted to attack the enemy, but the battle did not take place due to the reluctance of Soult. Wellington went back to Portugal, but Andalusia was lost to the French.

Campaign of 1813; retreat; battle of Vitoria. Reinforcements were needed, and Napoleon not only did not send them, but also withdrew part of the troops. Suchet managed to stay in the land he had conquered and even forced John Murray to lift the siege of Tarragona and throw his siege artillery under the walls of the city (June 12, 1813); but Joseph could only assemble 66,000 infantry, 10,700 cavalry, and 100 guns to compete with Wellington, who had 120,000 men under his immediate command. As soon as the British set out, General Loewal hastened to clear Madrid and join Joseph, who had been stationed in Valladolid since March 23.

Using his numerical superiority, Wellington made an attempt to cut off the French way to the Pyrenees. On June 2, the French armies joined at the Medina del Rio Seco, but the baggage train was an endless tail, and the army was followed by more than 10,000 Spaniards loyal to Joseph (afrancesados), fleeing the revenge of their compatriots. On June 16, the army took up position at Miranda. Some generals wished to continue the retreat towards Tudela and Saragossa, but it was necessary to transport the baggage train and emigrants to France as soon as possible; the train pulled north on June 20 under the cover of a convoy of 4,000 people. On the 21st, when the retreat had not yet been completed, the allies appeared, and it was necessary, without waiting for the reinforcements led by Foix and Clausel, to give a battle at Vitoria with 39,000 people against 60,000. The battle was very bloody, the enemy lost 5,000 people, the French left on the battlefield 7000 people, 150 guns and almost the entire convoy; they only had time to gather in Salvatierre. Joseph retreated to Pampa Luna, then to Seia-Jean-de-Luz. On July 2, the army crossed back to Bidassoa. Clausel, on the evening of June 21, already half a mile from Vitoria, retreated to Saragossa and Jaca. Suchet slowly evacuated Valencia. On July 12, Soult arrived at Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Joseph handed over command to him.

Now it was necessary to prevent the British from crossing the Pyrenees. At first, Soult was preparing to move the arena of war back to Spain. With 35,000 men, he moved to Pampeluna and reached Huarte, but here he ran into Wellington and failed to break through. Then he made an attempt to move to San Sebastian in order to fall on the right wing of the British, led by Hill. Wellington guessed his maneuver, followed him and drove him back to France (July 25, August 1). These battles cost the French army 8,000 men, the Anglo-Spanish - 6,000. For three weeks, both armies stood in front of each other without engaging in battle, then Wellington resumed his offensive. On August 31, after a furious assault, the British captured San Sebastian, which they then ravaged to the ground; on the evening of the victory day, the city burned down, and it is still unknown how the fire started. Of the 600 houses, about 40 survived. Soult tried to help the unfortunate city, but failed to take positions at San Marcial, heroically defended by the Spaniards under the command of Don Manuel Freire.

September was spent for Soult to reorganize his army and to put into operation 30,000 recruits recruited in southern France. From 6 to 13 October, there were several skirmishes along the Nivelles Line, forcing Soult to retreat to Saint-Jean-de-Luz. From 10 to 12 November, Wellington crossed the Nivelles line and pushed the French back into the fortified armor at Bayonne, capturing 50 guns. Soult had only 50,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry; Wellington, on the other hand, had almost 80,000 people.

Campaign of 1814; battle of Toulouse. From December 8 to December 13, Wellington attacked the Niva line for the first time, and on February 15, 1814, captured it. Soult left Bayonne, which was immediately besieged, and retreated to Orthez. Here, on February 27, he gave the British a fierce battle, losing again 12 guns and 2,000 prisoners. He retreated to Toulouse, and Wellington followed him, meanwhile sending Beresford to Bordeaux. The mayor of the city put on a white cockade and greeted the British as friends (March 12). On April 10, Soult, with only 30,000 men, gave battle to Wellington in front of Toulouse; he held all his positions, but cleared Toulouse the next day, and on April 12 Wellington himself entered that city, where the royalist society hailed him as a liberator.

Soult expected to link up with Suchet, who, retreating from Valencia itself and not allowing himself to be defeated, had just entered the borders of France. Suchet cleared Valencia only on July 5, leaving garrisons in all the main cities of the coast. The abandonment of Saragossa by General Pari (July 8) and the capitulations of Alhaferia, Daroca and Mallena forced Suchet to cross the Ebrorbratno (August 14–15). Tarragona, even earlier besieged by the British and Spaniards, was cleared; the marshal blew up its fortifications and retreated behind the Llobregat. Encamped in the vicinity of Barcelona, ​​​​he stood there until the end of 1813, but his army was reduced to 23,000 people, since one Italian division left and, in addition, he was forced to disarm the Germans who were part of his army. In January 1814, Napoleon demanded from him 10,000 infantry, two-thirds of his cavalry, and almost all of his guns. On February 1, Suchet left Barcelona, ​​leaving General Hébert with 8,000 men. In March, Suchet had only 12,000 men and held only Barcelona and Tortosa. In the first days of April, Suchet entered the borders of France and moved to Carcassonne to connect with Soult. On April 18, both marshals were informed of the fall of Napoleon and the conclusion of a truce. On April 16, the garrison of Bayonne gave the last battle of this long war, killing 600 British in a sortie.

Assessment of the Spanish War. The Spanish War was one of Napoleon's greatest mistakes and one of the main reasons for his downfall. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that politically it was of the utmost importance for him to secure an alliance with Spain by a change of dynasty. His previous triumphs inspired him with confidence that this task would not be difficult to complete: “If this business had to cost 80,000 people,” he said, “I would not undertake it, but it will cost me no more than 12,000 people” . And once the war was started, Napoleon could no longer retreat in any case: he had to win at all costs and, therefore, had to give all the means of France and all the strength of his genius to defeat Spain. It was a mistake that he threatened to partition Spain, and that he left this country in January 1809 without completing its conquest, and that he allowed in 1810 to proceed with the conquest of Andalusia without first capsizing Wellington into the sea , and the fact that he did not support Marshal Massena, when, perhaps, there would have been enough extra 50,000 people to ensure victory, and that he got involved in a war with Russia without first ending the Spanish war, and finally, that he did not cleared the peninsula voluntarily in January 1813. The pernicious consequences of all these mistakes were aggravated by Joseph's mediocrity, mutual envy, the play of personal vanity and the robbery of the generals. 300,000 French fell in this terrible struggle, the only result of which for France was the long and implacable hatred of an entire people.

Spain is justly proud of the rebuff that she gave to Napoleon: for six years she showed unshakable steadfastness and courage, surpassing human strength. But, while paying tribute to the heroism of Spain, one can still say that it was partly due to its cultural backwardness; the basis of the rebellion was ignorance and fanaticism. Spain rebelled in the name of God, fatherland and king (Bios, pa, tria, rey!). Napoleon, who restored the Catholic cult in France, did not threaten Catholicism in Spain, he threatened only its monasteries, which after some time were abolished by the Spaniards themselves. Napoleon wanted to leave Spanish territory inviolable, and the idea of ​​dividing Spain was born to him only from the moment when the resistance of the Spaniards brought him out of patience. As for the overthrow of the old dynasty, Spain could only benefit from this. The most impartial of Spanish writers themselves admit that Joseph was not without good intentions or good qualities, that "Rere Botellas" did not deserve the ridicule with which he was heaped, and that in the end Ferdinand VII avenged him enough.

If, in fact, the conquest of Spain by the French failed, it must not be concluded that this great struggle was fruitless. Spain finally awakened from its stupor and accustomed to political freedom. The old order was struck to death. After a six-year struggle with the French, Spain then, at the cost of a sixty-year struggle, forced her restored dynasty to adopt French ideas.

Cortes and Ferdinand VII. The first constitution of the new Spain was that of 1808, proposed by Napoleon to the Bayonne junta, whose members included some of Spain's most enlightened men. This constitution, hastily put together and with extraordinary frivolity, was, of course, not very liberal; nevertheless, it represented a huge step forward compared to the regime that she had replaced. She obliged the king to convene the Cortes at least once a year. It established civil equality, officially banned torture, reduced the number of majorates, and abolished many burdensome privileges.

The patriots rejected the stranger's gift in disgust, only to replace the incomplete constitution he offered them with a truly national and liberal constitution.

Throughout Spain, the signal for revolt was given by individual juntas; in less than a month about thirty cities revolted against the French, but all these assemblies (juntas), competing with each other, could not succeed.

On September 25, 1808, in Aranjuez, under the chairmanship of Florida Blanca, the Supreme Junta, composed of delegates from all local juntas, met. Being transferred to Seville after the occupation of Madrid by Joseph, the Supreme Junta continued to act with unusual energy and itself (May 22, 1809) announced the forthcoming convocation of the Cortes. Indeed, it was necessary to resort to this measure, since local juntas were weary of the leadership of the Supreme Junta, the Council of Castile disputed its competence, and dissent reigned in its own depths. After the capture of Seville by the French, the Supreme Junta transferred its power to the Regency Committee of five persons, which began to rule, relying on a popular junta elected by the people of Cadiz. The popular junta forced the highly reactionary Council of Castile and the indecisive regency to convene emergency general cortes, whose members were to be chosen according to a system completely new to Spain: every 50,000 inhabitants were to send one deputy; elections were three-stage - in the parish, district and regional juntas; the elector in the first category was a settled Spaniard at least 25 years old. The decree on the convocation of the Cortes was signed on January 7, 1810, and they opened in Cadiz on September 24. Despite the French invasion, elections took place in almost all parts of Spain. Catalonia sent the full number of deputies, and in Madrid 4,000 voters voted.

In the very first meeting, the Cortes proclaimed the principle of national sovereignty. When the rumor spread in Spain that Ferdinand VII would be restored to the throne by Napoleon if he married a princess from the imperial house, the Cortes declared (January 1, 1811) that the nation would not accept these conditions.

Amid the dangers of the blockade, under the roar of French guns, the nuclei of which sometimes fell into Cadiz itself, the Cortes discussed and voted the constitution.

From their first step in the political arena, the Spanish deputies proved themselves to be orators. They brought into the debate the seriousness and enthusiasm of the deputies of the French Constituent Assembly. Among the liberals were the financier Arguelles, the geographer Antillon, Guerreros, Calatrava, Pore le and a number of clerics: Muñoz Torrero, Oliveros, Gallego, Espiga. The orators of the conservative party (serviles) were: Don Frayasisco Gutiérrez de la Huerta, Don José Pablo Valiente, Don Francisco Borrul, and several ecclesiastics like Don Jaime Creusa and Don Pedro Inguanzo. The leader of the American group of deputies was Don José Mejía, a biased and self-serving man, but a skillful dialectician, a true virtuoso of political polemics; next to him, the most prominent representatives of the West Indian colonies were: Leiva, Morales Duarez, Feliu and Gutierrez de Teran, Alcocer, Arispe, Larrazabal, Gordoa and Castillo.

The new constitution was promulgated on March 19, 1812. It established the sovereignty of the people (art. 3) and the separation of powers, the unity of legislation (art. 258), the irremovability of judges, freedom of the individual and freedom of the press, abolished torture (art. 303) and confiscation (art. 304), and finally reformed finances. Executive power was entrusted to the king and seven ministers, with the assistance of a State Council of forty members. Legislative power was vested in the Cortes, elected by a three-stage system for two years and sitting annually for three, at most four months. Between sessions of the Cortes, a standing commission called the Deputation oversaw the observance of the constitution. The provinces were governed by civil governors and elected deputations. At the head of each community was an alqad, who ruled jointly with an elected council (ayuntamientoJ. Only in one point was the personal freedom of the Spaniards limited: the Catholic religion, "the only religion", was forever declared the state religion of Spain, and the administration of any other cult was prohibited (Art. 12 The Inquisition was destroyed, but special tribunals were established for the protection of religion, which were supposed to prohibit the publication of any printed work "contrary to the dogmas and the primordial order of the Church."

The "Immortal Extraordinary Cortes" meeting in Cadiz dispersed on September 20, 1813. “Six days later, the first session of the regular Cortes, elected in accordance with the requirements of the constitution, opened in Cadiz. From Cadiz they were transferred to the island of León, and finally, on January 5, 1814, they moved to Madrid.

As we have seen, as early as November 1813 negotiations began between Napoleon and Ferdinand. Under the Treaty of Valency (December 8, 1813), Napoleon recognized Ferdinand as King of Spain and promised that French troops would clear the peninsula as English troops were evacuated. Ferdinand sent the Duke of San Carlos to Madrid with instructions to obtain the ratification of the treaty by the Cortes, and secretly declared that "on his return to Spain he would certainly declare it invalid." The regency respectfully answered the king that they did not consider him free and could not negotiate with him under these conditions. On February 19, the Cortes, already concerned about Ferdinand's behavior, decided that the king would not be recognized until he swore an oath of allegiance to the constitution to them. Indeed, they had a thousand reasons to doubt his sincerity. The reactionary party agitated and indoctrinated the generals; mysterious hands handed out bread, vodka and money to the soldiers. The deputy from Seville, Juan Lopez Reina, "an insignificant clerk", preached in a meeting of the Cortes that the power of the king was absolute.

However, Ferdinand VII was afraid to compromise himself. When Napoleon agreed to his return to Spain (March 7, 1814), he wrote to the Regency approving "everything done for the good of Spain in his absence". He left Valansay on March 13, and on March 24, accompanied by Marshal Suchet, arrived on the left bank of the Fluvia. On the right bank, he was met by General Copon at the head of his troops and escorted to Girona, where he was received with unprecedented enthusiasm. Still hiding his true intentions, he arrived in Valencia on April 16, where he found material support in the division of General Elio. The reactionary deputies sent an address to Valencia asking for the dissolution of the Cortes. General Sant'Iago Whitingham approached Madrid, and on the night of May 10-11, two regents, two ministers and all deputies suspected of liberalism were arrested by order of the king. Arguels, Martinez de la Rosa, Arispe, Teran, Quintana and many other prominent people were thrown into prison as a reward for their services, energy and dedication. On May 13, Ferdinand VII made his entry into the capital. From the creation of the Cortes, apparently, there was nothing left. Victorious Spain again voluntarily went under the yoke.

Notes:

See ch. VIII, "The Church and Cults."

This is an absolute exaggeration: according to all reliable sources, Joseph was met with dead silence. - Approx. ed.

The Spanish War of Independence began with a popular uprising against the Camarilla in the person of Godoy. The reason for the popular uprising on March 19, 1808 was the treaty concluded at Fontainebleau on October 27, 1807, representing a deal between the favorite of Charles IV and his wife's lover, don Manuel Godoy, on the one hand, and Bonaparte, on the other, on the division of Portugal and entry into Spain French army. Despite the fact that the Spanish uprising was dominated by national and religious elements, especially in its first two years, there were the most decisive tendencies for social and political reforms within the country. If the peasantry, residents of small towns and the large army of beggars "in cassocks and not in cassocks" were imbued with religious and political prejudices, then the population of port and trading cities and partly of those provincial centers where the material conditions of capitalist society developed under Charles IV considered the struggle against the French invasion as a signal for the political and social revival of Spain. - Approx. ed.