In a constantly changing world, learning and development abilities require more and more attention. Not so long ago, at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology, educational psychology arose, studying the processes of cognition, trying to answer the question “Why do some students know more than others, what can be done to improve the assimilation of the material and motivate them?”
Educational psychology as a science arose as a result of the emergence of learning theories, it is closely related to psychology, medicine, biology, and neurobiology. Its achievements are used in the development of curricula, principles of organization of education, ways of motivating students. The main task is to find ways of optimal development in a learning situation.
History and sphere of application of forces
The history of the formation of educational psychology is rooted far into the past, even though it has recently formed as a separate direction. The stages of development of educational psychology can be represented by three periods: the laying of general didactic foundations, systematization, and the development of independent theories.
Even Plato and Aristotle fought over the issues of character formation, the possibilities and limits of education, especially highlighting music, poetry, geometry, the relationship between mentor and student. Later, Locke entered the scene, introducing the concept of a "blank slate" - the absence of any knowledge in a child before learning. So, from the position of Locke, the basis of knowledge is the transfer of experience.
In the middle of the 20th century, the first well-developed psychological theories of learning arise; they require a new branch for themselves, which cannot be attributed entirely to either psychology or pedagogy. Theories about programmed and problem-based learning are becoming widely known.
Although the final formation of pedagogical psychology took place during this period, Davydov expressed the idea that pedagogical psychology could become part of developmental psychology, since developmental psychology considers the patterns of development of the child, and the features of the assimilation of a particular field of knowledge depend on its development.
On the other hand, Skinner defined educational psychology as dealing with human behavior in educational situations. Education, in turn, tries to shape the behavior of the student, the desired changes in him for the comprehensive development of his personality. So this science is not just about the features of assimilation, but also about the organization of the educational process and the study of its influence in general.
Educational psychology studies patterns that allow you to control the development of people. It seeks to understand the possible ways of development of students, the range of their capabilities, the processes that result in the assimilation of knowledge and skills. Now it is used as a basis for the development of methodological programs.
general information
During the years of its existence, the main problems of pedagogical psychology have been formulated. All of them are connected in one way or another with the study of the educational process or the student in it:
- Influence of training on development and education.
- Influence of genetic and social factors on development.
- sensitive periods.
- Child's readiness for school.
- Individual training.
- Diagnosis of children in the psychological and pedagogical aspect.
- The optimal level of teacher training.
All of them are considered together, each problem is based on the fact that we still do not fully understand how learning occurs, what effect this or that action has on the development of the student. In connection with the above problems, the following tasks of pedagogical psychology are distinguished:
- To reveal the influence of training on development.
- Identify mechanisms for optimal assimilation of social norms, cultural values, etc.
- To highlight the patterns of the process of teaching children at different levels of development (intellectual and personal).
- To analyze the nuances of the influence of the organization of the learning process on the development of students.
- To study pedagogical activity from a psychological point of view.
- Identify the key points of developmental learning (mechanisms, facts, patterns).
- Develop methods for assessing the quality of knowledge acquisition.
The structure of educational psychology consists of three main areas of its study - education, training, teacher psychology. Tasks, respectively, are divided into these areas.
The main methods of educational psychology coincide with the methods that psychology uses in its activities. Research methods in educational psychology: tests, psychometrics, paired comparisons, experiments. And if earlier the methodology used more theoretical ideas, now the basis of the theories put forward are achievements in cognitive psychology.
Experiments and conclusions
The tasks and problems assigned to educational psychology intersect with other areas, so it often uses the achievements of cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and sociologists. Data are used in educational psychology both for designing possible practical research and for purely theoretical revision or modification of existing methods and views. Let's look into the brain and see how it learns.
In particular, quoting Alexandrov almost verbatim, one can say that learning leads to the formation of specialized neurons, so that learning is the creation “in the head” of specialists in various fields. Many already known patterns found in the psychology of learning:
1. Eternity of skill. The formation of specialization is associated with the activity of genes, which, in turn, serves as a trigger for the processes of restructuring of neurons. How long does specialization last? Perhaps forever. In the experiment of Thompson and Best, the reaction of a rat neuron to a certain segment of the maze did not change over six months.
In this case, the memory is not erased, except for special methods. New experience associated with a certain specialization is layered on the old, neurons are modified. In this regard, the question arises whether it is worth teaching people first simple schemes, and then complicating it, whether the past understanding will prevent the assimilation of the new.
3. Sum of action or goal? An experiment by researchers Koyama, Kato and Tanaka showed that different targets are controlled by different groups of neurons, even if the behavior is the same in both cases! From this it follows that for one result some neurons will be involved, and for another - others, although the behavior itself may be the same.
There are no neurons that specialize specifically in a particular skill. There are groups of neurons for some results, there are groups responsible for other results, but not skills. Therefore, it is impossible to form a skill that will not be aimed at some result, and learning for the future is useless, according to Aleksandrov.
If you can't learn something that doesn't achieve a specific result, then what do children learn? Get good grades, approval.
5. Rewards or punishments? What is the best way to motivate? Intimidate or reward? As a result of research, it was found that these two pathways have fundamental differences in their effect on memory, attention and learning. Apparently, both methods under different conditions can bear fruit. For example, as a result of working with children, it was found that before puberty, their behavior is more influenced by rewards, after - punishment.
6. Time. Animal experiments on learning a skill have shown that brain activity in animals doing the same thing is different depending on the time that has passed since learning.
In conclusion, here are the words of Bill Gates, which he said at the TED conference about the problems of education and the need to improve the general level of education in order to open equal opportunities for different people. Although his words refer to the US experience, the situation is unlikely to be much different in other countries. “The difference between the best and worst teachers is incredible. The best teachers give a 10% increase in test scores in one year. What are their characteristics? It's not an experience, it's not a master's degree. They are full of energy, they track those who are distracted and engage in the learning process.” Of course, the research that Gates relies on is not enough to say who are the best teachers and what is most important, but without attention, knowledge will not arise. Author: Ekaterina Volkova
Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely associated with such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.
The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of pedagogical psychology have always been the following.
1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development. There is still no unequivocal answer to the question of whether training and upbringing lead to development, whether any training contributes to development, how the biological maturation of the organism is connected with the training and development of the child, whether training affects maturation, and if so, to what extent.
2. The combination of age-related patterns and individual characteristics of development and methods of education and upbringing that are optimal for age categories and specific children. Each age of the child opens up its own opportunities for his intellectual and personal growth, but the older the children become, the more individual differences accumulate between them, and the general age patterns have more and more exceptions. The developmental opportunities of children of the same age are not at all the same, and as the latter grow older, the problem of the optimal use of these opportunities becomes more and more acute.
3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche. The sensitive period is the period of the greatest sensitivity of the psyche to certain kinds of influences. For example, a sensitive period for mastering a child’s native speech is up to about three years of age, and if a child has not learned to understand human speech before the age of 4, he will no longer be able to master it in full. The sensitive period for mastering written language (reading and writing) begins at 4–4.5 years, and it is not possible to judge the timing of its completion with an accuracy of up to a year. Psychologists are still far from aware of all the sensitive periods in the development of the intellect and personality of the child, their beginning, duration and end, moreover, many of these periods are individually unique, come at different times and proceed in different ways. Difficulties associated with a practical pedagogical solution to this problem also lie in accurately determining the signs of the onset of a sensitive period, as well as the complexes of a child's psychological qualities that can form and develop within a particular sensitive period. Psychologists need to learn how to predict the onset of various sensitive periods of development.
4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education. Not a single psychological property and quality of a person arises suddenly from nothing - their appearance in an open form is preceded by a long period of hidden, latent transformation. With regard to most of the psychological properties and characteristics of the child, very little is known about these periods. How they begin and how long they last, what is the ratio of hidden and open periods of development of each mental function is another of the complex problems of educational psychology. Solving it, it is necessary to determine in what sense the term “readiness for training and education” should be used and understood: does this mean that the child has certain inclinations or already developed abilities, does it mean the current level of development of the psyche, or is it necessary to take into account the zone of the nearest development. A considerable difficulty is also the search for valid and reliable methods of psychodiagnostics of readiness for training and education.
5. Pedagogical neglect. A child’s developmental lag behind peers can be due to various reasons, and it is necessary to be able to distinguish genuine mental retardation from pedagogical neglect caused by the fact that at earlier stages of development the child was poorly taught and educated and he did not receive from the surrounding adults that conceptual apparatus that is characteristic for the appropriate age. A pedagogically neglected child needs to create favorable psychological conditions so that he can eliminate his developmental lag.
It is necessary to find the true criteria for distinguishing between pedagogical neglect and various forms of genuine mental retardation (mental retardation, oligophrenia, etc.) in order to eliminate errors and prevent pedagogically neglected but correctable children from entering special educational institutions for the mentally retarded.
6. Ensuring an individual approach to learning. An individual approach is understood as the application to each child of such programs and methods of education and upbringing that are best suited to his individual characteristics, primarily to his existing abilities and inclinations.
Nowadays, the directions of the most active research are: psychological mechanisms of learning management (N. F. Talyzina, L. N. Landa, etc.) and the educational process as a whole (V. S. Lazarev); educational motivation (A. K. Markova, Yu. M. Orlov, etc.); personal characteristics of students and teachers (A. A. Leontiev, V. A. Kan-Kalik); educational and pedagogical cooperation (G. A. Tsukerman and others). Thus, the subject of educational psychology is complex, multifaceted and heterogeneous.
At the present stage of development, the subject of educational psychology includes more and more different tasks that life poses for this science. The rejection of a single ideology for the entire education system, the variety of educational programs offered, the new life requirements for the intellect and personality of a citizen make educational psychology turn to ever new areas of research. The most important and urgent tasks of pedagogical psychology are as follows:
› revealing the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and upbringing influence on the psyche of the trainee;
› determination of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering social experience by students, its structuring, preservation in individual consciousness and use in various situations;
› determination of the relationship between the level of mental development of the student and the optimal forms and methods of teaching and upbringing for him;
› definition of criteria for knowledge assimilation, psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation;
› study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;
› determination of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students in order to optimally influence their intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;
› development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system.
The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. Indeed, the word “learning” refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e., the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educator in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.
Within the framework of a more progressive approach (I. A. Zimnyaya and others), both the teacher and the student are considered as active participants in the educational process. Each of them is a subject that actively carries out its activities: the student - educational, the teacher - pedagogical. Both of these activities have a significant impact on the psychological development of their subjects and cannot be carried out in isolation from each other. Important and integral parts of each of them are communication and cooperation of subjects: teachers with students, students among themselves, teachers among themselves, etc. It is the unity of educational and pedagogical activity that constitutes the educational process as a whole. Education in this case is organically included in the educational process through its content, forms and methods of implementation. If we consider the structure of educational psychology from this position, then four sections can be distinguished in it:
1) the psychology of the educational process as a unity of educational and pedagogical activities;
2) the psychology of educational activity and its subject - the student;
3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject - the teacher;
4) the psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
In this manual, we will mainly rely on this classification, but we will also consider the section "Psychology of Education" that actually fell out of it in order to reflect all modern basic approaches to the thematic structure of educational psychology.
1.2. History of educational psychology as an independent field of knowledge
Educational psychology, like many other scientific disciplines, has gone through a difficult path of development. The development of any science is inevitably influenced by major social and historical events (revolutions, wars, etc.), which largely determine the content and direction of scientific thought. The beginning of the development of pedagogical theory was laid by the fundamental work of J. A. Comenius "The Great Didactics", which was published in 1657. But only at the end of the 19th century. pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent science. The entire path of its formation can be represented by three long stages.
First stage- since the middle of the 17th century. (the publication of the “Great Didactics” by Ya. A. Comenius) until the end of the 19th century. - can be called general didactic with "a felt need to psychologize pedagogy" in the words of I. Pestalozzi. The largest representatives of the pedagogical science of this period are Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670), Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), Johann Herbart (1776–1841), Adolf Diesterweg (1790–1866), Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870) - already considered those problems that are still in the area of interest of pedagogical psychology: the relationship of development with training and education, the creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development, the role of the teacher's personality, the psychological characteristics of the organization of education and many others. However, these were only the first attempts at a scientific understanding of this process, and the actual psychological aspects of the listed problems were far from fully disclosed by these researchers. The insufficient psychological character of this period in the development of pedagogical theory is criticized in detail and with arguments by P.F. Kapterev (1849–1922) in the book “Didactic Essays. Theory of Education”, first published in 1885. As P.F. Kapterev notes, “... Comenius' didactics is characterized by very significant shortcomings: it is the didactics of the method presented in the form of some kind of external mechanical tool; in this didactics there is still no talk of developing the abilities of students by teaching ... Comenius' didactics lacks psychology.
Analyzing the role of I. Pestalozzi in the development of ideas about the student as an active side of the educational process, P. F. Kapterev states: “Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of amateur activity, self-development.” And at the same time, “the exaggeration of the influence of the method in teaching and a certain inclination towards the mechanization of school methods and methods of teaching are obvious. The living personality of the teacher as a prominent factor in the school is not yet understood. In general, the psychological side of the educational process, its foundations, private ways and forms, was developed by Pestalozzi very insufficiently.
Assessing the contribution of I. Herbart to the development of educational psychology, P.F. Kapterev emphasizes that “... Herbart’s didactics has significant advantages: it provides a psychological analysis of the pedagogical method, it seriously raises an extremely important question about the interest of learning, it inextricably links learning and upbringing. The shortcomings of Herbart's didactics include its one-sided intellectualism and the insufficient development of certain issues, for example, about the interests of students.
A. Diesterweg owns the thesis about the leading role of the teacher, the teacher in the educational process. He was the first to consider the educational process as a unity of the student, the teacher, the subject being studied and the learning conditions. In his opinion, self-improvement, taking into account the characteristics of the student and the energy of the teacher's actions become the key and basis for educative education. As P.F. Kapterev notes, “... many of Diesterweg’s didactic provisions, due to their clarity, certainty, conciseness, and together with pedagogical practicality and sensibility, despite the lack of depth and novelty, entered didactics textbooks, became the provisions of everyday pedagogical practice.”
The crowning achievement of this “preconditional” general didactic period was the work of K. D. Ushinsky “Man as an object of education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology” (1868–1869), which puts the child at the center of education and training, and K. D. Ushinsky attached decisive importance to education. Psychological and pedagogical problems of the development of memory, attention, thinking, speech in the learning process act as subjects of special analysis and development tasks. According to K. D. Ushinsky, the development of a child’s speech, hearing, associated with the development of his thinking, is a condition for the formation of his ideas, concepts, and personality as a whole.
P.F. Kapterev himself is rightfully considered the founder of educational psychology, since this concept itself entered scientific circulation with the appearance in 1877 of his book “Pedagogical Psychology”. In this work, the modern concept of education is introduced into scientific use as a combination of education and upbringing, the connection between the activities of a teacher and students, and the pedagogical problems of teacher work and teacher training are considered. The educational process itself was considered by P.F. Kapterev from a psychological position: the second part of the book “Didactic Essays. Theory of Education” is called “Educational Process – Its Psychology”. According to P.F. Kapterev, the educational process is “an expression of the internal self-activity of the human body”, the development, first of all, of abilities. P.F. Kapterev is credited with the most complete and fundamental analysis of the works of the great didacticists and representatives of the so-called experimental didactics - in fact, experimental psychology in teaching.
Second phase The development of educational psychology has chronological boundaries from the end of the 19th century. (the publication of P.F. Kapterev’s work “Pedagogical Psychology”) until the middle of the 20th century. During this period, it began to take shape as an independent branch, based on the achievements of the pedagogical thought of previous centuries and the results of psychological and psychophysical experimental studies. Pedagogical psychology developed and took shape simultaneously with the intensive development of experimental psychology and the development of specific pedagogical systems. Following the work of P. F. Kapterev, the works of the American psychologist E. Thorndike (in 1903) and the Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky (in 1926), also entitled Pedagogical Psychology, appear. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that educational psychology is a product of the last few years, a new science that is part of applied psychology and at the same time an independent branch. At this time, many works appeared devoted to the actual psychological problems of learning and learning: the features of memorization, the development of speech, intelligence, the features of developing skills (A. P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, J. Dewey, S. Frenet and others). Of great importance in the development of educational psychology were experimental studies of the characteristics of learning (J. Watson, E. Tolman, K. Hull, B. Skinner), the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky, Sh . and K. Buhler, etc.), as well as the development of special pedagogical systems (Waldorf school, M. Montessori school, etc.).
The development of test psychology and psychodiagnostics also played a special role here. Thanks to the research of A. Binet, B. Henri, T. Simon in France and J. Cattell in America, effective mechanisms have been developed not only for monitoring the knowledge and skills of students, but also for managing the preparation of curricula, the educational process as a whole. In Europe, during this period, psychological laboratories were formed at schools and they experimentally studied the typological characteristics of schoolchildren, their physical and mental abilities, as well as methods of teaching academic disciplines.
An important phenomenon at this stage was the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology. In this science, on the basis of a combination of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, the characteristics of the child's behavior were determined in order to diagnose his development. Thus, the second stage in the development of educational psychology is characterized by the increasing introduction of objective methods of measurement, which brought it closer to the natural sciences.
Third stage development of educational psychology (since the middle of the twentieth century) stands out on the basis of the creation of a number of psychological theories of learning proper. So, in 1954, B. Skinner, along with J. Watson, put forward the idea of programmed learning, and in the 1960s. LN Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization. Then a holistic system of problem-based learning began to be developed, based, on the one hand, on the point of view of J. Dewey that learning should go through problem solving, and on the other hand, on the provisions of S. L. Rubinshtein and others about the problematic nature of thinking, his phases, about the nature of the emergence of thought in a problem situation. In the 1950s the first publications by P. Ya. Galperin, and later by N. F. Talyzina, appeared, in which the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions was presented. In the same period, in the works of D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, a theory of developmental education was developed, embodied in practice in the experimental system of L. V. Zankov.
In the same period, S. L. Rubinshtein, in his Fundamentals of Psychology, gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge. Psychological problems of assimilation were further developed from different positions by L. B. Itelson, E. N. Kabanova-Meller, N. A. Menchinskaya, D. N. Bogoyavlensky. Broad theoretical generalizations in this area are reflected in the works of I. Lingart "The Process and Structure of Human Learning" (1970) and I. I. Ilyasov "The Structure of the Learning Process" (1986).
A fundamentally new direction in educational psychology in the 1960s-1970s. became a suggestopedia based on the teacher's control of the unconscious students' mental processes of perception and memory. Within its framework, a method was developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G. A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion and group dynamics in the process of such training (A. V. Petrovsky, L. A. Karpenko).
All these diverse theories of recent years actually pursued one goal - the search for psychological methods that best meet the requirements of society for a system of education and teaching. Therefore, within the framework of these areas, many common problems have emerged: the activation of forms of education, pedagogical communication, educational and pedagogical cooperation, management of the assimilation of knowledge, etc.
Today, the prerequisites for the transition of educational psychology to a new stage of development are being formed in connection with the widespread introduction of computer technology. Informatization of the education system turns the student into a free user and creator of new information technologies, provides him with freedom of action in the information space. At the same time, the role of the teacher also changes significantly: among his functions, the organization of independent activities of students in the search for knowledge is becoming increasingly important. The presentation of the finished material and teaching actions according to a given model are less and less meeting the requirements of today.
1.3. Research Methods of Educational Psychology
Among the many methods of psychological and pedagogical research in educational psychology, the most widely used are:
› study of products of students' activities;
› survey in the form of conversation and questioning;
› observation;
› experiment;
› testing;
› sociometric method of studying relationships in a team.
Study of products of activity consists in interpreting the content and technique of performing material and spiritual objects created by man. These items can be written works, compositions, music, drawings, products. According to their content and style of execution, the researcher can judge the level of sensorimotor, intellectual and personal development of the author, the mental states he experiences during the manufacture of the product, the life problems that concern him. Teachers in their practice most often use this method in the form of analysis of student essays, presentations, abstracts, oral presentations, drawings, tests in academic subjects. The most valuable information for teachers obtained with the help of such an analysis is the conclusions about the level of assimilation of the studied material by students, their attitude to the subject, about the functioning of cognitive mental processes (primarily attention, memory and thinking) of students during the creation of the studied product. Based on the results of studying the products of students' activities, certain conclusions can also be drawn about the teacher: what methodological methods he uses in teaching the subject, what requirements he imposes on students, what criteria for the success of their activities he applies.
Interview It is used in educational psychology in two of its varieties: conversation and questioning. Conversation is an oral free survey, the main questions for which the researcher prepares in advance, but in general the course of the conversation is determined, rather, by the answers of the respondent. They can generate new questions from the researcher, which are asked immediately in the course of the conversation. The researcher must provide the subject with the opportunity to state everything that he considers necessary on this issue, it cannot be interrupted, interrupted, it is undesirable to correct it. As a rule, the speaker does not tell the subject about her goals. It is necessary to record the answers of the subject in such a way as not to attract his attention and not create additional emotional stress in him (preferably by audio recording). The conversation can be both an independent and auxiliary method of research, when the information obtained in it is then used in the further study of the subjects by other methods.
Questionnaire is carried out in writing, all questions included in the text of the questionnaire are prepared in advance. The questionnaire is considered the most operational type of survey, allowing you to collect large amounts of data in a short time. At the beginning of the questionnaire, there should be an appeal to the respondents with an explanation of the objectives of the survey (if the knowledge of the respondents about the purpose of the survey can affect the final results, the true goals should not be disclosed). The main part of the questionnaire contains questions reflecting the information of interest to the researcher.
In their form, the questions of the questionnaire can be closed and open. Answering a closed question, the subject must choose an answer from the list provided. Closed questions are of three types: 1) dichotomous, to which only two mutually exclusive answers are given ("yes" and "no", "agree" and "disagree", "true" and "false"); 2) alternative, in which there are at least three such mutually exclusive options (“yes”, “don’t know” and “no” or “strongly agree”, “rather agree”, “rather disagree” and “completely disagree” and etc.); 3) menu questions in which you can choose more than one answer, since these options are not mutually exclusive; a question-menu can be semi-closed when the proposed list of answer options contains the “other” option with a request to indicate your answer option.
open questions suggest that the respondent should formulate the answer himself, and the amount of space left for the answer suggests how long and detailed this answer should be. In any case, the questions of the questionnaire and the proposed answers should be formulated in such a way that the respondents understand them correctly and can adequately express their answer in words. Questions must be composed taking into account the vocabulary and way of thinking of the subjects, scientific terminology should not be abused: all words used in the text of the questionnaire should be understandable to the least educated of the respondents. In addition, the wording of the questions should not reveal the researcher's own opinions, values, and attitudes: the respondent should not be allowed to feel that any of his answers may cause judgment.
Observation in educational psychology it is used, as a rule, to study the style of activity of students and teachers. When collecting information by observation, it is important to observe two main conditions: 1) the subject must not know that he is being observed; 2) the observer has no right to interfere with the activity of the subject, i.e., all the activity of the latter should proceed as naturally as possible. It is necessary to conduct observation according to a pre-compiled program and record those manifestations of the activity of the subjects that correspond to its goals and objectives. The data obtained should be recorded in ways that would not attract the attention of the subjects. Video filming is best suited for this purpose, since with its help the observed facts can be analyzed repeatedly; in addition, thus increasing the reliability of the conclusions. Typically used in educational psychology unincluded observation conducted "from the side", but under certain conditions, the researcher can also conduct included observation - in this case, he is included in the observed group as an equal member and, on an equal basis with the rest, performs group-wide activities, continuing to conduct observation and record its results imperceptibly for the rest of the group members. The advantage of participant observation is that the researcher can learn from his own experience what mental experiences are characteristic of the observed, but at the same time he must maintain objectivity. The main disadvantage of this method is the following: the researcher has to distribute attention between the performance of the common activity for the group and the observation itself, as a result of which the risk of losing some of the information received, which may be important for the study, increases.
Experiment It compares favorably with observation in that, within its framework, the researcher himself creates the conditions under which the phenomenon under study arises. There are two main types of psychological experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory the experiment is carried out in an artificial situation - in a specially equipped room, with the help of instruments and other devices. With its help, psychophysical functions of a person, features of cognitive processes are usually studied. In educational psychology, it is much more often used natural an experiment carried out in everyday conditions of life and activity of the subjects. Subjects may be aware of the fact of the experiment, but the researcher may not inform them of this if their awareness is capable of influencing the result. According to its tasks, an experiment in psychology can be ascertaining and formative. AT ascertaining experiment only establishes certain facts, formative the experiment involves a purposeful impact on the object under study in order to transform it.
It is through a natural formative experiment that the introduction of new curricula is carried out: at first they are used in individual schools, then they are distributed to entire regions, and only after making sure that the level of knowledge of students studying according to the new program is significantly higher than that of those studying according to the old method , introduce a new program in the entire education system. At the same time, students who studied according to the old program, with whose indicators the results of those who studied according to the new one were compared, perform the function of a control group, on the basis of which the results of the experiment are compared with the results under normal conditions. The experimental and control groups should be as similar as possible in all significant indicators (gender, age, social, intellectual, etc.) so that it can be confidently stated that all the differences between them in the area of interest to the researcher are due precisely to the experiment.
Testing produces the activity of the subject in an artificial situation: the test is an organized system of stimuli to which the subject must respond in a certain way. In the strict sense of the word, testing is a psychodiagnostic procedure. The tests that are most fully and systematically used in the education system are described in A. Anastasi's work "Psychological Testing". The author notes that all existing types of tests are used in education, however, among all standardized tests, most of all achievement tests, giving "a final assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of training, in them the main interest is focused on what the individual can do by now." It is precisely such tests that are now increasingly being distributed in the Russian education system, making up, in particular, a significant share of tasks in the Unified State Examination (USE). The content of these tests can be correlated in certain parts with educational standards. They are considered as a means of objective assessment and a tool for optimizing curricula. As a rule, achievement tests are holistic "batteries", covering all curricula for holistic educational systems. These tests include tasks in which students must demonstrate their knowledge and skills in the subject. The most common types of tasks are:
› choice of two answers – “true” and “false”;
› choosing the only correct answer from the proposed list of options;
› selection of several correct answers from the proposed list of options;
› inserting a missing word;
› comparison of elements that make up two rows (for example, the names of scientists and the concepts introduced by them);
› restoring the sequence of elements;
All tasks in achievement tests either have the same level of complexity and are evaluated by the same number of points, or are arranged in order of increasing complexity, and then the assessment of the performance of each task in points depends on the level of its complexity.
In addition, the education system uses various psychodiagnostic methods aimed at studying the child's psychological readiness for school, school motivation, school maturity, problems of student adaptation, his relationship with teachers and comrades, professional orientation.
Sociometry- an empirical method for studying intragroup relationships, developed by the American social psychologist and psychotherapist J. Moreno. This method is widely used in pedagogical practice for the formation and regrouping of educational teams, the definition of intragroup interaction. The study is carried out as follows: the members of the group are asked a question, the answer to which implies the choice among the comrades in the group of partners for any joint activity. Usually schoolchildren are asked questions related to educational activities (“Which classmate would you like to prepare for the exam together with?”), Extracurricular activities (“Which classmate would you like to prepare an amateur art act together with?”) And personal relationships (“ Which classmate would you invite to your birthday party?"). When processing the results for each given question, the number of choices received by each member of the group is counted, and the reciprocity of the choices made and received is established. Based on this, conclusions are drawn about the status of each member in the team, whether he has stable friendly ties, the existence of separate stable groups in the team, the presence of clear leaders and isolated members in the group. Such information expands the teacher's ability to interact with the student team, having it, the teacher is able to significantly increase the effectiveness of pedagogical, and especially educational, impact on students.
a branch of psychological knowledge that studies the patterns of mental activity, the conditions for the formation of personality in the process and as a result of training and education.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. Closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, psychophysiology.
The structure of P. p. includes 3 sections: the psychology of education, the psychology of teaching, and the psychology of the teacher.
The subject of the psychology of education is the development of the personality in the conditions of the purposeful organization of the child's activities, children. team. Research in this area is aimed at studying the content of the motivational sphere of the child's personality, its orientation, value orientations, and morals. installations, etc.; differences in the self-awareness of children brought up in different conditions; structures of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality; conditions and consequences of mental. deprivation.
The subject of the psychology of learning is the development of cognition. activities in a systematic learning. That. psychology is revealed. essence of account. process. Research in this area is aimed at identifying the relationship of external. and int. factors that cause differences in cognition. activities in the conditions of decomp. didactic systems; correlation of motivational and intellectual plans of teaching; opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child; psychological-ped. criteria for the effectiveness of training.
The subject of teacher psychology is psychol. aspects of the formation of prof. ped. activities, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. Among the most important tasks of this section of P. p. is the determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming the ped. stereotypes; studying the emotional stability of the teacher; identification of positive features of the individual style of communication between the teacher and the student.
The results of psycho-ped. research is used in the design of the content and methods of education, the creation of accounting. allowances, the development of diagnostic tools and correction of mental. development.
The role of psychology in the practice of education and upbringing was recognized long before P.'s registration in independent. scientific industry. Ya. A. Comenius, J. Locke, Zh. process on the basis of psychol. knowledge about the child.
The work of K. D. Ushinsky was of particular importance for the formation of P. p. His work, especially “Man as an object of education. The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology” (1868–69) created the prerequisites for the emergence of P. pedagogy in Russia.
How independent. the field of knowledge of P. p. began to take shape in the middle. 19th century, and intensively developed - from the 80s. 19th century
The term "P. P." was proposed by P. F. Kapterev in 1874. Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to refer to disciplines that occupied a border position between pedagogy and psychology: “pedology” (O. Khrisman, 1892), “experimental. pedagogy” (E. Meiman, 1907). Experiment. Pedagogy and P. P. were originally interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L. S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky). During the first third of the 20th century their meanings have been differentiated. Experiment. Pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at the application of experimental data. psychology to ped. reality; P. p. - as a field of knowledge and psychol. the basis of the theoretical and practical pedagogy.
In the 80s. 19th century - 10s. 20th century two tendencies of P.'s development of the item came to light: on the one hand, complex development of problems mental. child development, education and upbringing, prof. teacher activities; on the other hand, the differentiation of these problems and the branches of science corresponding to them. The first trend was represented by the works of N. X. Wessel, Kapterev, P. D. Yurkevich, P. F. Lesgaft, V. Henri, E. Claparede, J. Dewey and others. The second was identified with the publication of the works of G. Le Bon "Psychology of education" (1910) and V. A. Lai "Experimental didactics" (1903), which recorded the independence of the psychology of education and the psychology of education. The psychology of the teacher began to take shape later, in the 1940s and 1950s. 20th century Prior to that, there was more likely a "psychology for the teacher", the task of which was psychol. teacher education.
From con. 19th century experimental centers began to emerge. the study of the psyche, in particular mental. child development: laboratory experiment. psychology at Harvard University (founded by W. James in 1875), at Clark University (founded by G. S. Hall in 1883), at Novorossiysk University (founded by N. N. Lange in 1896), at Ped . military school museum establishments in St. Petersburg (founded by A.P. Nechaev in 1901). In 1912, G. I. Chelpanov founded Psych. in-t at Moscow. un-those.
In the beginning. 20th century in Russia, 2 congresses were held on the P. item (1906, 1909), three - on the experimental. pedagogy (1910, 1913, 1916). The 1st congress showed that the need for pedagogy in psychol. knowledge is very relevant and what is on psychol. The study of children has high hopes. However, at the 2nd congress doubts appeared that psychology could help in solving ped. tasks. Subsequent congresses strengthened the disappointment in the practice. application of psychology. The helplessness of P. p. was explained by the installation on the direct application of data obtained in general psychology to ped. practice and the lack of methods for studying the child, adequate to the tasks of pedagogy.
During the period of the open crisis of psychology (early 10s - mid 30s of the 20th century), a lot of different things appeared. scientific schools and directions, in which Means. the place was occupied by a psycho-ped. problems.
Within the limits of the functional psychology focused on evolutionary biol. principle of mental explanation. development, as a starting position, the statement was adopted that the child in its development goes through all stages of human development (see Biogenetic law). Therefore, the system of education and training must create conditions under which such a process can be fully realized (Dewey). Despite a simplified understanding of child development and an unrealistic view of education, functionalism enriched P. p. with new ideas. It was pointed out the importance for the development of the child of "discovery" of new knowledge, posing problems, independent. putting forward hypotheses, their testing in the external (practical) and internal (mental) plan. In the same period, in behaviorism, ideas about the processes of learning were based on descriptions of the mechanisms of higher nervous activity in the school of IP Pavlov. Behaviorists took the “stimulus-response” scheme as the initial universal relation. In general, functionalism and behaviorism are characterized by a purely pragmatic approach. a look at the goals of education, which is associated with an understanding of the psyche as a system of adaptive mechanisms.
Against pragmatic, biologically oriented concepts in the explanation of mental. phenomena was made by the school of Gestalt psychology. Its representatives considered the learning process as a transformation of the child's personal experience. At the same time, experience was interpreted not as the sum of its various aspects (motor, sensory, ideational), but as a certain structure. The new experience acquired by the child in interaction with others leads to a reorganization of the structures of previous experience (K. Koffka). This direction was subjected to serious criticism (Vygotsky, Blonsky, etc.), but it aroused interest among specialists: a change in the child's experience meant a change in the internal. the world of the child himself, and not the totality of his reactions or knowledge, skills and abilities.
In 1926 Vygotsky's book Ped. psychology”, in which he outlined his understanding of the relationship between education, upbringing and mental. development of the child, the functions of his interaction with adults and peers, independent vigorous activity in the process of learning, interest as a stimulus for this activity. In subsequent works of Vygotsky, his ideas took shape in a detailed concept of learning and development. According to Vygotsky, learning is one of the ways a child can master social experience. Genuine assimilation of social experience, i.e. its transformation into a personal one is determined by the objective activity of the child and his interaction with adults and peers in the game, teaching, forms of labor available to him. But the systematic and goal-oriented learning becomes developing only when it "runs ahead of development" - it focuses not only and not so much on the current level of development, but on its perspective - the zone of proximal development, i.e. those processes and mental. education, to-rye are still in their infancy and determine the potential of the child. The principles for constructing methods for measuring the zone of proximal development were proposed in a number of works by Vygotsky and his collaborators.
30-60s 20th century are characterized by the collapse of schools that have developed during the crisis, and the formation of new directions.
Within the framework of neobehaviorism B. Skinner in the "stimulus-response-reinforcement" scheme shifted the focus from the "stimulus-response" connection to the "reaction-reinforcement" connection. Skinner's ideas formed the basis of a special didactic. systems - programmed learning. It made it possible to implement a number of provisions of pedagogy that had been declarative for a long time: creating a situation of constant success; discovery by the child of new knowledge; individualization of learning through the use of learning devices and special textbooks.
In cognitive psychology, J. Bruner developed the concept of learning, in which it is interpreted as a change in the content of objects reflected in the mind of a person and knowledge about them. Bruner drew attention to the fact that in the process of learning the subject goes beyond the limits of the given information: the student constructs models of information during its processing, putting forward hypotheses about the causes and relationships of the phenomena being studied.
Under the influence of information approach developed the concept of R. Gagne. There are no clearly defined positions regarding the mechanisms of learning in this concept. However, Gagne introduced the concept of cognitive strategies, on the basis of which the learning process is regulated by the subject himself.
In the fatherland P. p. since the 30s. research was also launched on the procedural aspects of learning and development: the relationship in cognition. activities of perception and thinking (S. L. Rubinstein, S. N. Shebalin), memory and thinking (A. N. Leontiev, L. V. Zankov, A. A. Smirnov, P. I. Zinchenko, etc.), development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin, etc.), mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh. I. Shif, N. A. Menchinskaya, G. S. Kostyuk and others), the emergence and development of the cognizant. interests in children (N. G. Morozova and others). By the 40s. there have been many studies on psychology. learning issues. material of various subjects: arithmetic (Menchinskaya), native language and literature (D. N. Bogoyavlensky, L. I. Bozhovich, O. I. Nikiforova, etc.). A number of works are connected with the problems of teaching reading and writing (N. A. Rybnikov, L. M. Schwartz, T. G. Egorov, Elkonin, and others).
In 1932-41, a group of Vygotsky's students, Zaporozhets, Bozhovich, P. Ya. Galperin, Zinchenko, V. I. Sonin, and others, worked in Kharkov under the direction of Leontiev. directions, original concepts of psychic were created. child development. In these studies, the content of the concept of the social situation of development was concretized, the concepts of “internal position” (Bozhovich), “sensory standard” (Zaporozhets) and others were introduced.
In the field of training and education of preschoolers, it was shown that the formation of a motor skill can serve as a model for the process of mastering a child with any new action, any form of behavior (Zaporozhets). At the same time, the first link that determines the entire subsequent process of formation of an action is the orientation of the child in the conditions of the performance of the upcoming action. This determines the requirement for ped. process: an adult must organize a full-fledged orientation of the child in the situation. Based on the data obtained in the studies of Zaporozhets and his students, educational programs were drawn up in children. garden (1962), textbooks and textbooks were written. allowances for teachers.
Important for doshk. pedagogy had a multifaceted psychol. Elkonin's study of play as one of the forms of child activity. It was shown that the game does not arise spontaneously, but is the result of the upbringing of the child and becomes one of the leading conditions for the development of his personality. Based on the results of this study, recommendations are made to educators for children. kindergartens and parents to organize children's play activities.
The problem of the development of the student's personality is at the heart of the content of the research of Bozovic and her collaborators. Their studies show that the process of upbringing and re-education consists primarily in creating conditions for the formation of a system of motives in the child, allowing him to regulate his own activities, behavior, and relationships with others.
In the 50-70s. at the junction of social psychology and P. p., many studies of the structure of children were carried out. collective, the status of the child among peers (A. V. Petrovsky, Ya. L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of research relates to the education and upbringing of difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality in adolescents in certain informal associations (D. I. Feldshtein).
In the same period in the fatherland. P. p. there has been a tendency towards the formulation of complex problems - educative education and educational education. Psychological and ped. factors of children's readiness for school education, content and organization of the beginning. education (L. A. Wenger, Elkonin, V. V. Davydov and others), psychol. reasons for the failure of schoolchildren (N. A. Menchinskaya), psycho-pedagogical. criteria for the effectiveness of training (I. S. Yakimanskaya).
From con. 50s holistic concepts of education are being developed: developmental education (Menchinskaya), uch. activities (Elkonin, Davydov, A. K. Markova), learning based on the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts (Galperin, N. F. Talyzina), problem-based learning (A. M. Matyushkin). In the 80s. the concept of the school of dialogue of cultures was formed (V. S. Bibler).
From con. 70s work intensified in scientific and practical. direction - the creation of psychol. services at school (I. V. Dubrovina, Yu. M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of P. p. have emerged: the development of conceptual approaches to the activities of schools. psychol. services, equipment of its diagnostic. means, preparation of practical psychologists.
Lit .: Rubinshtein M. M., Essay on ped. psychology in connection with general pedagogy, M., 1913; Vygotsky L.S., Ped. psychology, M., 1926; Bogoyavlensky D.N., Menchinskaya N.A., Psychology of learning at school, M., 1959; Itelson L. B. Lectures on modern problems of modern. psychology of learning, Vladimir, 1972, Age and ped. psychology, ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M., 1973, Talyzina N. F., Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge, M., 1975; Kru-t with c to and and V. A., Psychology of training and education of schoolchildren, M., 1976; Stone E., Psychopedagogy, trans. from English, M., 1984, Menchinskaya H. A., Problems of teaching and mental development of a schoolchild, M., 1989; Socio-ist. approach in the psychology of learning, ed. M Cole, translated from English. M., 1989, Dubrovina I.V., Working book of school. psychologist, M., 1991; Age and ped. psychology Texts, compiled by M. O Shuare, M, 1992
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology 5
Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 5
1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and Pedagogy.... 5
2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad......... 6
3. The structure of educational psychology. The connection of educational psychology with other sciences .............................................. ................................................. ................................................. 17
4. The main problems of educational psychology and their brief description 19
5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology .................................. 21
Lecture 2. Psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher 24
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 24
1. The concept of pedagogical activity. Concepts of the pedagogical process and their psychological justification ......................................... 24
2. The structure of pedagogical activity ............................................... .............. 25
3. The functions of the teacher in the organization of the educational process ........... 27
4.Psychological requirements for the personality of the teacher .............................................. .28
5. Problems of pedagogical communication ............................................... ................... 31
6. The concept of an individual style of pedagogical activity 33
7. Psychological characteristics of the teaching staff .............................. 34
Lecture 3. Psychological service at school and its role in optimizing the educational process in school ...................... 36
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 36
1. Fundamentals of the activities of the psychological service at school .............................. 36
2. Logic and organization of the psychological study of the personality of the student and the team of the school class ................................................. ................................... 38
3. The program for studying the personality of a student .............................................. .............. 38
4. The program of studying the collective of the school class .............................................. 42
5. Psychocorrective and educational activities of the psychological service 45
6. Psychological foundations of lesson analysis .............................................. ................ 46
Lecture 4
Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 48
1. The concept of the purpose of education .............................................. ......................................... 48
2. Means and methods of education ............................................... ................................. 49
3. The main social institutions of education .............................................. .... 52
4. Psychological theories of education. The problem of personality stability.. 54
Lecture 5 ................................................. ................................... 56
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 56
1.Psychological conditions for the formation of personality traits .............................. 56
Activity, personality orientation and its formation ........................... 57
Development of the moral sphere of personality 60
2. Socio-psychological aspects of education .............................................. 61
Communication as a factor in education .............................................................................. 61
The role of the team in the education of students ............................................................... 63
Family as a socio-psychological factor in education .............................. 64
Education and formation of social attitudes of the individual ........................ 66
3. The problem of managing the upbringing of the individual .............................................. ...... 67
4. Indicators and criteria for the upbringing of schoolchildren .............................................. 71
Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology
1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and pedagogy
2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad
3. Structure of educational psychology. Relationship of educational psychology with other sciences
4. The main problems of educational psychology and their brief description
5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology
The subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of education and upbringing, both from the side of the student, the educator, and from the side of the one who organizes this training and education (i.e., from the side of the teacher, educator).
Education and training represents different, but interrelated aspects of a single pedagogical activity. In fact, they are always implemented together, so it is almost impossible to define learning from education (as processes and results). Raising a child, we always teach him something, while teaching, we educate him at the same time. But these processes in pedagogical psychology are considered separately, because they are different in their goals, content, methods, leading types of activity that realizes them. Education is carried out mainly through interpersonal communication of people and pursues the goal of developing the worldview, morality, motivation and character of the individual, the formation of personality traits and human actions. Education, on the other hand, (realized through various types of subject-based theoretical and practical activities) focuses on the intellectual and cognitive development of the child. Various methods of training and education. Teaching methods are based on a person's perception and understanding of the objective world, material culture, and upbringing methods are based on the perception and understanding of a person by a person, human morality and spiritual culture.
For a child, there is nothing more natural than to develop, form, become what he is in the process of education and training (S.L. Rubinshtein). Education and training are included in the content of pedagogical activity. Upbringing is a process of organized purposeful influence on the personality and behavior of the child.
In both cases, training and education act as specific activities of a particular subject (student, teacher). But they are considered as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, in the first case we are talking about educational activities or teaching (student). In the second, the teacher's pedagogical activity and on the performance of the functions of organization, stimulation and management of the student's educational activities, in the third - on the process of education and training in general.
Pedagogical psychology is an interdisciplinary independent branch of knowledge based on knowledge of general, developmental, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy. It has its own history of formation and development, the analysis of which allows us to understand the essence and specifics of the subject of its study.
General psychological context of the formation of pedagogical psychology. Pedagogical psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about a person, which were fixed in the main psychological trends (theories) that have had and continue to have a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period. This is due to the fact that the learning process has always acted as a natural research "testing ground" for psychological theories. Let us consider in more detail the psychological currents and theories that could influence the understanding of the pedagogical process.
Associative psychology(starting from the middle of the 18th century - D. Hartley and until the end of the 19th century - W. Wundt), in the depths of which the types, mechanisms of associations were determined as connections of mental processes and associations as the basis of the psyche. On the material of the study of associations, the features of memory and learning were studied. Here we note that the foundations of the associative interpretation of the psyche were laid by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is credited with introducing the concept of "association", its types, distinguishing two types of mind (nousa) into theoretical and practical, definitions feelings of satisfaction as a learning factor.
Empirical data from the experiments of G. Ebbinghaus (1885) on the study of the process of forgetting and the curve of forgetting obtained by him, the nature of which is taken into account by all subsequent researchers of memory, the development of skills, the organization of exercises.
Pragmatic functional psychology W. James (late XIX - early XX century) and J. Dewey (practically the entire first half of our century), with an emphasis on adaptive reactions, adaptation to the environment, body activity, and the development of skills.
The theory of trial and error by E. Thorndike (late 19th - early 20th century), who formulated the basic laws of learning - the laws of exercise, effect and readiness; who described the learning curve and the achievement tests based on these data (1904).
Behaviorism J. Watson (1912-1920) and neo-behaviourism of E. Tolman, K. Hull, A. Gasri and B. Skinner (the first half of our century). B. Skinner already in the middle of our century developed the concept of operant behavior and the practice of programmed learning. The merit of the works of E. Thorndike preceding behaviorism, the orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson and the entire neo-behaviorist direction is the development of a holistic concept of learning (learning), including its laws, facts, mechanisms.
Chapter 7. Pedagogical psychology and pedagogy
1. The subject of educational psychology and the subject of pedagogy
“A person, if he is to become a person, needs to be educated” Jan Comenius
Pedagogical psychology studies the conditions and patterns of formation of mental neoplasms under the influence of education and training. Pedagogical psychology has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, has become a sphere of joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations (B.G. Ananiev). For example, one of the pedagogical problems is the realization that the educational material is not assimilated in the way and not as much as we would like. In connection with this problem, the subject of pedagogical psychology is being formed, which studies the patterns of assimilation and learning. On the basis of the established scientific ideas, the technique, the practice of educational and pedagogical activity, substantiated by the psychology of the laws of assimilation processes, are formed. The second pedagogical problem arises when the difference between learning and development in the learning system is realized. You can often meet a situation where a person learns, but develops very poorly. The subject of research in this case is the patterns of development of intelligence, personality, abilities, and a person in general. This direction of pedagogical psychology develops the practice of not teaching, but organizing development.
In modern pedagogical practice, it is no longer possible to competently, effectively and at the level of modern cultural requirements build one's activity without the intensive introduction of scientific psychological knowledge. For example, since pedagogical activity consists in communication between a student and a teacher, in establishing contact between them, that is, a request for research, building scientific knowledge about the ways of communication between people and their effective use in building pedagogical processes. The profession of a teacher is probably the most sensitive to psychology, since the activity of a teacher is directly aimed at a person, at his development. The teacher in his activity encounters "live" psychology, the resistance of the individual to pedagogical influences, the significance of the individual characteristics of a person, etc. Therefore, a good teacher, interested in the effectiveness of his work, is involuntarily obliged to be a psychologist, and he gains psychological experience in his work. It is important that this experience is precisely serving the main practical task, it is the experience of a teacher who has certain pedagogical principles and methods of pedagogical activity. Above this pedagogical activity, psychological knowledge is built up as a service to it.
Pedagogical psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, abilities, skills, explores individual differences in these processes, patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers the relationship between the teacher and students, the relationship between students (V.A. Krutetsky). In the structure of pedagogical psychology, the following directions can be distinguished: the psychology of educational activity (as a unity of educational and pedagogical activity); psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student); psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer); psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
Thus, the subject of pedagogical psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (I.A. Zimnyaya).
The subject of pedagogy is the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.
Pedagogy explores the following issues:
- study of the essence and laws of development and formation of personality and their influence on education;
- determination of the goals of education;
- development of the content of education;
- research and development of methods of education.
The object of knowledge in pedagogy is a person who develops as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.
Pedagogy- this is the science of how to educate a person, how to help him become spiritually rich, creatively active and completely satisfied with life, find a balance with nature and society.
Pedagogy is sometimes seen as both a science and an art. When it comes to education, it must be borne in mind that it has two aspects - theoretical and practical. The theoretical aspect of education is the subject of scientific and pedagogical research. In this sense, pedagogy acts as a science and is a set of theoretical and methodological ideas on education.
Another thing is practical educational activity. Its implementation requires the teacher to master the relevant educational skills and abilities, which can have varying degrees of perfection and reach the level of pedagogical art. From a semantic point of view, it is necessary to distinguish between pedagogy as a theoretical science and practical educational activities as an art.
The subject of pedagogical science in its strictly scientific and precise understanding is education as a special function of human society. Based on this understanding of the subject of pedagogy, we will consider the main pedagogical categories.
The categories include the most capacious and general concepts that reflect the essence of science, its established and typical properties. In any science, categories play a leading role, they permeate all scientific knowledge and, as it were, link it into an integral system.
Education is a social, purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the new generation to assimilate socio-historical experience in order to prepare it for social life and productive work. The category "upbringing" is one of the main ones in pedagogy. Characterizing the scope of the concept, they single out education in the broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of society as a whole, and education in the narrow sense - as a purposeful activity designed to form a system of personality traits, attitudes and beliefs. education is often interpreted in an even more local sense - as a solution to a specific educational task (for example, the education of certain character traits, cognitive activity, etc.).
Thus, education is a purposeful formation of a personality based on the formation of 1) certain attitudes towards objects, phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) worldview; 3) behavior (as a manifestation of attitude and worldview). It is possible to single out the types of education (mental, moral, physical, labor, aesthetic, etc.).
Being a complex social phenomenon, education is the object of study of a number of sciences. Philosophy explores the ontological and epistemological foundations of education, formulates the most general ideas about the higher goals and values of education, in accordance with which its specific means are determined.
Sociology studies the problem of the socialization of the individual, reveals the social problems of its development.
Ethnography examines the patterns of education among the peoples of the world at different stages of historical development, the "canon" of education that exists among different peoples and its specific features.
Psychology reveals individual, age characteristics and patterns of development and behavior of people, which is the most important prerequisite for determining the methods and means of education.
Pedagogy explores the essence of education, its laws, trends and development prospects, develops theories and technologies of education, determines its principles, content, forms and methods.
upbringing is a concrete historical phenomenon, closely connected with the socio-economic, political and cultural level of society and the state.
Humanity ensures the development of each person through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.
Development is an objective process of internal consistent quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical and spiritual forces of a person.
We can single out physical development (changes in height, weight, strength, proportions of the human body), physiological development (changes in body functions in the cardiovascular, nervous systems, digestion, childbirth, etc.), mental development (complication of the processes of reflection by a person of reality: sensation , perception, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activities, abilities, interests, value orientations). The social development of a person consists in his gradual entry into society, into social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal and other relations. Having mastered these relations and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of man. It means understanding his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding the complex nature of the universe and striving for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, mental, social development, for his life and the lives of other people. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core of the formation of personality in man.
The ability to develop is the most important property of a person throughout a person's life. Physical, mental and social Development of the personality is carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled and uncontrolled factors. It occurs in the process of assimilation by a person of the values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society at a given stage of development.
It may seem that education is secondary to development. In fact, their relationship is more complicated. In the process of educating a person, his development takes place, the level of which then affects education, changes him. A more perfect upbringing accelerates the pace of development. Throughout a person's life, upbringing and development mutually provide each other.
The category “upbringing” is widely used: it is possible to transfer experience, therefore, to educate, in the family, it is possible through the media, in museums through art, in the management system through politics, ideology, etc. But among the forms of upbringing, education stands out.
Education is a specially organized system of external conditions created in society for human development. A specially organized educational system is educational institutions, institutions for advanced training and retraining of personnel. It transfers and receives the experience of generations according to the goals, programs, structures with the help of specially trained teachers. All educational institutions in the state are united in a single system of education, through which human development is managed.
Education in the literal sense means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is interpreted as a process and a result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes.
Education can be considered in different semantic planes:
- Education as a system has a certain structure and hierarchy of its elements in the form of scientific and educational institutions of various types (preschool, primary, secondary, secondary special, higher education, postgraduate education).
- Education as a process presupposes extension in time, the difference between the initial and final states of the participants in this process; manufacturability, providing changes, transformations.
- Education as a result indicates the completion of an educational institution and certification of this fact with a certificate.
Education ultimately provides a certain level of development of the cognitive needs and abilities of a person, a certain level of knowledge, skills, and his preparation for a particular type of practical activity. Distinguish between general and special education. General education provides each person with such knowledge, abilities, skills that are necessary for him for comprehensive development and are basic for receiving special, professional education in the future. In terms of the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary and higher. Now, when the need for continuous education arises, the term “adult education”, post-graduate education, has appeared. Under the content of education V.S. Lednev understands "... the content of a triune holistic process, characterized, firstly, by the assimilation of the experience of previous generations (education), secondly, by the upbringing of the typological qualities of a person (education), and thirdly, by the mental and physical development of a person (development)" . Three components of education follow from here: training, education, development.
Education is a specific type of pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), the socially conditioned tasks of educating a person are realized in close connection with their upbringing and development.
Learning is the process of direct transmission and reception of the experience of generations in the interaction of the teacher and students. As a learning process, it includes two parts: teaching, during which the transfer (transformation) of a system of knowledge, skills, experience of activity is carried out, and teaching (student activity) as the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.
Principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching are studied by didactics.
But training, upbringing, education denote forces external to the person himself: someone educates him, someone educates him, someone teaches him. These factors seem to be transpersonal. But after all, a person himself is active from birth, he is born with the ability to develop. He is not a vessel into which the experience of mankind “merges”, he himself is capable of acquiring this experience and creating something new. Therefore, the main mental factors of human development are self-education, self-education, self-training, self-improvement.
self-education- this is the process of assimilation by a person of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development. education, if it is not violence, is impossible without self-education. They should be seen as two sides of the same process. Through self-education, a person can self-educate.
self-education is a system of internal self-organization for the assimilation of the experience of generations, aimed at their own development.
self-learning- this is the process of direct acquisition by a person of the experience of generations through his own aspirations and his own chosen means.
In terms of "self-education", "self-education", "self-education", pedagogy describes the inner spiritual world of a person, his ability to develop independently. External factors - upbringing, education, training - are only conditions, means of awakening them, putting them into action. That is why philosophers, educators, psychologists argue that it is in the human soul that the driving forces of its development are laid.
Carrying out upbringing, education, training, people in society enter into certain relations with each other - these are educational relations. Educational relations are a kind of relations between people, aimed at the development of a person through upbringing, education, and training. Educational relations are aimed at the development of a person as a person, i.e. on the development of his self-education, self-education, self-training. A variety of means can be included in educational relations: technology, art, nature. Based on this, such types of educational relations as "man-man", "man-book-man", "man-technology-man", "man-art-man", "man-nature-man" are distinguished. The structure of educational relations includes two subjects and an object. The subjects can be a teacher and his student, a teaching staff and a team of students, parents, i.e. those who transmit and who assimilate the experience of generations. Therefore, in pedagogy, subject-subject relations are distinguished. In order to better transfer knowledge, skills, and abilities, the subjects of educational relations use, in addition to the word, some materialized means - objects. Relationships between subjects and objects are commonly referred to as subject-object relationships. Educational relationships are a microcell, where external factors (upbringing, education, training) converge with internal human ones (self-education, self-education, self-training). As a result of such interaction, the development of a person is obtained, a personality is formed.
OBJECT of knowledge - a person developing as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.
Pedagogy is the science of educational relations that arise in the process of the relationship of upbringing, education and training with self-education, self-education and self-training and aimed at human development (V.S. Bezrukova). Pedagogy can be defined as the science of translating the experience of one generation into the experience of another.
1.1 Goal setting in pedagogy and pedagogical principles
An important problem of pedagogy is the development and definition of the goals of education. A goal is something that you strive for, something that needs to be achieved.
The goal of upbringing should be understood as those predetermined (forecasted) results in preparing the rising generations for life, in their personal development and formation, which are sought to be achieved in the process of educational work. A thorough knowledge of the goals of education gives the teacher a clear idea of what kind of person he should form and, naturally, gives his work the necessary meaningfulness and direction.
It is known from philosophy that the goal inevitably determines the method and nature of human activity. In this sense, the goals and objectives of education are directly related to the definition of the content and methodology of educational work. For example, once in the old Russian school, one of the goals of education was the formation of religiosity, obedience, unquestioning observance of established rules of conduct. That is why a lot of time was devoted to the study of religion, methods of suggestion, penalties and even punishments, up to physical ones, were widely practiced. Now the goal of education is the formation of a personality that places high the ideals of freedom, democracy, humanism, justice and has scientific views on the world around it, which requires a completely different method of educational work. In the modern school, the main content of education and upbringing is the acquisition of scientific knowledge about the development of nature and society, and the methodology is becoming more democratic and humanistic, the authoritarian approach to children is being fought, and the methods of penalties are actually used very rarely.
The different goals of education determine both its content and the nature of its methodology in different ways. There is an organic unity between them. This unity acts as an essential regularity of pedagogy.
The formation of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed personality not only acts as an objective need, but also becomes the main goal (ideal) of modern education.
What do they mean when they talk about the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality? What is the content of this concept?
In the development and formation of personality, physical education, strengthening of its strength and health, development of correct posture and sanitary and hygienic culture are of great importance. It must be borne in mind that the proverb has developed among the people not without reason: in a healthy body - a healthy mind.
The key problem in the process of comprehensive and harmonious development of personality is mental education. An equally essential component of the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality is technical training or its familiarization with modern technological achievements.
The role of moral principles in the development and formation of personality is also great. And this is understandable: the progress of society can only be ensured by people with perfect morals, a conscientious attitude to work and property. At the same time, great importance is attached to the spiritual growth of the members of society, familiarizing them with the treasures of literature and art, and forming in them high aesthetic feelings and qualities. All this, of course, requires aesthetic education.
We can draw a conclusion about the main structural components of the comprehensive development of the individual and point out its most important components. Such components are: mental education, technical training, physical education, moral and aesthetic education, which must be combined with the development of inclinations, inclinations and abilities of the individual and its inclusion in productive work.
education should be not only comprehensive, but also harmonious ( from the Greek harmonia - consistency, harmony). It means that all aspects of the personality must be formed in close relationship with each other.
Of paramount importance is the creation at school of conditions for mastering the fundamentals of the modern sciences of nature, society and man, and giving educational work a developing character.
An equally important task is that in the context of the democratization and humanization of society, freedom of opinion and belief, young people do not acquire knowledge mechanically, but deeply process it in their minds and draw the conclusions necessary for modern life and education.
An integral part of the education and training of the rising generations is their moral upbringing and development. A comprehensively developed person must develop the principles of social behavior, mercy, the desire to serve people, take care of their well-being, maintain the established order and discipline. He must overcome selfish inclinations, above all appreciate the humane attitude towards a person, possess a high culture of behavior.
Civil and national education is of paramount importance in the comprehensive development of the individual. It includes the cultivation of a sense of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations, respect for our state symbols, the preservation and development of the spiritual wealth and national culture of the people, as well as the desire for democracy as a form of participation of all citizens in solving issues of national importance.
Pedagogical principles
Principles are the basic starting points of any theory, science in general, these are the basic requirements for something. Pedagogical principles are the main ideas, following which helps to achieve the pedagogical goals in the best possible way.
Consider the pedagogical principles of the formation of educational relations:
The principle of conformity to nature is one of the oldest pedagogical principles.
Rules for the implementation of the principle of natural conformity:
- build the pedagogical process according to the age and individual characteristics of students;
- to know the zones of proximal development that determine the possibilities of students, to rely on them when organizing educational relations;
- direct the pedagogical process to the development of self-education, self-education, self-education of students.
The principle of humanization can be considered as a principle of social protection of a growing person, as a principle of humanizing relations between students and teachers and among themselves, when the pedagogical process is based on the full recognition of the civil rights of the pupil and respect for him.
The principle of integrity orderliness means achieving unity and interconnection of all components of the pedagogical process.
The principle of democratization means providing the participants of the pedagogical process with certain freedoms for self-development, self-regulation and self-determination, self-education and self-education.
The principle of cultural conformity involves the maximum use in upbringing and education of the culture of the environment in which a particular educational institution is located (the culture of a nation, country, region).
The principle of unity and consistency of actions of the educational institution and the student's lifestyle is aimed at organizing a comprehensive pedagogical process, establishing links between all spheres of students' life, ensuring mutual compensation, complementarity of all spheres of life.
The principle of professional expediency ensures the selection of content, methods, means and forms of training specialists, taking into account the characteristics of the chosen specialty, in order to form professionally important qualities, knowledge and skills.
Polytechnic principle is aimed at training specialists and general workers based on the identification and study of an invariant scientific basis common to various sciences, technical disciplines, production technologies, which will allow students to transfer knowledge and skills from one area to another.
All groups of principles are closely interconnected, but at the same time, each principle has its own zone of the most complete implementation, for example, for classes in the humanities, the principle of professional expediency is not applicable.
1.2 Basic concepts of didactics
Didactics studies the principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching.
Consider the basic concepts of didactics.
Education is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and knowledge are assimilated.
Learning as a process is characterized by the joint activity of the teacher and students, which has as its goal the development of the latter, the formation of their knowledge, skills, skills, i.e. general orienting basis for specific activities. The teacher carries out the activity denoted by the term "teaching", the student is included in the activity of teaching, in which his cognitive needs are satisfied. The process of learning is largely generated by motivation.
Typically, training is characterized as follows: it is the transfer of certain knowledge, skills and abilities to a person. But knowledge cannot be simply transferred and “received”, it can only be “obtained” as a result of the active activity of the student himself. If there is no his counter activity, then he does not have any knowledge, skills. Consequently, the relationship "teacher - student" cannot be reduced to the relationship "transmitter - receiver". The activity and interaction of both participants in the educational process are necessary. The French physicist Pascal correctly noted: “A student is not a vessel that needs to be filled, but a torch that needs to be lit.” Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates the necessary conditions for the activity of the student, directs it, controls it, provides the necessary means and information for it. The function of learning consists in the maximum adaptation of symbolic and material means for the formation of people's ability to act.
Education is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views.
If the teacher fails to arouse the activity of students in mastering knowledge, if he does not stimulate their learning, then no learning takes place, and the student can only formally sit out in the classroom. In the process of training, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
- stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;
- organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;
- development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;
- improvement of educational skills and abilities;
- development of a scientific outlook and moral and aesthetic culture.
The organization of training assumes that the teacher implements the following components:
- setting the goals of educational work;
- formation of students' needs in mastering the studied material;
- determination of the content of the material to be mastered by students;
- organization of educational and cognitive activities for students to master the material being studied;
- giving the educational activity of students an emotionally positive character;
- regulation and control of educational activities of students;
- evaluation of student performance.
In parallel, students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn consist of the corresponding components:
- awareness of the goals and objectives of training;
- development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;
- understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be mastered;
- Perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material, application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;
- manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;
- self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activity;
- self-assessment of the results of their educational and cognitive activities.
The pedagogical process is presented as a system of five elements (N.V. Kuzmina): 1) the purpose of learning (C) (why to teach); 2) the content of educational information (C) (what to teach); 3) methods, teaching methods, means of pedagogical communication (M) (how to teach); 4) teacher (II); 5) student (U). Like any large system, it is characterized by the intersection of links (horizontal, vertical, etc.).
The pedagogical process is a way of organizing educational relations, which consists in the purposeful selection and use of external factors for the development of participants. The pedagogical process is created by the teacher. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what teacher creates it, it will have the same structure.
PURPOSE -» PRINCIPLES -> CONTENT - METHODS -> MEANS -> FORMS.
The goal reflects the end result of pedagogical interaction, which the teacher and the student are striving for. The principles are intended to determine the main directions for achieving the goal. Content is part of the experience of generations, which is transmitted to students to achieve the goal in accordance with the chosen directions. The content of education is a system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, specially selected and recognized by society (the state), the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain area.
Methods are the actions of the teacher and the student, through which the content is transmitted and received. Means as materialized objective ways of "working" with content are used in unity with methods. Forms of organization of the pedagogical process give it a logical completeness, completeness.
The dynamism of the pedagogical process is achieved as a result of the interaction of its three structures: pedagogical, methodological and psychological. We have already considered the pedagogical structure in detail. But the pedagogical process also has its own methodological structure. To create it, the goal is divided into a number of tasks, in accordance with which the successive stages of the activity of the teacher and students are determined. For example, the methodological structure of the excursion includes preparatory briefing, movement to the place of observation, observation of the object, fixation of what was seen, and discussion of the results. The pedagogical and methodological structure of the pedagogical process are organically interconnected. In addition to these two structures, the pedagogical process includes an even more complex structure - the psychological one: 1) processes of perception, thinking, comprehension, memorization, assimilation of information; 2) manifestation by students of interest, inclinations, motivation for learning, dynamics of emotional mood; 3) ups and downs of physical and neuropsychic stress, dynamics of activity, performance and fatigue. Thus, in the psychological structure of the lesson, three psychological substructures can be distinguished: 1) cognitive processes, 2) motivation for learning, 3) tension.
In order for the pedagogical process to “work”, “set in motion”, such a component as management is needed. Pedagogical management is the process of transferring pedagogical situations, processes from one state to another, corresponding to the goal.
The management process consists of the following components:
- goal setting;
- information support (diagnosing the characteristics of students);
- formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students;
- designing, planning activities to achieve the goal (planning the content, methods, means, forms);
- project implementation;
- control over the progress of execution;
- adjustment;
- summarizing.
It is possible to formulate the modern didactic principles of higher and secondary schools as follows:
- Developing and nurturing education.
- Scientific and accessible, feasible difficulty.
- Consciousness and creative activity of students with the leading role of the teacher.
- Visibility and development of theoretical thinking.
- Systematic and systematic training.
- The transition from learning to self-education.
- Communication of education with life and practice of professional activity.
- The strength of learning outcomes and the development of students' cognitive abilities.
- Positive emotional background of learning.
- The collective nature of learning and taking into account the individual abilities of students.
- Humanization and humanitarization of education.
- Computerization of education.
- Integrativeness of teaching, taking into account interdisciplinary connections.
- Innovative learning.
The most important didactic principles are the following:
- training should be scientific and have a worldview orientation;
- learning should be problematic;
- learning should be visual;
- learning should be active and conscious;
- training should be accessible;
- training should be systematic and consistent;
- in the process of learning in organic unity, it is necessary to carry out the education, development and upbringing of students.
In the 60-70s L.V. Zankov formulated new didactic principles:
- training should be carried out at a high level of difficulty;
- in training, it is necessary to observe a fast pace in the passage of the studied material;
- the mastery of theoretical knowledge is of paramount importance in teaching.
In the didactics of higher education, the principles of education are distinguished, reflecting the specific features of the educational process in higher education: ensuring unity in the scientific and educational activities of students (I.I. Kobylyatsky); professional orientation (A.V. Barabanshchikov); professional mobility (Yu.V. Kiselev, V.A. Lisitsyn, etc.); problematic (T.V. Kudryavtsev); emotionality and majority of the whole learning process (R.A. Nizamov, F.I. Naumenko).
Recently, ideas have been expressed about the allocation of a group of principles of teaching in higher education, which would synthesize all existing principles:
- the focus of higher education on the development of the personality of a future specialist;
- compliance of the content of university education with modern and predictable trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);
- the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms of organization of the educational process at the university;
- rational application of modern methods and teaching aids at various stages of training specialists;
- compliance of the results of training specialists with the requirements that are imposed by a specific area of their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.
An important element of modern higher education is methodological training. The development of science and practice has reached such a level that the student is unable to learn and remember everything necessary for his future work. Therefore, it is better for him to assimilate such educational material, which, with its minimum amount, will equip him with the maximum amount of information and, on the other hand, will allow him to work successfully in a number of areas in the future. Here the task arises of the most economical selection of scientific knowledge in all subjects of study at the university. But this is not enough. At the same time, it is important to comprehensively develop the general intelligence of students, the ability to solve various problems.
Higher education and upbringing have their own special principles (unlike school ones), such as, for example:
- training in what is necessary in practical work after high school;
- taking into account the age, socio-psychological and individual characteristics of students;
- professional orientation of training and education;
- organic connection of education with scientific, social and production activities.
