The conclusions of systematics about the proximity of man to these monkeys are based on solid comparative morphological and comparative physiological material.
The latter serves as the basis for the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man, in view of which we will briefly dwell on it. A comparative morpho-physiological analysis of the characteristics of humans and anthropomorphic monkeys makes it possible, in particular, to outline the formulation of the question of the phylogenetic relationships between them. Indeed, it seems important to find out which of the three great apes is closer to humans.
The table compares, first of all, the main dimensional features of all four forms.
The table shows that for most of the listed dimensional features, chimpanzees and gorillas are closest to humans. At the same time, it is striking that, in terms of brain weight, chimpanzees are closest to humans.
hairline. The body of anthropomorphic monkeys is covered with coarse hair. The back and shoulders are more heavily haired (especially in the orang). The chest is slightly covered. The face, part of the forehead, the soles of the feet, the palms of the hands are devoid of hair. The back of the hand is slightly hairy. The undercoat is missing. Consequently, the hairline reveals the features of rudimentation, however, far from being as pronounced as in humans. In chimpanzees, sometimes the armpits are covered with hair (resemblance to humans). Orangs have a strong development of beards and mustaches (resemblance to humans). As in humans, the hair of the shoulder and forearm of all anthropomorphs is directed towards the elbow. In chimpanzees and orangs, as in humans, baldness is observed, especially in the hairless chimpanzee - A. calvus.
| Dimensional signs | Orang | Chimpanzee | Gorilla | Human | The greatest proximity to a person in this trait |
| Body weight - kg | 70-100 | 40-50 | 100-200 | 40-84 | Chimpanzee |
| Height - m | Up to 1.5 | Up to 1.5 | Up to 2 | 1,40-1,80 | Gorilla |
| Arm length to body length (100%) | 223,6% | 180,1% | 188,5% | 152,7% | Chimpanzee |
| Leg length to body length (100%) | 111,2% | 113,2% | 113,0% | 158,5% | Gorilla and chimpanzee |
| Wrist length as a percentage of body length (100%) | 63,4% | 57,5% | 55,0% | 36,8% | Gorilla |
| Foot length as a percentage of torso length (100%) | 62,87% | 52-62% | 58-59% | 46-60% | Gorilla |
| brain weight to body weight | 1:200 | 1:90 | 1:220 | 1:45 | Chimpanzee |
Color of the skin. Chimpanzees have light skin, except for the face. The pigment is formed in the epidermis of the skin, as in humans.
Skull and jaw apparatus. The skull of an adult human differs sharply from that of apes in a number of ways. However, there are some similarities here too: the table compares some elements of the characteristics of the skulls of humans and great apes.
Selected elements of the characteristic, as well as the data in the table, show that African anthropomorphic monkeys are closer to humans than the orangutan. If we calculate the volume of the brain box of a chimpanzee in relation to its body weight, then this monkey will be the closest to man. The same conclusion follows from the comparison of the 5th, 6th, 10th and 12th indicators given in the table.
vertebral column. In humans, it forms an S-shaped profile line, that is, it functions like a spring that guarantees the brain from concussion. Cervical vertebrae with weak spinous processes. Anthropomorphic monkeys do not have an S-curve, the spinous processes are long, especially in the gorilla. They are most similar to human ones in chimpanzees, elongating evenly from the first to the last cervical vertebra, like in humans.
Rib cage. Its general shape in humans and anthropomorphic is barrel-shaped, somewhat compressed in the dorsal-abdominal direction. This configuration of the chest is characteristic only of man and anthropomorphic. In terms of the number of ribs, the orang is the closest to a person, having, like the last one, 12 pairs of ribs. However, the same number is observed in the gorilla, although it happens, like in the chimpanzee, 13 pairs. The human embryo normally has the same number of ribs that is sometimes found in an adult. Thus, anthropomorphic are very close in this feature to humans, especially orangutans. However, the chimpanzee and gorilla are closer to humans in the shape of the sternum, which consists of a small number of elements, more numerous in the orang.
limb skeleton. For anthropomorphic, as for all monkeys, a certain similarity in the functions of the fore and hind limbs is characteristic, since both arms and legs are involved in climbing a tree, and the forelimbs, which have a much greater lifting force than those of Homo, are of leading importance. Both limbs of the anthropomorphic are multifunctional, and the functions of the hand are wider and more diverse than the functions of the leg. In a person, the hand is completely freed from the function of movement, for which other functions associated with his labor activity have been extraordinarily enriched. The human leg, having become the sole support of the body, on the contrary, experienced a process of narrowing of functions and, in particular, an almost complete loss of the grasping function. These relationships caused the development of significant differences in the structure of the skeleton of the limbs of anthropomorphic and human, especially the legs. The human leg - thigh and lower leg - significantly exceeds the same anthropomorphic elements in length.
The powerful development of muscles in the human leg has led to a number of features in the structure of its bones. The hip is characterized by a strong development of the rough line (linea aspera), a long neck and an obtuse angle at which it deviates from the body of the bone itself. There are a number of distinctive features in the human foot. Whereas in anthropomorphic, as a rule, the big toe is deviated at an angle to the others, in humans it is located approximately parallel to the rest of the fingers. This increases the supporting power of the leg, i.e., is a sign associated with upright walking. This is also confirmed by the fact that in the mountain gorilla, which often assumes an upright position, the big toe of the hind foot is similar in position to the human. Another feature of a person is the domed, concave lower surface of the sole, springy when walking. This feature is absent in the flat feet of monkeys. In the latter, the hand and foot are very long. The hand and foot of the gorilla, in general, are closer to the human, which is associated with a more developed chthonobiontism of this monkey.
Taz. The human pelvis is wider than it is long. The structure of the sacrum fused with it includes 5 sacral vertebrae, which increases the supporting force of the pelvis. The gorilla's pelvis is most similar to that of a human, followed by chimpanzees and orangutans. And in this feature, the closeness of the gorilla to man is a consequence of chthonousness.
muscles. A person has strongly developed leg muscles (upright posture), namely: the gluteal, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, soleus, third peroneal, square muscle of the foot. Like humans, anthropomorphic ear muscles are rudimentary, especially in orangs, while chimpanzees are able to move their ears. However, in general, the muscular system of African anthropomorphs is closer to the human than to that of the orangutan.
The brain of man and chimpanzee. (12). Both brains are shown equal in size for ease of comparison (actually, the chimpanzee brain (2) is much smaller). Brain areas: 1 - frontal, 2 - frontal granular, 3 - motor, 4 - parietal, 5 - striated, 6 - temporal, 7 - preoccipital, 8 - insular, 9 - postcentral. (From Nesturh)
Brain, sense organs. The volume of the cranium and the weight of the brain have already been indicated. Orangs and gorillas are farthest from humans in terms of brain weight, and chimpanzees are closest. The human brain is strikingly superior in volume and weight to the anthropomorphic brain. More. more important is the fact that it is richer in convolutions, although it is similar in this respect to the brain of anthropomorphs. However, the functional characteristics of the brain associated with its subtle (cytological) architectonics are of decisive importance. The figure shows that this latter is very similar in man and chimpanzee. However, the anthropomorphic ones do not have developed motor and sensory "speech centers", of which the first is responsible for the motor work of the human articulatory apparatus, and the second is for the semantic perception of the words heard. The cytological architectonics of the human brain is much more complex and more developed, especially within the frontal lobe, which makes up 47% of the lateral surface of the brain in humans, 33% in chimpanzees, 32% in gorillas, and even less in orangs.
sense organs human and anthropomorphic in many respects are similar. In all these forms, some reduction of the olfactory organs is observed. Human hearing is close in its perceptive features to the hearing of a gorilla, a chimpanzee has a greater ability to perceive high tones. The similarity of the auricle in African anthropomorphic and human is very great. Remarkably, the pinna gives variations that are remarkably similar to those of chimpanzees and other apes. Both man and anthropomorphic are characterized by great visual acuity, and, moreover, both three-dimensional (stereometric) and color.
Ontogenesis. Anthropomorphic embryogenesis is unusually similar to human embryogenesis. The early stages of development are generally hardly distinguishable in all monkeys. Differentiation according to species (and generic) characters begins at later stages. The figure shows that the heads of human embryos, chimpanzees and gorillas on the eve of birth, as well as the skulls of anthropomorphic newborns in humans, have many similarities - the roundness of the cranial vault, large, forward-directed rounded orbits, the dominance of the cranium over the jaw apparatus. There are also many similarities in the soft parts of the face. In chimpanzee and gorilla embryos, the eyeball protrudes noticeably from the orbit, due to the initial predominance of eyeball growth over orbital growth. In the human embryo, this discrepancy also takes place, but to a lesser extent. On the eyelids of human embryos and these monkeys, characteristic restrictive grooves are visible, which are weaker in humans. The ear of the gorilla fetus has a loose lobe, as in many people, etc. The general similarity of the embryos mentioned is therefore very great. Gorilla and chimpanzee embryos show distinct "whiskers" and "beards". In the human embryo, they are less developed, but Darwin pointed out ("The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection") that in the human embryo in the fifth month, the embryonic down around the mouth is noticeably elongated, so that in this sign; there is a clear resemblance.
However, during postembryonic development, signs of similarity give way to growing signs of differences, i.e., ontogenetic divergence occurs. In the skull, it is expressed in the progressive development in anthropomorphic monkeys of the dentition, jaws, chewing muscles and sagittal crest (in the gorilla and orang) and the lag, compared with humans, in the development of the cranium.
General conclusion. The above comparative review leads to the following general conclusions:
a. Man and anthropomorphic monkeys have many similarities in the morpho-physiological organization and in the patterns of embryogenesis.
b. African forms (gorilla, chimpanzee) are closer to humans than the orangutan. The chimpanzee is closest to man, but in a number of signs - a gorilla, in a few - an orangutan.
in. If we take into account the phenomena of the ontogenetic divergence noted above and the fact that signs of similarity with humans are scattered within all three genera of anthropoid apes, then the final conclusion from the review will be the following: humans and anthropomorphic apes originate from a common root, and later historically developed in divergent directions.
Thus, we see that the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man corresponds to comparative morphological and comparative physiological data.
Tests
151-01. What distinguishes an ape from a human?
A) the general plan of the building
B) metabolic rate
B) the structure of the forelimbs
D) care for offspring
Answer
151-02. How is an ape different from a human?
A) the structure of the hand
B) differentiation of teeth
B) the general plan of the building
D) metabolic rate
Answer
151-03. Humans, unlike mammals, have developed
A) conditioned reflexes
B) second signaling system
B) sense organs
D) care for offspring
Answer
151-04. Man is distinguished from the great apes by the presence
A) caring for offspring
B) the first signal system
B) second signaling system
D) warm-bloodedness
Answer
151-05. Man, unlike animals, upon hearing one or more words, perceives
A) set of sounds
B) the location of the source of sounds
B) volume of sounds
D) their meaning
Answer
151-06. Humans, unlike the great apes, have
A) aperture
B) S-shaped spine
C) furrows and convolutions in the telencephalon
D) stereoscopic color vision
Answer
151-07. Human speech differs from "animal language" in that it
A) provided by the central nervous system
B) is congenital
B) occurs consciously
D) contains information only about current events
Answer
151-08. Humans and modern great apes are similar in that
A) are able to speak
B) capable of learning
C) capable of abstract thinking
D) make stone tools
Answer
151-09. The differences between man and great apes, associated with his labor activity, are manifested in the structure
A) arched foot
B) S-shaped spine
B) larynx
D) brushes
Answer
151-10. How is a human different from a chimpanzee?
A) blood groups
B) the ability to learn
B) genetic code
D) the ability to think abstractly
Answer
151-11. In humans, unlike other animals,
A) a second signaling system is developed
B) cells lack a hard shell
B) there is asexual reproduction
D) two pairs of limbs
Answer
151-12. In humans, unlike other members of the mammalian class,
A) the fetus develops in the uterus
B) there are sebaceous and sweat glands
B) has a diaphragm
D) the brain region of the skull is larger than the facial
Answer
151-13. The similarity between apes and humans is
A) the same degree of development of the cerebral cortex
B) the same proportions of the skull
C) the ability to form conditioned reflexes
D) ability to creative activity
Introduction
In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae classified man - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order within the mammal class. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: the semi-monkeys (they include lemurs and tarsiers) and the higher primates. The latter include marmosets, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. Primates share many specific features that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man, as a species, separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of great apes that lived in trees and most of all resembled modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient anthropoid ape turned into a Homo sapiens due to labor – “labor created Man”.
Similarities between humans and monkeys
The relationship between man and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. For a very long time, the similarity of human embryos and monkeys remains. Specific (species) human features appear only at the latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship of man with animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: coccygeal bone (remainder of a reduced tail); crease in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); thin hair on the body (the rest of the wool); a process of the cecum - an appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include an external tail, with which very rarely, but people are born; abundant hair on the face and body; polynipple, strongly developed fangs, etc.
A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was found. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all great apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins, the amino acid sequences differ by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
Human and chimpanzee DNA contain at least 90% of similar genes.
Differences between humans and monkeys
True upright posture and related structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low extended pelvis;
- flattened in the anteroposterior direction of the chest;
- elongated compared to the arms of the legs;
- arched foot with a massive and adducted thumb;
- many features of the muscles and the location of the internal organs;
- the brush is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the brain part of the skull to a large extent predominates over the front (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protrusion is distinctly expressed;
- the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes in terms of volume and 3-4 times in mass;
- a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only a person has articulate speech, in this regard, it is characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.
Walking on two legs
Walking upright is the most important feature of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupedal or, as is sometimes said, "four-armed."
Some marmosets (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they move on all fours like the vast majority of mammalian species.
Great apes (gorillas) mostly live on the ground, walking in a partially erect position, but often leaning on the back of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, the wide flat foot and short toes, the originality of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped shock-absorbing curve of the spine when walking, the special shock-absorbing connection of the head with the spinal column.
brain enlargement
The enlarged brain puts Man in a special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average brain size of a chimpanzee, the modern human brain is three times larger. Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, had twice the size of a chimpanzee. A Human has much more nerve cells and their arrangement has changed. Unfortunately, skull fossils do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between the increase in the brain and its development and upright posture.
The structure of the teeth
The transformations that have taken place in the structure of the teeth are usually associated with changes in the way of nutrition of the most ancient person. These include: a decrease in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. a gap that includes protruding fangs in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; the development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior is rounded and the lateral ones widen outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
In the course of hominin evolution, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints, and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.
Differences at the biomolecular level
The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their kinship with other families of primates. Methods used include: immunoassay, ie. comparison of the immune response of different species of primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which makes it possible to assess the degree of relationship by the degree of correspondence of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different species;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, consequently, the proximity of these species is estimated by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of this protein. These methods have shown a very close relationship of species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, in one study on protein sequencing, it was found that differences in the structure of chimpanzee and human DNA are only 1%.
The traditional explanation of anthropogenesis
The common ancestors of great apes and humans - herd narrow-nosed monkeys - lived on trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial way of life, caused by a cooling of the climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched spinal column in an S-shape, which gave it flexibility and the ability to cushion. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of depreciation during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which ensured greater stability of the body when walking upright (reducing the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed on fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, their functions became more complicated.
The transition from the use of objects to the manufacture of tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand went through the natural selection of mutations that are useful for work. The first tools were tools for hunting and fishing. Along with vegetable, more high-calorie meat food has become more widely used. Food cooked on fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore lost its significance and gradually disappeared in the process of selection of the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys. The intestines became shorter.
The herd way of life, with the development of labor activity and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and mouthparts of monkeys into human speech organs. The origin of the language was the social labor process. Labor, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright walking, a herd lifestyle, a high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which labor activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.
Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossil remains of the Afar Australopithecus have been found in Omo (Ethiopia) and in Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but upright chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was similar to that of great apes: with a low forehead, supraorbital ridge, a flat "nose, a cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth were gapped, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.
Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth about 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. He probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that he was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in the great apes. Some skulls show traces of an occipital crest to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but the casts show that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from that of great apes. According to the comparative ratio of the size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern great apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but possibly also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest Africanus find is a 5.5 million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegam in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Finds suggest that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.
Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better developed physically than the African Australopithecus. As we have said, some authors believe that both of these "southern monkeys" are respectively male and female of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to the Africanus, he had a larger and flatter skull, containing a larger brain - about 550 cubic meters. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which set in motion massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of the Africanus, while the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars in most specimens known to us are usually heavily worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves, where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Boyce's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that he was the ancestor of the gorilla.
Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg., Small incisors designed for biting off and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked straight. With their powerful physique, they resembled a gorilla. Like gorillas, males appear to be significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Boyce's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, the crest of Australopithecus Boyce was smaller and more advanced, the face was flatter, and the fangs were less developed. Because of the huge molars and premolars, this animal was nicknamed the "nutcracker". But these teeth could not exert much pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Boyce, which are 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could use the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a man who succeeded in the use of stone tools.
A little criticism of the classical ideas about the origin of Man
If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and his intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws were already significantly reduced among the prezinjantrops, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?
In case of danger, birds soar into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge on trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with the slowness of movement and the absence of tools, except miserable sticks and stones, escape from predators?
M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev frankly also refer to the unresolved problems of anthropogenesis as the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair by people. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys keep their hair. Why did our ancestors lose it?
Why did a head of hair remain on the head of a person, while on most of the body they were reduced?
Why does a person's chin and nose protrude forward with nostrils turned down for some reason?
Incredible for evolution is the speed (as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia) of the transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens). Biologically, this is inexplicable.
A number of anthropologists believe that our distant ancestors were Australopithecus, who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but Australopithecus were terrestrial monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees lived in the savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time with him. There is evidence that Australopithecus, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, were objects of hunting for ancient people.
The relationship of great apes (anthropoids) and humans is evidenced by the similarity of many anatomical and physiological features. This was first established by Charles Darwin's colleague - Thomas Huxley. Having carried out comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.
There is much in common in the external appearance of humans and great apes: large body sizes, long limbs relative to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, and a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, it should be noted a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of the appendix of the caecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc.
An exceptionally close similarity is noted in terms of biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, and diseases. Great apes in nature are easily infected with infections from humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B obtained from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for studying many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans, 48 in chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans), in their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.
However, there are significant differences between humans and anthropoids, to a greater extent due to the adaptability of humans to walking upright. The human spine is S-curved, the foot has an arch, which softens the shock when walking and running. With the vertical position of the body, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the anthropoid pelvis: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the brush. The thumb of the human hand is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of various and subtle movements. In anthropoids, in connection with the arboreal way of life, the hands are hook-shaped, and the type of foot is prehensile. When forced to move on the ground, great apes lean on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully extended position.
Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous superciliary arches, the brain part prevails over the front, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, and there is a chin protrusion on the lower jaw. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. In monkeys, on the contrary, the facial part, especially the jaws, is highly developed. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.
Humans are characterized by accelerated development in the early stages of embryogenesis. This is explained by the fact that the human embryo should be implanted into the wall of the uterus as soon as possible, since its position in the uterus, due to the straightness of the mother's body, characteristic of a person, is unreliable before fixation.
At the later stages of prenatal ontogenesis, a progressive slowdown in human development is observed. Compared to other mammals, newborns in primates are small and helpless, and humans at birth lag behind newborn monkeys in terms of somatic development. A newborn cub of the lower narrow-nosed monkey in its physical condition corresponds to a child of 3-4 years old, and a chimpanzee - to a 4-5-month-old one, although the body weight of newborns in large anthropomorphic monkeys is relatively less than in humans. In humans, it is 5.6% of the body weight of an adult, in an orangutan - 4.1, in a gorilla - 2.6, in a chimpanzee - 4.0%.
The growth and development of monkeys after birth occurs faster than in humans. A baby monkey in a helpless state occurs only during the first 2-3 months, and a baby chimpanzee - 5-6 months.
In monkeys, ossification of the wrist and teething occur faster than in humans. So, in a gorilla, the bones of the wrist ossify by 3 years, in humans - by 12-13 years. Milk teeth in a macaque erupt in the interval from 0.5 to 5.5 months, in chimpanzees - from 2.5 to 12.3, in gorillas - from 3 to 13, in humans - from 7.5 to 28.8. Permanent teeth erupt in macaques between 1.8 and 6.4 years, in chimpanzees - from 2.9 to 10.2, in gorillas - from 3 to 10.5, in humans - from 6.2 to 20.5 years.
Monkeys reach puberty faster than humans: lower monkeys - by 3-6 years, higher ones - by 8-10. In humans, better than in monkeys, a pubertal jump is expressed (acceleration of growth in the pubertal period), which is not characteristic of other mammals at all. The increase in the time between the end of feeding and puberty and, as a consequence, the appearance of the puberty jump played an important role in the process of anthropogenesis, since this increased the time for the maturation of the associative zones of the cerebral cortex, and also lengthened the period of childhood, i.e. period of study.
General growth in lower apes ends by 7 years, in large anthropoids - by 11, in humans - by 20 years. In humans, all periods of life are longer, and its total duration is longer: the lower narrow-nosed ones live an average of 25, anthropomorphic - 35 years ...
With the slowdown in the development of the human body compared to monkeys, the fact that an adult retains some "embryonic" structural features, i.e. those that are characteristic of the fruits of humans and monkeys, but then the latter are lost. This phenomenon is called fetalization (foetus - fruit). These features include some features of the human skull, bringing it closer to the skulls of anthropoid apes in the fetal period and their young forms: a shortened facial and large brain region, a straight convex forehead, a curved base of the skull, a large occipital foramen shifted forward, thin walls, a weakly pronounced relief on the surface of the bones, the absence of a continuous bone ridge above the orbits, a wide open palatine arch, long-term preservation of the sutures.
We also find the similarity of a person with the fruits of anthropomorphic monkeys in some signs of the structure of the foot (the relative thickness of the I metatarsal bone), in a well-developed thumb, in the large width and curvature of the pelvic bones, in the depigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, the absence of a continuous hairline, thick lips, etc.
These facts formed the basis for the creation of L. Bolkom's theory of the origin of man through slow development and preservation of the embryonic features of primates in adulthood. Bolk saw the reason for the retardation of human development in the activity of the endocrine glands.
A detailed critique of Bolk's theory was given by Ya.Ya. Roginsky. Along with criticism of Bolk's general theoretical ideas that the evolution of the structure of the human body was determined only by internal morphogenetic causes, Ya.Ya. Roginsky showed that in the process of anthropogenesis, with a delay in the development of some features, there was an acceleration in the development of others. Thus, a large human brain is a consequence of both its longer growth and a huge acceleration of growth after birth: in the first two years of life, the volume of the gorilla skull increases by 36% (from 280 to 380 cm 3), in chimpanzees by 33% (from 240 up to 320 cm 3), in humans - by 227% (from 330 to 1080 cm 3).
In humans, earlier than in higher monkeys, the intermaxillary bone grows together with the maxillary bone, very early (on the 3rd month of intrauterine life) the central bone of the carpus grows to the scaphoid (in monkeys they are separated all their lives or grow together very late), the length of the legs increases much more , the mastoid processes of the skull grow earlier and more, the segments of the sternum and pelvic bones grow together earlier, etc.
In addition, the direction and rate of change of one or another trait may not be the same in different periods of ontogeny. In human evolution, the appearance of such completely new features as the external bone nose, the chin protrusion, some facial muscles, the third peroneal muscle, etc., took place.
At the same time, it turned out that some structural features of the human body associated with upright posture are formed at the early stages of ontogenesis ... This is shown for the development of the calcaneus and talus, as well as for the muscles of the lower limb. Thus, the distribution of the growth rates of the muscles of the hind limb, in contrast to the muscles of the forelimb, is similar in the postnatal period in various mammals. This, apparently, is explained by the greater uniformity of movements of the hind limbs compared to the forelimbs and their greater significance in locomotion ...
The proportions of the limbs in humans and anthropomorphic monkeys in adulthood differ more than in their fetuses. A newborn human has relatively longer arms and shorter legs than an adult, and in this way it resembles an ape.
It has been shown that in the prenatal ontogenesis of mammals, the limbs grow faster than the body, and a craniocaudal gradient is observed in the growth of the limbs - the forelimbs overtake the hind limbs in growth and development. Within each limb, the distal segments grow faster than the proximal ones. Moreover, in the early stages of the uterine period, the hand grows "at the expense" of the wrist and has short fingers, in the later stages the fingers grow intensively. After birth, the character of the growth of the limbs and their segments changes in different mammals in different ways, depending on their mode of locomotion. In primates, after birth, the limbs continue to grow faster than the body, and the hind limbs especially grow; the hand and foot are relatively shortened; the brush is already made (only in a gorilla, which has a very wide brush, it expands); the length of the forearm increases in relation to the length of the shoulder (except for humans and gorillas, which have the shortest forearm among primates) and in most primates, the length of the lower leg in relation to the length of the thigh; the relative length of the thumb decreases in all anthropomorphic apes, except for the gorilla, in which, as in humans, it increases.
In the ontogeny of primates, two main periods of elongation of the limbs in relation to the body are observed: in the middle of the uterine period, when the forelimbs are especially elongated, and immediately after birth, when the hind limbs are most elongated.
This explains why a person is born relatively long-armed and short-legged and why, in terms of the proportions of the limbs, his fetus is similar to an anthropomorphic monkey. It turned out that anthropomorphic monkeys acquire their characteristic long-armedness in the first period of limb lengthening, increasing the growth gradient characteristic of this period; a person becomes especially long-legged after birth. Moreover, the intermembrane index decreases in the postnatal period of growth in all primates (except for gibbons, which have exceptionally long arms): in monkeys - from 121 to 106, in chimpanzees - from 146 to 136, in humans - from 104 to 88.
This fact, along with some others, was cited by Ya.Ya. Roginsky to the formulation of the position that the proportions of the body in a particular species of animals change by strengthening or weakening the growth gradients characteristic of a large group to which this species belongs. This rule applies to change and other signs.
So, in all monkeys, an intensive increase in brain weight is noted immediately after birth. It is during this period that a sharp difference in brain mass is formed between humans and anthropomorphic monkeys due to the especially high rate of its growth in humans. After birth, the chewing apparatus is intensively formed in connection with the function of chewing, and it is during this period that the difference between humans and monkeys is formed in terms of the degree of expression of the facial region of the skull.
Significant signs of difference lead to the idea that modern great apes could not be the direct ancestors of man.
The presence of a four-chambered heart; 2) upright posture; 3) the presence of an arched foot; 4) the presence of nails; 5) S-shaped spine; 6) replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones.
a) 1,4,6; b) 3,4,6;
c) 2,3,5; d) 2.5.6;
6. Specify units of the class Amphibians -
Squad order; 2) detachment Tailed; 3) detachment Carnivores; 4) detachment Tailless; 5) detachment of the Turtle; 6) Detachment Legless.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 2, 6;
c) 1, 3, 4; d) 2, 3, 5;
Specify the plants of the Department of Bryophytes-
Kukushkin flax; 2) male shield; 3) asplenium; 4) sphagnum; 5) Venus hair; 6) Marchation.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 1, 4, 6; d) 2, 3, 4;
8. Which of the following examples can be attributed to aromorphoses–
The development of seeds in gymnosperms; 2) the development of a large number of lateral roots in cabbage after hilling; 3) the formation of juicy pulp in the fruit of a mad cucumber; 4) release of odorous substances by fragrant tobacco; 5) double fertilization in flowering plants; 6) the appearance of mechanical tissues in plants.
a) 1, 3, 4; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 2, 3, 4; d) 2, 4, 5;
9. Specify the types of hereditary variability–
Mutational; 2) modification; 3) combinative; 4) cytoplasmic; 5) group; 6) certain.
a) 1, 2, 4; b) 1, 3, 4;
c) 1, 4, 5; d) 2, 3, 5;
Paleontological evidence for evolution includes -
The remainder of the third century in man; 2) imprints of plants on coal seams; 3) petrified remains of ferns; 4) the birth of people with thick hair on the body; 5) coccyx in the human skeleton; 6) the phylogenetic series of the horse.
a) 1,4,6; b) 1,3,4;
c) 2,4,5; d) 2,3,6;
Part 3 You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which
should either be accepted or rejected. In the response matrix, indicate the answer option "yes" or "no". The maximum number of points that can be scored is 20 (1 point for each test item).
1 .The material for evolution is natural selection.
2. A collection of plants of the same species, artificially created by man, is called a breed.
3. With autosomal dominant inheritance, the trait occurs in both men and women.
4. The variety of phenotypes that arise in organisms under the influence of environmental conditions is called combinative variability.
5 .Allopolyploidy - a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in hybrids obtained as a result of crossing different species.
6 .When an egg matures, three directional bodies are formed for each full-fledged cell.
7. The cavity inside the blastula is called the blastomere.
8. In spermatogenesis in the growth phase, the number of chromosomes and DNA molecules is 2n4c.
9. The code unit of the genetic code is the nucleotide.
10. The Krebs cycle occurs on the mitochondrial membrane.
11. The plant cell contains semi-autonomous organelles: vacuoles and plastids.
12. The centromere is a section of the eukaryotic DNA molecule.
13. The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on its functional activity.
14 .There is no cell wall in protozoan cells.
15. The most common monosaccharides are sucrose and lactose.
16. According to the type of nutrition, an adult toothless is a biofilter.
18. Fish lack the ability to accommodate.
19. Most of the cambium cells are deposited towards the wood.
20. If the flowers are collected on the lateral axes, then such inflorescences are called complex.
Part 4. Match. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 25.
Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the plant and the department to which it belongs
Signs of a plant Division
A. The life cycle is dominated by gametophyte 1. Bryophytes
B. The life cycle is dominated by sporophyte 2. Gymnosperms
B. Reproduction by spores
D. The presence of a well-developed root system
D. Formation of pollen grains.
Match the example with the environmental factor.
Examples Environmental factors
A. Water chemistry 1. abiotic factors B. Plankton diversity 2. biotic factors
B. Humidity, soil temperature
D. The presence of nodule bacteria on the roots of legumes
D. Soil salinity.
Establish a correspondence between the features of the processes of protein biosynthesis and photosynthesis
Process Features Processes
A. It ends with the formation of carbohydrates 1. protein biosynthesis B. Source substances - amino acids2. photosynthesis
C. Based on matrix synthesis reactions
D. Initial substances - carbon dioxide and water
D. ATP is synthesized during the process.
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
Matrix of answers Grade 11
Part 1.
| b | b | a | b | G | in | a | a | in | b |
| a | G | in | G | G | in | G | b | b | b |
| in | a | G | b | G | in | G | a | G | G |
| b | a | in | a | b |
Part 2.
| d | G | b | b | in | d | in | b | b | G |
Part 3
| - | - | + | - | + | + | - | + | - | - |
| - | - | + | + | - | + | - | + | + | + |
Part 4
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
Maximum points -100
