COUNTRIES OF THE "THIRD WORLD": THE COLLAPSE OF COLONIALISM AND THE STRUGGLE AGAINST BEDDING 1. 1. The growth of the anti-colonial movement. 2. The collapse of colonial empires. 3. 3. Decolonization in Africa. 4. 4. Social and economic problems of modern African states. 5. Cultural and civilizational regions. 6. Ways of modernization of the countries of the "third world". 7. Oil exporting countries. OPEC. 8. "Newly industrialized countries". 9. Russia's relations with the countries of Africa, Southeast Asia. ASEAN. SCO. Heb. Az. ES. Status and prospects.

Before World War II, about 1/3 of the world's population lived in the colonies and mandated territories. The same share fell on semi-colonial countries

The defeat of militarist Japan, fascist Germany and Italy created favorable conditions for the national liberation of the peoples of Asia and Africa. Growth of the anti-colonial movement

The defeat of Japan raised the peoples of Indochina, Burma, Malaya, and Indonesia to the liberation struggle, and they proclaimed their independence at the news of Japan's defeat. The Red Army helped China drive out the Japanese invaders. Growth of the anti-colonial movement

Germany, Italy and Japan lost not only their colonies and empires, but also part of their territories as a result of defeat in World War II. The victorious countries also lost their colonial possessions, although each of the metropolises sought to prevent this. Growth of the anti-colonial movement

Great Britain and France at first sought to preserve at least the remnants of empires The struggle of Great Britain with European rebels in Palestine in 1945 - 1948 The suppression of the guerrilla movement in Malaya by Great Britain in 1946 - 1960 1960 French war in Indochina 1946-1954 French war in Morocco and Tunisia 1952-1956 French war in Algeria 1954-1962 Growth of anti-colonial movement

Portugal resisted decolonization the longest. She fought against rebels in Angola and Mozambique until 1974. Portuguese military column. Mozambique. Growth of the anti-colonial movement

57934 38035 13227 4471 Territory of the colonies (thousand km2) 566297 565119 661491 671528 82466 34015 Colonial population (thousand people) 1918 1923 1938 1945 1960 1972859639 Colonial collapse

0, 9342, 9 28, 2 29, 6 28, 6 9, 8 3, 332, 3 31, 2 30, 7 29, 8 2, 8 1918 1923 1938 1945 1960 1972 Colonial territory Colonial population. Colonies in % of the area and population of the globe. The collapse of colonial empires

393832 398562 444691 431835 45990 10643 Population of the colonies (thousand people) 1918 1923 1938 1945 1960 197233599 15124 14213 15713 5285 479 Territory of the colonies (thousand km2)

10650 11939 11894 12449 3612 152 1918 1923 1938 1945 1960 1972 Territory of the colonies (thousand km 2) 55031 59936 69227 76425 12304 1760 Population of the colonies (thousand people) Crisis

The colonial empires created by Europeans since the 15th century, the main attribute of a great power, ceased to exist. The collapse of colonial empires

Neutral states Other allies of the USSR Other soc. countries. US allies Colonies US zone of influenceNATO countries OVDMIR countries BY THE EARLY 1960s

Decolonization in Africa Africa somewhat later freed itself from colonialism. In 1956, France recognized the independence of Morocco and Tunisia. However, she had to leave Algeria after an eight-year war with the rebels of the Algerian Liberation Front (1954 - 1962)

1960 "Year of Africa" ​​- the declaration of independence of 17 states.

APARTHEID REGIME IN South Africa The most developed country in Africa - the Union of South Africa in 1961 withdrew from the British Commonwealth and was renamed the Republic of South Africa (South Africa).

In 1948, the Afrikaner (Boer) Nationalist Party came to power, proclaiming apartheid, a discriminatory system of separation of people of different races in South Africa. APARTHEID REGIME IN South Africa Bantustans in South Africa An announcement on one of the beaches of South Africa, prohibiting access to the beach for non-white residents of the country. 1989

Mandela, Nelson was born in 1918 to the family of the leader of the Tembu tribe. He studied law at the university, since 1944 he became an activist in the African National Congress. In 1956 he was arrested for the first time, but soon released. In 1960, he created the underground military organization Spears of the Nation to fight against apartheid. The authorities began to fight her. Mandela was again arrested and in 1964 sentenced to life imprisonment. Nelson Mandela spent 27 years, 6 months and 6 days in prison. APARTHEID REGIME IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa remained the only state in Africa where the local population was discriminated against. All the liberated countries united in the struggle against apartheid. South Africa fell into international isolation. Demonstration in South Africa during apartheid. THE FALL OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA

Gradually, among the white population, an understanding of the need for political reforms was established. Frederick de Klerk became the leader of the supporters of change. apartheid reforms. THE FALL OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA Frederick de Klerk. President of South Africa 1989 - 1994

In 1990, he granted amnesty to Mandela. He led the ANC. The South African Parliament began to repeal the laws on which the apartheid regime rested. Nelson Mandela is free. THE FALL OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA

According to the Constitution adopted in 1993, South Africa is a democratic multiracial state. The 1994 presidential election, in which blacks took part for the first time, was won by Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa 1994 - 1999. THE FALL OF APARTHEID IN South Africa South Africa emerged from international isolation, was admitted to the Organization of African Unity and became an integral part of the world community democratic states. Member countries of the Organization of African States

RUSSIA - AFRICA

"Third World Countries" is a term of the second half of the 20th century. , denoting countries not directly involved in the Cold War and the arms race. "THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES"

Arab-Muslim region Maghreb 1. Libya 2. Tunisia 3. Algeria 4. Morocco 5. Mauritania CULTURAL AND CIVILIZATIONAL REGIONS Azerbaijan Armenia Georgia Afghanistan Turkey Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon Palestinian Authority Yemen Bahrain Middle East

Arab-Muslim region Maghreb 1. Libya 2. Tunisia 3. Algeria 4. Morocco 5. Mauritania CULTURAL AND CIVILIZATION REGIONS Qatar Kuwait Lebanon UAE Oman Iraq Saudi Arabia Cyprus Middle East

Arab-Muslim region 1 Maghreb 1. Libya 2. Tunisia 3. Algeria 4. Morocco 5. Mauritania 2 34 5 CULTURAL AND CIVILIZATIONAL REGIONS

Central and South Africa. CULTURAL AND CIVILIZATIONAL REGIONS Middle East, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran Diverse and indistinctly formed states

II. THE CHOICE OF DEVELOPMENT WAYS "West" or "East", capitalism or socialism? Modernization or traditional society? Evolution (for example, in India) or leap ("new industrialized countries")? III. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS Backwardness, political separatism, social problems: poverty, hunger, disease. Problems of refugees in areas of interstate and ethno-national conflicts. IIIIII. PROBLEMS IN RELATIONS WITH LEADING INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES Economic dependence, external debt, problems of military and political influence of leading powers. PROBLEMS OF YOUNG STATES IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE COLD WAR

Ghana, Guinea, Egypt, Mali, Algeria, Congo, Tanzania, Burma, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique, China, Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, Mongolia, Cambodia, Cuba. COUNTRIES OF SOCIALIST ORIENTATION in 1950-1969

DIRECTIONS OF THE STRUGGLE FOR ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE (1970-1980s) Rising prices for raw materials (creation of OPEC) Import-substituting industrialization (engineering) Market private-property relations and multi-party system with a strong role of the public sector and regulation. THE CAPITALIST WAY OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Increasing the incomes of oil exporting countries. 2. Energy crisis. 3. Difficulties in the economy. 1. Growth of external debt. 2. Undermining the international division of labor. 3. Contrasting the "third world" with the rest.

WAYS TO OVERCOME BACKGROUND CAPITALIST PATH OF DEVELOPMENT All-round development of export opportunities instead of import-substituting industrialization Encouragement of the import of foreign capital Market reforms (privatization, price liberalization) ATTEMPT TO INTEGRATION INTO THE WORLD ECONOMY

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES States that have low standards of democratic governments, free market economies, industrialization, social programs and guarantees of human rights for their citizens. Developed economies Developing economies (medium development) Developing economies (weak development) IMF and UN classification

OIL EXPORTING COUNTRIES Arab states of the Persian Gulf, which are characterized by the conservation of patriarchal relations and absolute monarchies

NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES New industrialized countries for 2010 A group of developing countries whose economies over the past decades have made the transition from backward, typical of developing countries, to highly developed.

BASIC MODELS OF NIS ASIAN MODEL LATIN AMERICAN MODEL Development of the national economy with a focus on the foreign market Development of the national economy with a focus on import substitution. Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile , great attention to the development of education; the use of high technologies, the cheapness of labor, the possession of significant raw materials, the development of the banking and insurance sectors, the main business card is the production of household appliances and computers, clothing and footwear.

ASEAN Declaration - 1967 ASEAN Charter - 2008 ASEAN - ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN STATES Brunei Viet Nam Indonesia Laos Cambodia Malaysia Myanmar Singapore Thailand Philippines

RUSSIA-ASEAN SUMMIT The successful construction of a new Asia-Pacific home is in the interests of all countries and their aspirations to develop a calm and constructive life. Russia is open to such interaction, including the creation of various alliances.” D. A. Medvedev

SCO - SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION

Heb. Az. EC - EURASIAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY since 2000 Russia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan. Belarus An international economic organization created to form common external customs borders of its member states, develop a common foreign economic policy, tariffs, prices and other components of the functioning of the common market.

LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES OF TROPICAL AND SOUTH AFRICA NORTH AFRICA WEST AFRICA TROPICAL AND CENTRAL AFRICA SOUTH AFRICA The agricultural sector dominates the structure of the economies of these countries, although it is not able to meet domestic needs for food and raw materials. The national capital is mostly concentrated in the commercial sphere. This group of countries is characterized by the underdevelopment of the market mechanism, production, auxiliary infrastructure, transport network, communication system, banking, electricity, which does not contribute to attracting foreign investment.

Africa's population growth is 2.8% annually. The production of all types of food increases by only 1.9%. Food security 86% against 98% in the 1960s. Low level of economic development. Survival through the help of the world community. PROBLEMS OF MODERN AFRICA AFRICA AREA (million sq. km.) AFRICA POPULATION (million sq. km.) 19981960 6% 13%

32% of the population are literate. 30-40% of children study in primary schools. There is no medical service. The average life expectancy is 49 years. PROBLEMS OF MODERN AFRICA

Level of development of developing countries GDP ($) per capita. 1994 1. Singapore 23360 9. Thailand 2210 2. Kuwait 19040 10. Tunisia 1800 3. Qatar 14540 11. China 530 4. South Korea 8220 12. India 310 5. Saudi Arabia Arabia 7240 13. Haiti 220 6. Mexico 4010 14. Vietnam 190 7. Malaysia 3520 15. Ethiopia 130 8. Brazil 3370 16. Mozambique

Both world wars affected Africa. In each of them, the African continent, seemingly so far from European political conflicts, was forced to take an active part. However, the contribution of Africans to the victory over fascism remains largely underestimated.

For Africans, World War II began in 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. In a sense, it continued - in the form of a struggle for independence - long after 1945, when Africans demanded recognition of their contribution to the Allied victory over Nazi Germany. The Second World War had a profound impact on the understanding of class, racial, political problems throughout the world. In fact, the Second World War became a catalyst for the crisis in the colonial empires and served to transform the nature of political activity throughout the African continent. If before 1945 the struggle of the African peoples against colonial oppression was for the most part not so much for self-government as for some degree of participation in existing governments, then after the war the demand for independence became the basis of the program of all African organizations that counted on popular support. “1945 was the greatest watershed in modern Africa. The most important factor contributing to the growing spirit of indignation in Africa during this period was the return home of African soldiers who participated in the Second World War. African troops were rarely completely reliable for the imperialists, and their uprisings and protests played an important role in the development of African national consciousness. Especially great unrest among the African troops occurred during the Second World War. Fighting in distant countries, they were imbued with the spirit of the anti-fascist war and returned home completely different. In their countries, former participants in the war were resolutely unwilling to return to low-paid hard work; in the war and post-war years, there were mass rallies, demonstrations, and mutinies by military personnel and former soldiers.

Not much is said about the African campaigns of World War II in Russia. However, by the beginning of the war, Africa (especially northeast) had become a strategic foothold, for which a fierce battle unfolded. In many ways, the fighting on the "dark continent" predetermined the delay in the opening of the second front. While the Allies were fighting for Africa, the Red Army had already launched a counteroffensive.

American soldiers land on
shore at Azreve in Algiers during an operation
"Torch"

The North African campaign (June 10, 1940 - May 13, 1943) was military operations between the Anglo-American and Italian-German troops in North Africa - on the territory of Egypt and the Maghreb during the Second World War. In its course, the famous battles of the British with the troops of the German General Rommel, known as the "desert fox", and the landing of the American-British troops in Morocco and Algeria took place (landing operation "Torch", November 1942). The East African campaign officially lasted less than a year and a half - from June 10, 1940 to November 27, 1941, however, Italian soldiers continued to fight in Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea until the end of 1943, until the surrender order reached them. De Gaulle and British troops landed on Madagascar, which was a supply base for Japanese submarines in the Indian Ocean, in May 1942, and by November of that year the island was liberated from Vichy and Japanese troops.

Academician A.B. Davidson wrote that during the Second World War, military operations in Tropical Africa were conducted only on the territory of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. “In 1941, British troops, together with Ethiopian partisans and with the active participation of the Somalis, occupied the territories of these countries. There were no hostilities in other countries of Tropical and South Africa. But hundreds of thousands of Africans were mobilized in the armies of the mother countries. An even greater number of people had to serve the troops, work for military needs. Africans fought in North Africa, Western Europe, the Middle East, Burma, Malaya. On the territory of the French colonies, there was a struggle between the Vichy and supporters of the "Free France", which, as a rule, did not lead to military clashes. The policy of the metropolitan countries in relation to the participation of Africans in the war was ambivalent: on the one hand, they sought to use the human resources of Africa as fully as possible, on the other, they were afraid to allow Africans to modern species. Most of the mobilized Africans served in the auxiliary troops, but many still completed full combat training, received military specialties as drivers, radio operators, signalmen, etc. ”

By the beginning of the war, Africa (especially northeast) had become a strategic foothold, for which a fierce battle unfolded.
Over a million African soldiers fought on the side of the colonial powers in World War II. Few of them initially understood the causes of the war and the meaning of what they fought for. Only a few soldiers knew more about Hitler and fascism.

One of the veterans, John Henry Smith of Sierra Leone, recalled that his teacher gave him Hitler's Mein Kampf to read. “We read what this man was going to do to black Africans if he came to power. It was a book that would make every African revolt against someone like it happened to me." So John volunteered and joined the Royal Air Force of Great Britain, where he served as a navigator.

Africans in World War II found themselves, as in 1914, drawn into a "not their own" war. Since 1939, hundreds of thousands of soldiers from West Africa have been sent to the European front. Many inhabitants of the British colonies served as porters or did other work in the service of the troops. Although there were Africans willing to fight fascism voluntarily, in most cases there was a forced mobilization of Africans to the front.

French African soldiers
colonial army

Whether soldiers or prisoners of war, Africans at the front were in close contact with European soldiers and the realities of European life. They realized that Europeans are the same mortal, vulnerable people, no higher and no better than themselves. It should be noted that the attitude towards black soldiers on the part of their white comrades in arms and commanders was often biased and unfair. The well-known South African politician Ronnie Kasrils noted in his article dedicated to the visit of South African President J. Zuma to Moscow to celebrate the 70th anniversary of the Victory over Nazi Germany that “racial discrimination in the South African army was so deeply rooted that the dead, black and white were buried separately. He gave examples of the feats that some of the South African soldiers had accomplished and noted that if they were not black, they would certainly have received the highest British military award, the Victoria Cross. Instead, black soldiers received overcoats and bicycles as rewards at the end of the war.

The war experience has changed Africans' understanding of their own situation in many ways. Many veterans took part in the liberation movements upon their return to their homeland, but some of them were reproached by the independence fighters for fighting on the side of the colonialists and oppressors. Many of the living African veterans of the second world feel bitterness, because their contribution to the victory over fascism was not appreciated. Deutsche Welle quotes 93-year-old war veteran Albert Kuniuku from Kinshasa (DR Congo), chairman of the Veterans Union: “I receive a monthly pension for participation in the war in the amount of 5,000 Congolese francs (this is equal to 4.8 euros, ). This is not worthy of someone who defended the Belgian interests.

Africans in World War II found themselves, as in 1914, drawn into a "not their own" war.

Africans also knew about the role of the Soviet Union in the fight against fascism. More educated, politically active Africans who participated in the war had, apparently, a sufficient idea about this. However, there were also curiosities. The oldest employee of the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, veteran of the Great Patriotic War P.I. Kupriyanov, at the celebration of Victory Day within the walls of the Institute in 2015, told a curious incident: a few years after the end of the war, he visited Liberia, where an elderly Liberian once came to his hotel, who, in wartime, listened on the radio about the successes of the Red Army and came look at the Soviet soldier. He noted with surprise that the Soviet soldier was quite young, not huge, and his skin color was not red. From listening to the radio, he got the image of a giant soldier with a red skin tone, because only such amazing people, as it seemed to a simple African, could crush the Nazi army.

Congolese bugler, 1943

In the article already mentioned above, the South African politician Ronnie Kasrils noted that “the victory over fascism saved the world from slavery and catastrophe. It also led to the collapse of the colonial system and contributed to the independence of Africa and the emergence of armed liberation movements, such as ours, which received support from the USSR and the countries of the socialist camp. He noted that attempts are being made to downplay and distort the role of the USSR in the victory over fascism, to rewrite history, and pointed out the danger of such attempts. They are dangerous because the concealment of the truth about the Second World War for the sake of geopolitical interests entails the oblivion of the lessons of history by modern youth around the world. R. Kasrils noted that fascism is now on the rise in different parts of Europe and that the world must jointly prevent its new spread.

Despite the efforts to present England and America as the main winners, and despite the real importance of the victories of the allies in North Africa, the Battle of Britain, the opening of the second, Western, front, R. Kasrils emphasized that the main theater of the war was the Eastern Front, the confrontation between the USSR and Nazi Germany where the outcome of the war was decided. “Propaganda and lies are generated by the West in order to hide the true nature of the Second World War and the huge debt that humanity owes to the Russian people and the peoples of the former USSR. They, without any doubt, took the brunt and saved the world from fascism.

For African countries, as well as for Russia, it is important to remember the history of their participation in the Second World War as it was, not allowing its distortion, downplaying the role of those who fought against fascism, forgetting their important contribution to the common victory over this evil.

Decolonization of Africa After the Second World War, the process went quickly
decolonization of Africa. Year of Africa - year of liberation
the largest number of colonies - was announced in 1960. This year
17 states gained independence. Most of them -
French Colonies And UN Trust Territories,
under French administration: Cameroon, Togo,
Malagasy Republic, Congo (former French Congo),
Dahomey, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Chad,
Central African Republic, Gabon, Mauritania,
Niger, Senegal, Mali. were declared independent
Africa's largest country by population
Nigeria, owned by Great Britain, and the largest
on the territory - the Belgian Congo. British Somalia and
ward of Somalia, administered by Italy,
united and became the Somali Democratic
Republic.

1960

"Year of Africa" ​​proclamation
independence
17 states.

Dates received by countries
African Independence

South Africa

South Africa is one of the most
nationally diverse
African countries and has
the largest proportion of white
Asian and mixed
population on the continent. Country
has rich
mineral resources, and
is also the most
economically developed in Africa
and has relatively strong
world positions

Union of South Africa

May 31, 1910 was
Union of South Africa formed
where they entered
British Cape
colony, Natal,
Colony Orange
rivers and the Transvaal.
He became a dominion
british empire

Independence of South Africa

In 1961 the South African
Union became independent
republic (South African Republic),
who left the Commonwealth
nations led
Great Britain. The exit was
due to non-acceptance
apartheid policies in South Africa
other members of the Commonwealth
(South Africa's membership in the Commonwealth
was restored in June
1994).

Apartheid and its aftermath

In 1948 the National Party won
in the elections and held several very
strict laws restricting the rights
black population: the ultimate goal of this
policy was the creation of "South Africa
for whites", while blacks
it was supposed to completely deprive
South African citizenship.

Apartheid and its aftermath

During apartheid, blacks were actually partially or
completely deprived of the following rights:
The right to citizenship of South Africa (in most cases this has become a privilege)
The right to vote and be elected
The right to freedom of movement (Negroes were forbidden to go out on
street after sunset, as well as appearing in "white" areas without much
permission of the authorities, that is, in fact, they were forbidden to visit
large cities, since they were in "white" areas)
The right to mixed marriages
The right to medical care (they did not have this right formally
taken away, but they were forbidden to use medicine "for whites", while
while medicine "for blacks" was completely undeveloped, and in
some areas were absent altogether)
The right to education (the main educational institutions were
in "white" areas)
The right to be employed (for employers it was officially
enshrined the right to apply racial discrimination in admission to
job)

Frederick de KLERK

President of South Africa 1989-1994
who destroyed the system
racial inequality.

NELSON MANDELA

Racial fighter
equality and
President of South Africa
in 1994 - 1999

Nelson Holilala Mandela

Nelson Holilala
Mandela (- first
black president
South Africa from May 10, 1994 to
June 14, 1999, one of
the most famous
activists in the fight for
human rights in
period of existence
apartheid, for which 27 years
was in prison, laureate
Nobel Prize
peace 1993.

Due to the fact that the borders of African states
during the "race for Africa" ​​were held
artificially, without taking into account the resettlement of various
peoples and tribes, as well as what is traditional
African society was not ready for
democracy, in many African countries after
independence began civil
war. In many countries came to power
dictators. The resulting regimes
disregard for human rights,
bureaucracy, totalitarianism, which, in turn,
leads to an economic crisis and growing
poverty

Establishment of military dictatorships

The reasons
The incompleteness of the processes of formation of the African
societies
Relatively short period of independent development
African countries
A complex interweaving of different types of economic
relations
Weak social class differentiation of society
Remains of tribal relations
A wide range of ideological views of the population
Economic and political dependence on developed countries
The presence of such social phenomena as hunger, poverty,
diseases, illiteracy, low political culture

NAMIBIA

country of southeast africa,
last freed from
colonial dependence.

Description of the presentation on individual slides:

1 slide

Description of the slide:

2 slide

Description of the slide:

Causes In the interwar years, the role of oil fields discovered and operated by British companies in Iraq and Iran rapidly began to grow. Control over North Africa made it possible to "block" both water and land routes to India, Malaya, as well as to the British dominions - Australia and New Zealand. The same can be said about the routes connecting the Black Sea ports with the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic.

3 slide

Description of the slide:

Mussolini's reasons attracted a tidbit of "living space" and hopes for an easy victory ... According to the Duce's plan, activity on the African front was to become an important contribution of Italy to the geopolitical strategy of the Axis countries and tie down significant allied forces in Africa. Beginning in 1940, National Socialist geopoliticians studied the project of a "small victorious safari in North Africa" ​​extensively. However, for Hitler, this theater of operations was of secondary importance. The British were well aware of the weakness of their position in the area. They feared an Italian offensive against their strongholds in the Middle East, especially if it was supported by Germany.

4 slide

Description of the slide:

The forces of the parties at the beginning of the war In North Africa, Italy had two armies. The total number of troops was: 236 thousand people, 1800 guns and 315 aircraft. Almost all types of tanks and armored vehicles with which the troops were equipped were inferior to British tanks and armored vehicles in speed, armament and armor quality. The commander of the troops is the Governor General of Libya, Air Marshal Italo Balbo. By June 10, 1940, the troops of Great Britain, including parts of the dominions and colonies, in Egypt amounted to 66 thousand soldiers and officers (including 30 thousand Egyptians) - the Nile Army. Air Force of England, available in Egypt and Palestine - 168 aircraft. The commander-in-chief of British forces in the Middle East was General Archibald Percival Wavell.

5 slide

Description of the slide:

General Wavell adopted the tactic of harassing the enemy with counterattacks. In skirmishes on the border, the Italians lost 3,500 people killed, wounded and captured during the first three months of the war, and the British only 150. Marshal Balbo also died at the same time: on June 28, Italian anti-aircraft gunners mistakenly shot down the plane on which he was flying, which was landing in Tobruk . He was replaced by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani. War of the Anglo-French coalition was declared by Italy on June 10, 1940. However, the rapid defeat of France and her withdrawal from the war concentrated aggressive plans in the direction of Egypt. The first three months of hostilities were positional in nature.

6 slide

Description of the slide:

At the same time… 1940.06.22 - Capitulation of France 1940.06.28 - Annexation of the USSR from Romania to Bessarabia and North. Bukovina 1940.08.01 - Hitler issued directive No. 17 on conducting a wide air war against England, the Battle for England began German patrol on the streets of Paris

7 slide

Description of the slide:

However, the lack of fuel, water and food stopped the offensive near the city of Sidi Barrani, where the Italians created a chain of military camps. On December 9, 1940, British troops under the command of Major General Richard O'Connor begin Operation Compass, which lasted until February 12, 1941. Within two days, all camps are destroyed. In the course of a further operation, the cities of Torbruk and Benghazi were already taken on the territory of Libya, and the 10th Italian army was defeated. 136 thousand soldiers and 7 generals surrendered. Threatened over Tripoli. However, on February 10, 1941, the British headquarters ordered the suspension of the advance of troops at El Agheila. September 16, 1940 Italian troops under the command of Marshal Graziani invaded Egypt

8 slide

Description of the slide:

At the same time… 1940.09.23 - Japanese invasion of Indochina. 09/1940/27 - The Tripartite Pact is signed: Germany, Italy and Japan on a military alliance 10/1940/28 - Italy's invasion of Greece 01/1941/19 - The beginning of the British offensive on Eritrea. 02/1941/03 - The German High Command orders the deployment of large-scale military preparations for an attack on the East. At the signing of the Tripartite Pact

9 slide

Description of the slide:

Germany decided to take advantage of the weakening of the Italian forces in Libya in order to help them create a strategic foothold in North Africa, necessary in the future to capture all of Africa. In addition, the capture of Egypt and the Suez Canal was also in the interests of Germany. During February 1941, German troops were transferred to Libya, commanded by General Erwin Rommel. The hasty retreat of the Italian troops was halted in mid-February 1941. The Italo-German combined forces began to move back to El Agueila and on February 22 met with British troops stationed at El Agheila and on the eastern border of the Sirte desert. On March 31, the German command struck the British with a blow that turned out to be sudden. On the night of April 4, the Italo-German troops occupied Benghazi without a fight, and on April 10 they approached Tobruk, which they blocked the next day, but failed to take the city. In mid-April, Rommel was forced to stop the offensive on the border of Egypt and Libya.

10 slide

Description of the slide:

At the same time… 1941.03.06 - Winston Churchill in his speech on March 6, 1941, in connection with the sharply increased losses of the British merchant fleet, set the task of starting the Battle of the Atlantic on 1941.04. - German troops captured Yugoslavia and Greece 1941.05.20 - German airborne assault on Crete. German motorcyclists on the streets of Belgrade

11 slide

Description of the slide:

In June 1941, the British command made an attempt to release Tobruk with large forces. On June 15, 1941, in the area of ​​Es Sallum and Fort Ridotta Capuzzo, an attack by British troops began, recapturing several settlements from the Germans. However, the German counterattack on the night of June 18 threw the British back to their positions. On November 18, 1941, British troops under the command of Claude Auchinleck launched their second offensive in Cyrenaica - Operation Crusader (Crusader), the purpose of which was to push Rommel back to Tripolitania. Thorbrook has been released. The offensive stopped on December 31 in the El Agheila area. The British were already celebrating their victory.

12 slide

Description of the slide:

At the same time… 1941.06.22 - Plan "Barbarossa" in action: German troops invaded the USSR 1941.08.14 - "Atlantic Charter" between England and the United States on the post-war order of the world 1941.08.25 - Entry of Anglo-Russian troops into Iran. 12.05-06 1941 - The failure of the German offensive on Moscow. 12/1941/07 - Japanese aircraft raid Pearl Harbor 12/1941/08 - The United States and Britain declare war on Japan. June 22, 1941. German bombers over Soviet territory on December 7, 1941. After the attack on Pearl Harbor

13 slide

Description of the slide:

However, the Italians managed to lead a large convoy to Libya that delivered tanks and other weapons. On January 21, 1942, Rommel attacked the British troops and pushed them back to Thorbrook. British troops fortified on the line near Ain el Ghazal. On the heels of the retreating British 8th Army, Rommel's troops invaded Egypt. The offensive was stopped at 100 km. from Alexandria near the town of El Alamein on July 1, 1942. Despite the reinforcements received (164th Light Division "Africa"), it was not possible to break through the defenses of the 8th Army immediately. Hot battles broke out. Until 27 July, Rommel unsuccessfully tried to break through the Allied defenses. On August 15, General Harold Alexander was appointed to replace General Claude Auchinleck. The 8th Army was led by General Montgomery. From August 31 to September 5, Rommel resumed attacks in the Alam Halfa area near El Alamein, but Montgomery successfully repulsed them. From May 26 to May 27, 1942, Rommel launched a new offensive, attacking British positions on the "Gazala Line" west of Tobruk, and broke through the British defenses. On June 20, German-Italian troops captured Tobruk.

14 slide

Description of the slide:

At the same time… 1942.01.20 Japanese troops cross Thailand, invade Burma. 06/04/1942 - From June 4 to June 6, a naval battle took place off Midway Atoll. 1942.07.01 - Capture of Sevastopol by German troops 1942.07.17 - Battles for Stalingrad began. Stalingrad. Fight on the streets of the city

15 slide

Description of the slide:

On October 23, 1942, British troops under the command of General Montgomery went on the offensive against the Italo-German troops and in early November broke through the enemy defenses in the El Alamein area. On November 2, British troops broke through the enemy defenses after 3 days and the German-Italian tank army "Africa" ​​was forced to retreat under enemy attacks. During the pursuit, British troops occupied the city of Tobruk on November 13, 1942. Operation Torch (Torch) began on November 8, 1942 - the American-English divisions under the command of General Eisenhower, having met only symbolic resistance from the troops of Vichy France, landed in Algiers, Oran and Casablanca. By the end of November, Anglo-American troops occupied Morocco and Algeria and entered Tunisia. By order of Hitler on November 9, 1942, German troops begin to land in Tunisia. On November 11, the Germans enter troops into French territory controlled by the Vichy government. Meanwhile, the persecution of the Rommel group in Libya continues. Overcoming the minefields left by the retreating British troops on January 23, 1943, they occupied Tripoli and in the first half of February they stopped at the Maret line west of the Tunisian border with Libya.

Decolonization in Africa covers almost all of the post-war years. At first, all the Arab countries of North Africa, except Algeria, gained independence. Most of the states of Tropical Africa gained independence in 1960, it is called the year of Africa. Further decolonization went more difficult. Portugal tried to the last to keep its colonies. In Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, in response to this, an armed liberation movement began. The colonial wars eventually bled the mother country, in 1974 a revolution took place in Portugal, the colonies became independent.

A difficult situation arose in Southern Rhodesia. There was a significant white minority, mostly farmers. Whites in 1965 declared the independence of Rhodesia. Neither Great Britain, which belonged to Rhodesia, nor the UN recognized this independence, and the Africans - the inhabitants of the country - began an armed struggle. Once isolated, whites sat down with Africans at the negotiating table in 1979. A new constitution was developed, in 1980 elections were held on its basis and the independence of a new state, Zimbabwe, was proclaimed.

The last territory that did not have independence was the former German South-West Africa, the mandate for which was transferred to South Africa after the First World War. South Africa tried first to annex this territory, then to create a white minority government there. Africans since 1966 began an armed struggle for independence. The United Nations in 1973 officially deprived South Africa of the mandate for this territory. Only in 1989, realizing the doom of attempts to maintain control over it, South Africa entered into negotiations with the Africans. Thus, another independent African state appeared - Namibia.

Arab countries of Africa

The development of the Arab states of North Africa followed different paths. If Morocco and Tunisia consistently adhered to a pro-Western political orientation and a course towards the modernization of the country in line with a market economy, then in Algeria and Libya in the 60s supporters of socialist transformations came to power. Since the 1970s, oil revenues have given them the funds they need to do this.

Egypt

The largest Arab country in terms of population - Egypt - gained independence after the First World War, its rulers pursued a pro-Western policy. British troops were in the Suez Canal zone, and the canal itself remained foreign property. In 1952, King Farouk was overthrown in a military coup and Gamal Abdel Nasser became the leader of the country.

In 1956, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal. By challenging England, Nasser shook the imagination of the Arab world, in the same year he began preparations for another war with Israel, the pan-Arab enemy. But Israel struck a surprise blow and captured the entire Sinai Peninsula. England and France entered the war, trying to regain control of the Suez Canal. In response, the USSR declared its full support for Egypt. The US did not support its allies. The UN demanded the withdrawal of foreign troops from Egyptian territory. Nasser suddenly appeared in the eyes of the astonished Arabs as the winner of three states at once, including two great powers.

United Arab Republic

In 1958, the creation of the United Arab Republic, consisting of Egypt and Syria, was announced, Nasser became its president. It was thought that in the future other Arab states would join them. In Egypt, foreign capital was nationalized, and since 1961 a course has been taken for the "building of socialism." Now the property of Egyptian entrepreneurs has already been nationalized, they have switched from agrarian reform to cooperation. At the same time, the political system was also transformed, it turned into a one-party system.

However, further failures awaited Nasser. Also in 1961, Syria withdrew from the United Arab Republic. An even greater blow to Nasser's prestige was the defeat of the Egyptian army in the Sinai in 1967, although again the Israeli army's attack was provoked by Nasser himself, who blocked access to the Israeli port of Eilat on the Red Sea. He even announced his resignation, but then, at the “request of the people,” he remained as president.

The war caused enormous damage to Egypt, the Suez Canal ceased to function - the main source of income for the country. The public sector was inefficient. The overgrown bureaucracy absorbed all budget revenues. After Nasser's death in 1970, change became inevitable. His successor Anwar Sadat, after an unsuccessful attempt in 1973 to liberate Egyptian territory, was forced to recognize this.

Sadat abandoned the ambitious plans of uniting all Arabs, the country became known as the Arab Republic of Egypt. The economic policy changed dramatically: private capital was encouraged, many Egyptian entrepreneurs were given back their property. The doors were also “opened” for foreign capital.

Realizing that he could return the Suez Canal and Sinai only by agreeing with Israel, Sadat in 1976 broke ties with the USSR. In 1978, through the mediation of American President Carter, he and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin negotiated a peace treaty signed in 1979.

The treaty caused a sharply negative reaction in the Arab world, Egypt was expelled from the Arab League. Sadat himself became a victim of an Islamic fanatic: in 1981, he shot him during a military parade. However, Sadat and his successor Hosni Mubarak managed to bring Egypt out of the crisis. A multi-party system was restored in the country. Egypt's ties with the Arab world also gradually improved.

Tropical Africa

The development of the countries of Tropical Africa turned out to be fraught with the greatest difficulties. It is the most economically backward region in the world. By the time these countries gained independence, most of the population was concentrated in the traditional sector. The modern sector was small and in most cases had little connection with the traditional. Modernization in these countries has led to the fact that the rate of destruction of the traditional sector has significantly outstripped the rate of creation of the modern one. The resulting "surplus" population found no use for itself. It accumulated in cities, creating belts of poverty around them. These people lived on odd jobs or on handouts from the state, which was afraid of a social explosion.

Population explosion

These problems were exacerbated by a sharply increased population growth rate. The new ruling elite of African countries, educated in a European way, sought, first of all, to put an end to the most egregious signs of backwardness. It was unsanitary conditions, lack of access of the population to modern medicine. Enormous funds were thrown into this. Assistance from international organizations was sent there as well. As a result, it was possible to eliminate or limit the centers of epidemic diseases, such as malaria, relatively quickly. Vaccination of the population, sanitary and hygienic measures - the construction of water treatment facilities and sewer systems in cities, the use of disinfectants - all this led to a sharp reduction in mortality. But people continued to adhere to traditional ideas about the family, according to which the more children, the better. The birth rate has risen. This created the conditions for an unprecedented rate of population growth, in which Africa ranks first in the world.

Political regimes in sub-Saharan Africa

In conditions where the majority of the population is poor and unsettled people, it is impossible to achieve civil peace - a necessary condition for a stable democratic society. This civil peace is all the more impossible due to the extreme ethnic diversity of African countries. After all, the borders of African states were established by the colonial powers, they are artificial. Independence in Africa was gained not by nations, but by colonial territories. South of the Sahara there are no one-national states. At the same time, some large nations are separated by state borders. So, the Fulbe people, whose number is more than 20 million people, live in 6 states of West Africa and are nowhere the largest. This, in particular, led to the fact that even after independence in most countries of Tropical Africa, the language of the metropolis remained the official language, it was the only means of interethnic communication. But, as we know from the example of Europe, the destruction of a traditional society, the formation of an industrial society lead to the emergence of national self-consciousness and national movements. For Africa, therefore, modernization has turned into an increase in interethnic, interethnic conflicts within African states. Often they pose a threat to the integrity of these states. So, in 1967, the Ibo people in Eastern Nigeria announced the separation and creation of the independent state of Biafra, the civil war continued until 1969. The territorial integrity of Nigeria has been preserved. But the long-term war of the Eritreans for independence from Ethiopia ended in victory. Ethiopia was forced to recognize Eritrea as an independent state. The armed struggle between the Hutu and Tutsi peoples in Rwanda led not only to huge casualties, but to the collapse of the state. Ethnic violence continues in Sudan, Liberia.

The complex ethnic composition of African states gives rise to another feature of political life - tribalism (from the Latin "tribus" - "tribe"). Tribalism means adherence to ethnic isolation, in this case all socio-economic relations are refracted through ethnic ones. Political parties are created along ethnic lines, they tend to do business only with fellow tribesmen, etc.

All this left its mark on the political development of the countries of Tropical Africa. The absence of civil peace caused the failure of the first post-independence attempts to create democratic states. Soon, authoritarian regimes were established in these countries, usually relying on the army, the only real force. The political struggle in Africa for a long time took the form of periodic military coups and counter-coups. But all this, in turn, did not contribute to the formation of civil peace. Rather, on the contrary, violence, turning into the main means of retaining power, gave rise to retaliatory violence.

In 1965, Jean-Bedel Bokassa, commander of the army of the Central African Republic, seized power and soon proclaimed himself emperor. In order to carry out the coronation at the proper level in his poor country, he collected taxes for years to come, brutally persecuting all the discontented. When he gave the order to shoot a demonstration of schoolchildren, this caused general indignation. French paratroopers landed in the republic (it was a French colony in the past) and overthrew him. In Uganda, in 1971, General Idi Amin, a former boxing champion, seized power. He proclaimed himself president for life and bloodily suppressed any manifestation of discontent. During the years of his reign, 300 thousand people died. Amin was overthrown only with the help of the Tanzanian army. In Uganda, after him, a civil war continued for several more years.

Political instability, in turn, made it difficult to solve economic problems. There were few domestic sources of investment, and foreign ones were simply impossible due to the unpredictability of most local rulers. In many countries, modernization was carried out in the form of "building socialism" (Ghana, Guinea, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Congo), where, as a rule, foreign property was simply confiscated. The struggle for economic independence in these countries often took the form of abandoning the production of traditional "colonial" goods. In Tanzania, which was the largest supplier of sisal to the world market, a decision was made to get rid of it. As a result, the country has lost a reliable source of foreign currency. Over time, the relative prosperity of those countries that have retained or even increased their export potential has been revealed. These are exporters of oil (Nigeria, Gabon), copper (Zaire, Zambia), cocoa (Ivory Coast), tea and coffee (Kenya).

Difficulties of the 80s

In the 1980s, the countries of Tropical Africa faced particular difficulties. Their growth rates have fallen, external debt has increased. Urgent measures were needed to save the economy. All forces were thrown at building up the export potential. With the assistance of international financial organizations, the restructuring of the economy began. Experiments on the introduction of a planned economy and the development of the public sector were over. The establishment of market relations began. Instead of restricting foreign capital, they everywhere switched to its encouragement. So far, these measures have led to some economic recovery.

Interethnic conflicts spill out beyond state borders, giving rise to interstate clashes. To prevent border conflicts, African countries agreed to adhere to the principle of respect for existing borders, which was included in the Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

Republic of South Africa

This state arose on the site of the only European migrant colony in Africa. After the war, it turned into a fairly highly developed state with a developed mining industry. The political regime that prevailed in this country, however, sharply distinguished it from other developed countries. It was based on the idea of ​​apartheid - the artificial separation of the white minority from the black majority. He was justified by the desire to preserve the national identity of these communities and save white workers from competition from the cheap labor of the local population. Blacks and whites lived separately. The white minority also owned all the power in the country. The struggle of the black population for equality was led by the African National Congress (ANC). At first, she advocated only non-violent means of struggle. After the Second World War, when the decolonization of Africa began, there was an upsurge in the liberation struggle, but the authorities responded to it by intensifying persecution. Then supporters of violent methods of struggle also appeared in the ANC. Among them was Nelson Mandela.

Meanwhile, Africa was liberated. South Africa remained the only state on the continent where the local population was discriminated against. All the liberated countries united in the struggle against apartheid. South Africa has fallen into a real international isolation. The situation of the black population itself has also changed. A large working class was formed from it, the mining industry could no longer work without attracting hundreds of thousands of Africans. A formidable black middle class emerged. The maintenance of apartheid threatened with unpredictable consequences for the regime. Gradually, among the white population, an understanding of the need for political reforms was established. Frederick de Klerk became the leader of the supporters of change.

The following year, he granted amnesty to Mandela. He led the ANC. The South African Parliament began one by one to repeal the laws on which the apartheid regime rested. The bans on cohabitation and study of whites and blacks were lifted, the ban on interracial marriages was lifted. The proximity of the abolition of apartheid sharply increased the political confrontation between supporters and opponents of the former regime among whites, but most of them supported the president in a 1992 referendum. The struggle among the various factions of the black population also intensified. The authority of Mandela as the leader of all blacks began to be challenged by representatives of the Zulu tribe. The rivalry has become violent. With difficulty, de Klerk and Mandela managed to achieve the signing of a non-violence pact by all political parties in the country. In 1993, with the participation of representatives of all parties, a new constitution was drafted. According to it, South Africa has become a democratic multiracial state. The presidential elections held the following year, in which blacks participated for the first time, brought victory to Mandela. South Africa emerged from international isolation, it was admitted to the Organization of African Unity and became an integral part of the world community of democratic states.

Kreder A.A. Recent history of foreign countries. 1914-1997