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Roman Concrete book. Chapter III Benefit, strength and beauty.

Road construction in ancient Rome.

Roads of Ancient Rome.

Roads glorified Ancient Rome. Roads are trade routes, communication routes that contributed to the development of Ancient Rome, its culture and civilization. They transported booty looted in the conquered countries, drove thousands of slaves.

Rice. 21. Profile of a Roman road with gravel (a) and stone (b) coating (according to Leger)
1 - underlying layer; 2 - stone slabs; 3.4 - concrete; 5 - stone slabs; 6 - coarse gravel or crushed stone.

At the beginning of the II century. in the time of Trajan, there were already about 100 thousand kilometers of state roads, mostly with a hard surface. They were well equipped and kept in excellent operational condition. On the main roads of Rome, road signs were installed every Roman mile (about 1.5 km). Station houses-hotels and repair services were envisaged. All this contributed to their great throughput. So, according to contemporaries, Emperor Augustus could travel 185 km along Roman roads during daylight hours, and Tiberius covered a distance of 350 km in a day. With the accurate work of all services and a quick change of horses, on average, it was possible to drive up to 300 km per day.

Probably, most of the roads of Ancient Rome were built in accordance with the requirements of the first "technical conditions", the so-called "12 tables", developed as early as 450 BC. e. According to this document, the roads were divided by width into the following parts (lanes): Semita (semita) or a pedestrian lane 30 cm wide. Iter (iter) - a lane for riders and pedestrians with a width of no more than 92 cm; actus (aktus) - a lane for single-drawn carts and carriages 122 cm wide and a two-lane via - (via) - the main carriageway about 244 cm wide. Thus, if we assume that Semites, iter and actus passed on both sides of the road, then the total their width, taking into account the double via, was approximately 7 to 10 m. In later times of the empire, these dimensions were no longer strictly followed.

First Roman road.

Appian Way.

The first strategic road of the Romans was considered Appian, laid in 312 BC. e. censor Appius Claudius Crassus. It was the widest paved road that connected Rome with Capua. It was along it that 6 thousand slaves who rebelled under the leadership of Spartacus were crucified on crosses. The Appian Way was 540 km long and 7...8 m wide. Like most of the major roads of Ancient Rome, despite the terrain, it was for the most part straight, like a beam. Similar was the “Via Flaminia” - the Great Northern Road, built around 220 BC. e. It was perhaps the longest road in length that went from Rome to northern Italy through the Alps and further along the Adriatic Sea to Byzantium. It is believed that until the end of the 1st c. BC e. almost the entire Italian peninsula was crossed by roads leading to Rome.

At that time, a rectangular coordinate grid of houses with long and straight streets was common in Roman cities. This does not mean that all streets were like that. Inside the quarters, the streets, on the contrary, were narrow and crooked, but the main streets were different from them. They often had a width of 12 m, and in some cities, such as, for example, in Cologne, the distance between the gables of buildings reached 32 m. The main road there, taking into account sidewalks, had a width of 22 m, and without sidewalks 11 - 14 m.

Within the city limits, a sidewalk with a width of 0.5 to 2.4 m was necessarily arranged on the roads, which was separated from the carriageway by a curb stone about 45 cm high. The base of such roads was usually drained using special drains and ditches, and their surface was always raised above ground level and had a slight slope to the periphery.

The total thickness of Roman roads ranged from 80 to 130 cm, although some of them reached 240 cm. As a rule, the roads were multi-layered, from four to five layers, with a middle layer of concrete, although there is no absolute certainty about this. The bottom layer of many roads was a base of stone slabs 20-30 cm thick, which were laid on a well-compacted subgrade through a mortar screed, followed by leveling them with sand. The second layer, 23 cm thick, consisted of concrete (broken stone laid in mortar). The third layer, also 23 cm thick, was made of fine gravel concrete. Both concrete layers were carefully compacted. This was the most difficult and exhausting part of the work, which was carried out mainly by slaves and sometimes by military units. The last, upper layer of the road was covered with large stone blocks with an area of ​​0.6-0.9 m 2 and a thickness of about 13 cm (Fig. 21). It is believed that most of the Appian Way was built in this way.

Thus, according to a number of researchers involved in the study of Roman roads, it can be stated that an obligatory element of Roman roads was a layer of concrete about 30 cm thick, which was placed between the stone slabs of the base and the stone paving of the top coating. On fig. 22 shows a cross-section of one such road paved with stone pavers or gravel concrete.

French engineer M. Fleury at the beginning of the 20th century. described the construction of a Roman gravel road. The soil, according to him, was dug up to a depth of four feet (120 cm), after which the bottom of the trench was carefully compacted with ironed wooden rammers. At the bottom, a lime-sand bed one inch (2.5 cm) thick was poured, on which a layer of flat wide stones was laid. A layer of mortar was again poured over these stones and compacted well. The next layer, 9-10 inches (23-25 ​​cm) thick, consisted of concrete, where cobblestones and gravel were the coarse aggregate. In addition to them, tiles and stone fragments of destroyed buildings were also used. Above this layer, a new layer of concrete was laid on smaller stones, the thickness of which was about one foot (30 cm). The last top layer, three to three and a half feet (90-105 cm) thick, consisted of coarse gravel or rubble, which was especially carefully compacted over several days.

Rice. 22. Ancient Roman road in London.

Cheaper roads consisted of 13 cm of stone fill, 46 cm of mixed soil, limestone and sand, about 46 cm of compacted soil, and a top layer of cobblestone and broken stone. There were other types of roads. So, in London, an ancient Roman road with a pavement thickness of 230 cm, made entirely of concrete with a coating of white tile slabs, has been preserved. Interestingly, the entire concrete mass of the road is enclosed between stone retaining walls (Fig. 22).

Roman roads had an elaborate drainage system, so the thick mass of concrete did not crack at sub-zero temperatures. The road surface had no expansion joints and was suitable mainly for the mild Italian climate. In the northern provinces of the Roman Empire, cracking could already be observed, so in the later period of the empire, the Romans almost stopped building roads using concrete.

The route of Roman roads was marked out using two parallel ropes, which determined its width. Straightness was ensured using the “thunder” device (Fig. 23), although more often a simpler but more effective method was used for this purpose - with the help of smoke from a distant fire and some intermediate point.

So, for example, Roman roads in England did not deviate from their axis by more than 1/2 - 1/4 miles for every 20-30 miles of length.

A large number of slaves were driven to the construction of roads. Military units and the free population were also involved. A huge volume of stone materials was mined and processed by hand. At the same time, large stones were heated on fires, and then doused with cold water.

Most of the Roman roads were in operation as early as the 20th century, while some have survived to this day. Interestingly, the Romans knew natural asphalt and even in combination with sand and broken stone, but they did not use it to cover the top of the roads.

Thus, it can be noted that the roads of Ancient Rome were quite powerful and durable, ranging from 0.8 to 1.3 m, and in some cases up to 2.4 m. According to modern concepts, roads of this type are made with an excessive margin of safety. For example, the pavement of modern roads of this type for similar climatic conditions does not exceed 60-70 cm, including a frost-protective layer and a wear layer. The design of roads like the Appian can be applied to the heaviest operational loads of our time, on the order of 15 tons per vehicle axle. No wonder this one of the oldest roads in the world, built 2300 years ago, is still in operation today.

Roman roads had a number of other advantages: the presence in some of them of a special wear layer made of natural stones; the possibility of preparing concrete directly at the work site; widespread use of lime, which, due to its high extensibility compared to modern Portland cement, gives concretes with increased crack resistance. And, of course, one of the main advantages of Roman roads is their great durability, as evidenced by the good condition of some of them in our time. For example, the repair of Roman roads in Spain was carried out no more than once every 70-100 years.

detailed map

On the territory of Montenegro, Croatia and Albania, there are still remains of ancient Roman roads. In the Risan region there are sections with well-preserved fragments of such a road. There are such fragments in other parts of the Coast and even inland. Built between 146 and 120 BC, the road stretched over 860 kilometers along the Adriatic coast from present-day Albania to Turkey. The width of the roadway paved with stone was more than 9 meters.

The infrastructure of the ancient Roman "highway" included eateries located on the sides, repair shops and post stations where horses were changed. In addition, along the road at a certain distance there were posts where guards were on duty to monitor security.

Roman road builders even provided for the so-called "chippers" - stone curbs were made in the middle and along the edges of the roadway, which prevented collisions of oncoming carts and their falling off the road into a ditch.Traffic on the ancient Roman highway was left-handed, so that oncoming wagons would not fall under the whips of the charioteers, which they held in their left hand.The road, known as Via Ignatia, began in the city of Durres (modern Albania) and led to Constantinople.

Epaphroditus - envoy Philippians

“Receive him in the Lord with all joy, and hold such in respect,” Paul wrote to the Philippians. Surely we would be happy if a Christian overseer would speak so highly of us (Philippians 2:29). But what was Paul talking about? And what did the man do to deserve such warm praise?The answer to the first question is Epaphroditus.

To answer the second, let's consider the circumstances that prompted Paul to write these words.Approximately 58 A.D. e. the Philippians learned that in Jerusalem a vicious mob dragged Paul out of the temple and beat him, that the authorities arrested him and, after being held without charge, he was transported in chains to Rome (Acts 21:27-33; 24:27; 27:1).

Concerned for his welfare, the Philippians must have asked themselves what they could do for him. They were financially poor and far from Paul, so they could offer limited help. But the Philippians still had the same warm feelings for Paul that had motivated them to support his ministry in the past, and even stronger now because the apostle was in a critical situation (2 Corinthians 8:1-4; Philippians 4:16).The Philippians probably thought: maybe one of them could visit Paul with a gift and help if he needs something. But the journey was long and exhausting, and it might have been dangerous to help Paul! Joachim Gnilka remarks: "It took courage to visit a prisoner, especially one whose 'crime' must have seemed extremely uncertain." Writer Brian Rapsky says, "There was another danger of simply being too closely associated with a prisoner or

A section of the Roman road from the town of Carine in Risan towards Herceg Novi (near the Villa of the Roman Patrician with Roman mosaics on the floor)

eat his glances.

A random word or deed could lead to the death of not only the prisoner, but also his visitor. Who could the Philippians send?One can well imagine that a journey of this kind could cause anxiety and uncertainty, but Epaphrodite (not to be confused with Epaphras of Colosse) agreed to carry out this difficult task. Judging by his name, which contains the name Aphrodite, he may have been a pagan convert to Christianity, whose parents worshiped this Greek goddess of love and fertility.

From the Illyrian fortress of Medeon (now the village of Medun), 13 km from Podgorica to Diolektia (the current name of the excavation site with the Slavic name Dukla), there were also networks of Illyrian-Roman roads, since Rome conquered these territories from Illyria, and the Roman emperor Diolektian was from Diolektia )

When Paul wrote to the Philippians to thank them for their generosity, he had every reason to describe Epaphroditus as “your messenger and minister in my need” (Philippians 2:25).From what the Bible says about Epaphroditus, we can understand that despite his commendable willingness to lend himself to this service to Paul and his congregation, Epaphroditus had the same problems that we may have. Let's see what happened to him.

"Servant in need mine"

We do not know the details, but we can imagine that Epaphroditus arrived in Rome tired from his travels. He walked along the Roman road Via Egnatia, which crossed Macedonia. Perhaps he crossed the Adriatic Sea, landed on the "heel" of the Italian peninsula and then reached Rome along the Appian Way. It was a tiring journey (1,200 kilometers one way) that probably took more than a month. With what attitude did Epaphroditus set off? He was sent to render ‘services’ to Paul, or leitourgia(Philippians 2:30). This Greek word originally referred to the voluntary work of a citizen for the state. Later, this word came to mean the kind of work that the state required without fail from citizens with a certain craft. About the use of this word in the Greek Scriptures, one scholar said: “A Christian is a person who works for God and for people, because, firstly, he desires this with all his heart and, secondly, because he must, and his obliges love to Christ. Yes, what a wonderful mood Epaphroditus had!

'He exposed danger life'

Roman roads in the Balkans - clickable to enlarge

Using a word borrowed from the language of gambling, Paul says that Epaphroditus ‘subjected [ paraboleusamenos] dangers life’, or literally “risked” his life to serve Jesus (Philippians 2:30). We need not think that Epaphroditus acted recklessly in some way; rather, the performance of his sacred service was associated with a certain amount of risk. Maybe he went on an errand in a rainy season? Did he continue to persevere, trying to complete it to the end, after he fell ill somewhere along the way? In any case, Epaphroditus "sick almost to death". He may have had to stay with Paul to minister to him, so the apostle apparently wanted to justify his sooner than expected return (Philippians 2:27, NM). Nevertheless, Epaphroditus was a brave man who was ready to selflessly lend himself to help everyone who needed it.We might ask ourselves, “How much would I lend myself to help my godbrothers who are in difficult circumstances?” This spirit of readiness is indispensable for Christians. Jesus said: Commandment I give you a new one, that you love one another; how I loved you so love one another” (John 13:34). Epaphroditus rendered his services "almost to death". Epaphroditus was an example of someone who had the “feelings” that Paul wanted the Philippians to have (Philippians 2:5, 8, 30). And would we show such readiness?However, Epaphroditus fell into depression. Why?

Epaphroditus in depression

Put yourself in the place of Epaphroditus. Paul reported, “He longed to see you all, and grieved greatly because the news of his illness had reached you” (Philippians 2:26). Epaphroditus knew that the brethren in his congregation knew that he was ill and could not help Paul the way they wanted to. It might seem that Epaphroditus created even more difficulties for Paul. Perhaps the doctor Luke, Paul's companion, put aside other things to take care of Epaphroditus? (Philippians 2:27, 28; Colossians 4:14).Probably, because of this situation, Epaphroditus fell into a state of depression. Perhaps he thought the brothers in the congregation thought he was incapable. Maybe he felt guilty and "strongly desired" to see them to assure them of his loyalty. To describe the state of Epaphroditus, Paul used a very strong Greek word ademoneo, "to fall into depression". According to scholar J. B. Lightfoot, the word can mean "a state of confusion, anxiety, semi-madness, which is caused by ill health or mental suffering, such as sadness, shame, disappointment, etc." The word is used once more in the Greek Scriptures and refers to the terrible agony of Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane (Matthew 26:37).Paul decided it best to send Epaphroditus back to the Philippians with a letter explaining the unexpected return of their messenger. In the phrase "I saw fit to send Epaphroditus to you," Paul takes responsibility for the return of Epaphroditus, therefore dispelling any suspicion that he failed in the task (Philippians 2:25). Epaphroditus almost lost his life while carrying out an assignment! Paul warmly advises that they "receive him in the Lord with all joy, and have such in respect, for he was about to die for the cause of Christ, endangering his life, to make up for the lack of your services to me" (Philippians 2:29, 30 ). "Such keep in respect"

Epaphroditus wanted to serve God and his brothers, but illness prevented him from doing so. Paul did not reproach Epaphroditus for his ill health, but asked the Philippians to support him. That Paul appreciated Epaphroditus and spoke so well of him must have consoled him and eased his depression. We, too, can be sure that ‘God is not unrighteous, that he should forget our work and the labor of love which we have done in his name, serving and serving the saints’ (Hebrews 6:10).

inconveniencetravels on Roman roads

Today, a journey like that made by Epaphroditus, from one important European city to another, may not require much effort. It can be safely completed by plane in one or two hours. It is quite another thing to make such a journey in the first century. In those days, it was inconvenient to move from place to place. On foot, a traveler could travel 30 to 35 kilometers a day, walking in bad weather and being exposed to various dangers, including from “robbers” (2 Corinthians 11:26). How was the accommodation and food? Historian Michelangelo Caggiano de Acevedo notes that along the Roman roads "there were mansiones, that is, hotels, with supplies, stalls and housing for workers; between two nearest mansiones there were several mutationes, or stops along the way where you could change horses or wagons and find everything you need. These taverns had a bad reputation, as they were frequented by people from the lower strata of society. In addition to robbing travelers, tavern owners often supplemented their income from the earnings of prostitutes. The Roman satirist Juvenal said that anyone who is forced to stop in a tavern of this kind can find himself, “lying side by side, with a cutthroat, in the company of barge fishermen, thieves and runaway slaves, next to the executioner and undertaker ... One bowl was served for everyone; no one had a bed or a table separate from the rest.” Other ancient writers complained about bad water and rooms that were overcrowded, dirty, damp and infested with fleas.

Which was constantly under the threat of attack from outside, decided to build a network of paved roads to meet its needs. Roads made it possible to increase the speed of movement of both troops and trade caravans.

The first paved road was built in 312 BC. e. Appius Claudius Caecus between Rome and Capua: she was named after her creator Via Appia(Appian Way). At the end of the existence of the Roman Republic, the territory of the Apennine Peninsula was covered with a network of such roads. Each of them bore the name of the censor who was built. Also, the road could be named after the direction or area through which it passed. Sometimes the roads were renamed after another Roman figure repaired them. Roads were paved only on the territory of cities or on the outskirts of them (with the exception of fully paved Via Appia), but were mostly covered with sand, rubble and gravel from open pits nearby.

Rise of Roman roads

Fall of the Empire

Other sources

There were other itineraries besides the book of Antoninus. For example, itineraria describing the pilgrimage to Jerusalem of Eusebius of Caesarea, Eusebius of Nicomedia, or Theognis of Nicaea. The itinerary from Burdigala (Bordeaux) (Itinerarium Burdigalense) written in 333 also describes which road to follow to reach the Holy Land. And Alexander's Itinerarium (Itinerarium Alexandri) is a list of the conquests of Alexander the Great.

road facilities

The construction of Roman roads did not end with the laying of the road itself. For the convenience of travelers, road signs were installed along the way, bridges were built over water barriers, etc.

milestones

Main article: Milestone

In order to navigate the terrain, Roman engineers at regular intervals erected on the roadsides viae publicae and vicinales milestones ( miliarium). They were cylindrical columns with a height of 1.5 to 4 m and a diameter of 50 to 80 cm. The columns stood on cubic bases, deepened into the ground by about 60-80 cm. Milestones weighed more than 2 tons. These posts, unlike modern road signs, were not placed every mile. They indicated the distance to the nearest settlement.

On the top of each milestone (since travelers most often rode horses or sat in carts, they could see everything clearly) there were inscriptions: the name of the emperor, by whose decree the road was built or repaired, his titles, a few words about the origin of the stone ( whether it was put here after the construction or repair of the road) and the distance from this point to the nearest settlement, major road junction or border. The Romans measured distances in miles. Roman mile (lat. milia passuum) was equal to 1000 double steps and was approximately 1.48 km. On some roads, such signs were placed later than the road itself was built (for example, on the Domitian Way), so the distances were already indicated in other units.

• Bridges of mixed type

Or, for greater strength, the bridge supports were built of stone, and the supporting structure of the platform was made of wood. One example of this type of construction is the Roman bridge at Trier, where the piers were built of stone and the decking was of wood. Today, only Roman stone pillars have been preserved there, while the upper part was built of hewn stone later.

• pontoon bridges

Post stations, inns and warehouses

Many sources describing inns have survived to this day. These tabernae(lat. tavern) often had a very bad reputation, so travelers preferred to camp near them, or live in deversorium(lat. inn, hotel ), intended for wealthy people, or, using the laws of hospitality ( hospitium), to settle with local residents, to whom they had letters of recommendation.

In addition to inns, the roads were lined with horrea(lat. barn, granary, warehouse ), which were in charge of the service cura annonae(taking care of the food supply of the capital of the Empire; lat. annonae curam agree- take care of food).

Courier service and security

cursus publicus- The postal service of the Roman Empire actively used the Roman roads. Couriers quickly delivered messages and news to all corners of the Empire. The postal service was so well established that, under favorable conditions, wagon couriers could travel about 75 km a day (by comparison, postal services in the mid-16th century could usually travel no more than 45 km a day).

Couriers mostly went to cisium with boxes mounted on them. If the message was urgent, then on horseback. Couriers wore characteristic leather headdresses called petanus. The postal service was a rather dangerous occupation, as couriers were often the target of robbers and enemies of the empire. Private correspondence of wealthy people was transported by slaves tabellarii(lat. messenger, messenger).

Since it quickly became clear that the roads were not as safe as we would like, they began to build defensive structures along the roads and set up military camps. They kept order on the roads. Some fortifications turned over time into real fortresses. In addition, the garrison was often involved in road repairs.

Civil, military and sacred monuments

Along the roads there were also various cult and sacred places, for example, temples, which were built for the spiritual support of travelers and in honor of the gods who protect travelers. Travelers prayed to Mercury, the god of trade and the patron of travelers, Diana, the protector of roads and various local gods. Various offerings were given to the gods - money, things, food, etc.

Mausoleums and trophies were erected along the roads by emperors or other wealthy people. They glorified emperors, military leaders, talked about the victories of the Roman troops.

Major Roman roads

Major Roman roads in Italy

• Via Agrippa(Agrippian Way) - built in 40, connected Rome and Boulogne-sur-Mer.
• Via Amilia(Via Aemilia) - built in 187 BC. e. , connected Rimini and Piacenza.
• Via Appia(Appian Way) - built in 312 BC. e. , connected Rome and Brindisi.
• Via Aurelia(Via Aurelius) - built in 241 BC. e. , connected Rome and Liguria.
• Via Cassia(Via Cassius) connected Rome and Etruria.
• Via Clodia connected Rome to the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
• Via Domitia(Domitian Way) - built around 118 BC. e. , connected northern Italy with Spain through Gallia Narbonne.
• Via Egnatia- built in the 2nd century BC e. , connected Durres with Byzantium.
• Via Julia Augusta- built in the 1st century BC. e. , connected Piacenza with the Rhone Valley.
• Via Flaminia(Flaminian Way) - built in 220 BC. e. , connected Rome with Umbria.
• Via Latina connected Rome with southern Italy.
• Via Postumia connected Genoa with Aquileia.
• Via Salaria("salt way") connected Rome with the territories of the Sabines, following through the valley of the Tiber.
• Via Valeria connected Rome with central Italy.

Localization of Roman roads

Many Roman roads have survived to this day: some of them are in their original form, while others are replaced by modern routes. Unfortunately, historical sources that have survived to this day do not always help to accurately determine the location of a particular road.

Little Flamini Road ( Via Flaminia Minor)

It's hard to believe, but even at the end of antiquity, more than a thousand and a half years ago, it was possible to travel from Rome to Athens or from Spain to Egypt, almost all the time staying on a paved highway. For seven centuries, the ancient Romans entangled the entire Mediterranean world - the territory of three parts of the world - with a high-quality road network with a total length of two earth's equators.

Located in the southeast of the historical part of Rome, the small church of Santa Maria in Palmis with a discreet classical facade of the 17th century, of course, does not look as impressive as the grandiose monuments of the Eternal City like the Colosseum or St. Peter's Basilica. However, the deliberate modesty of the temple only emphasizes the special atmosphere of the place associated with one of the most beautiful and dramatic legends of early Christianity. As the New Testament apocrypha “Acts of Peter” tells, it was here, on the Old Appian Way, that the apostle Peter, fleeing from pagan persecutions, met Christ marching to Rome. Domine, quo vadis? (Lord, where are you going?) - the apostle asked the crucified and resurrected Teacher with surprise and fear. - Eo Romam iterum crucifigi (I'm going to Rome to be crucified again), Christ replied. Ashamed of his cowardice, Peter returned to the city, where he was martyred.

Indian network

Among the road systems created in the pre-industrial era, only one is comparable in scale to the ancient Roman one. We are talking about the mountain routes of the Incas, whose empire stretched in the XV-XVI centuries. nbsp; along the Pacific coast of South America - from the modern capital of Ecuador, Quito, to the modern capital of Chile, Santiago. The total length of this road network was about 40,000 km. The Inca roads served approximately the same purposes as the Roman ones - the vast expanses of the empire required the rapid transfer of troops to "hot spots". Merchants and messengers made their way through the Andes along the same paths, carrying messages in the form of knots tied in a special way. Constantly on the road was the emperor himself - the Great Inca, who considered it necessary to personally inspect the possessions. Perhaps the most impressive element of the system was the rope bridges that the Incas built over deep chasms. However, if on Roman roads they both walked and rode - on horseback or in wagons - then the Incas went their own ways exclusively on foot, and only loads were entrusted to loaded lamas. After all, pre-Columbian America did not know a horse or a wheel.

Gift of the Blind Censor

By the time when, according to legend, this legendary meeting took place (mid-1st century AD), the Appian Way had already existed for almost four centuries. The Romans knew her as regina viarum - “queen of the roads”, because it is from via Appia that the history of the paved paths that connected the cities of Italy, and then the entire Mediterranean ecumene, the inhabited world, begins.

Mysterious Map

Konrad Peitinger (1465−1547) is the most educated person of the Renaissance, historian, archaeologist, second-hand book dealer, collector, adviser to the Austrian emperor and one of those thanks to whom we know what the Roman road network looked like. From his late friend Konrad Bikel, the librarian of Emperor Maximilian, Peutinger inherited an old map made on 11 sheets of parchment. Its origin was shrouded in a veil of secrecy - during his lifetime, Bikel only mentioned that he found it "somewhere in the library." After examining the map more closely, Peitinger came to the conclusion that in front of him was a medieval copy of the Roman scheme, which depicts Europe and the entire Mediterranean world. Actually, this was enough for the find to go down in history as the “Peitinger table”. It was first published in Antwerp in 1591, after the death of the scientist himself. Another 300 years later, in 1887, Konrad Miller published a redrawn edition of the Peutinger Table.
The "table" consists of 11 fragments, each 33 centimeters wide. If you put them together, you get a narrow strip 680 cm long, into which the ancient cartographer managed to squeeze the whole world known to him from Gaul to India. For unknown reasons, the map is missing the westernmost part of the Roman Empire - Spain and part of Britain. This suggests that one map sheet is missing. Historians are also puzzled by some of the anachronisms. For example, both the city of Constantinople (the former Byzantium received this name only in 328) and Pompeii, completely destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79, are shown on the map. The author of the map did not try to convey either the scale, or the proportions, or the exact outlines of the coastlines. His work is more like a scheme of subway lines - the main task of which is only to depict the paths and stopping points. The map contains about 3,500 geographical names, which includes the names of cities, countries, rivers and seas, as well as a road map, the total length of which should be 200,000 km!

The name of the road was given by the outstanding ancient Roman statesman Appius Claudius Caecus ("Blind" - lat. Caecus). At the end of the 4th century BC. Rome, which was still at the origins of its power, waged with varying success the so-called Samnite Wars in Campania (a historical region centered in Naples). In order to more tightly connect the newly acquired territories with the metropolis and facilitate the rapid transfer of troops to the “hot spot” of the Apeninnes Peninsula, in 312 AD. Appius Claudius, who then held the high position of censor, ordered a road to be laid from Rome to Capua, an Etruscan city that had been conquered a quarter of a century earlier from the Samnites. The length of the path was 212 km, but the construction was completed within a year. Largely thanks to the road in the Second Samnite War, the Romans won.

As you can see, like the Internet or GPS, Roman roads were originally created for military use, but subsequently opened up unprecedented opportunities for the development of the civilian economy and society as a whole. Already in the next century, the Appian Way was extended to the southern Italian ports of Brundisium (Brindisi) and Tarentum (Taranto), and it became part of the trade route that connected Rome with Greece and Asia Minor.

Since the paths, spontaneously trodden by people and livestock, were replaced in the Roman era by specially laid paved paths, the technology of road construction has changed several times. Nevertheless, the current roads are formed in several layers. In the 17th century, when road construction intensified, roads were made of compacted gravel on a foundation of large blocks. The creator of this technology was the Frenchman Pierre Trezaguet (1716−1796).

Dangerous straightness

Having first conquered the entire Apennine Peninsula, and then Western Europe to the Rhine, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor and Western Asia, as well as North Africa, the Roman state (first a republic, and from the 1st century BC - an empire) methodically developed the road network in every newly acquired corner of the state. Since, as already mentioned, the roads were primarily a military structure, they were laid and built by military engineers and soldiers of the Roman legions. Sometimes slaves and civilians were involved.

Many Roman roads have survived to this day, and this is the best evidence that their construction was approached thoroughly and with all care. Elsewhere, time did not spare the creations of ancient builders, but where legions once marched, modern routes have been laid. These paths are easy to recognize on the map - the highways following the route of the Roman viae, as a rule, are almost perfectly straight. Which is not surprising: any "hook" would lead to a serious loss of time for the Roman troops, who moved mainly on foot.

The Scotsman John McAdam (1756−1836) found a way to reduce the thickness of the base, as he came to the conclusion that the dry, compacted soil itself well supports the weight of the pavement.

European Antiquity did not know a compass, and cartography in those days was in its infancy. Nevertheless - and this cannot but amaze the imagination - Roman surveyors - "agrimensors" and "gromatics" - managed to lay almost perfectly straight routes between settlements separated by tens and even hundreds of kilometers from each other. “Gromatic” is not the word “grammar” written by a loser, but a specialist in working with “thunder”.

"Thunder" was one of the main and most advanced tools of Roman surveyors and was a vertical metal rod with a pointed lower end for sticking into the ground. The upper end was crowned with a bracket with an axis, on which a horizontal crosspiece was planted. Threads with weights hung from each of the four ends of the cross. The laying of the road began with the fact that surveyors placed pegs along the line (rigor), which represents the future route. Thunder helped to most accurately line up three pegs along one straight line, even if all of them were not simultaneously in the line of sight (for example, due to a hill). Another purpose of thunder is to draw perpendicular lines on an earthen plot (for which, in fact, a cross was needed). Land surveying was carried out literally "by eye" - combining in the field of view the threads of plumb lines and pegs standing in the distance, the engineers checked whether the pegs did not deviate from the vertical axis and whether they were exactly lined up in a straight line.

The total length of the roads built by the Romans cannot be accurately estimated. In the historical literature, a "modest" figure is usually given - 83-85 thousand km. However, some researchers go further and give a much larger number - up to 300,000 km. Certain grounds for this are given by the Peitinger Table. However, it must be understood that many roads were of secondary importance and were simply unpaved paths or were not paved along their entire length. The first document regulating the width of Roman roads was the so-called. "Twelve Tables". Adopted in the Roman Republic in 450 BC. e. (that is, even before the advent of long paved roads), these legislative codes established the width of the "via" at 8 Roman feet (1 Roman foot - 296 mm) on straight sections and 16 feet at turns. In reality, the roads could be wider, in particular, such famous Italian highways as Via Appia, Via Flaminia and Via Valeria, even on straight sections, had a width of 13-15 feet, that is, up to 5 m.

stone pie

Of course, not all the roads that were part of the colossal communication network of Ancient Rome were of the same quality. Among them were ordinary dirt paths covered with gravel, and gati made of logs sprinkled with sand. However, the real masterpiece of Roman engineering was the famous via publicae - paved public roads built using technology that has survived millennia. It was their foremother that became the famous Appian Way.

Roman road construction technology is described in some detail by the outstanding architect and engineer of Antiquity, Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (1st century AD). The construction of via began with the fact that along the future route at a given distance (2.5–4.5 m) two parallel grooves broke through. They marked the area of ​​work, and at the same time gave the builders an idea of ​​the nature of the soil in the area. At the next stage, the soil between the grooves was selected, resulting in a long trench. Its depth depended on the relief of geological characteristics - as a rule, the builders tried to dig to the rocky ground or to a harder layer of soil - and could be up to 1.5 m.

Laying roads over rough terrain, Roman engineers designed and built a variety of structures to overcome natural obstacles. Bridges were thrown across the rivers - they were made of wood or stone. Wooden bridges were usually built on piles driven into the bottom, stone bridges were often based on impressive arched structures. Some of these bridges are well preserved to our time. The swamps were traversed with the help of stone embankments, but sometimes wooden paths were used. In the mountains, roads were sometimes cut right into the rocks. The laying of the road began with the surveyors placing pegs along the line representing the future route. In order to strictly maintain the direction, the surveyors used the “thunder” tool. Another important function of thunder is to draw perpendicular straight lines on the ground. The construction of a Roman road began with a ditch in which a layer of large untreated stones (statumen), a layer of crushed stone fastened with a binder mortar (rudus), a layer of cemented small fragments of bricks and ceramics (nucleus) were successively laid. Then the pavement (pavimentum) was made.

Further, the road was built using the “layer cake” method. The bottom layer was called statumen (support) and consisted of large unworked stones - about 20 to 50 cm in size. The next layer was called rudus (crushed stone) and was a mass of smaller broken stone, held together with a binder solution. The thickness of this layer was about 20 cm. The composition of ancient Roman concrete varied depending on the area, however, on the Apennine Peninsula, a mixture of lime and pozzolana, a ground volcanic rock containing aluminum silicate, was most often used as a mortar. Such a solution showed setting properties in an aqueous medium and, after solidification, was water resistant. The third layer - the nucleus (core) - was thinner (about 15 cm) and consisted of cemented small fragments of brick and ceramics. In principle, this layer could already be used as a road surface, but often a fourth layer was placed on top of the “core” - pavimentum (pavement). In the vicinity of Rome, large cobblestones made of basalt lava were usually used for the pavement. They had an irregular shape, but they were hewn so that they fit snugly together. Minor irregularities in the pavement were leveled with cement mortar, but even on the best-preserved roads, this “grout” has disappeared without a trace today, exposing polished cobblestones. Sometimes stones of the correct, for example, quadrangular, shape were also used to create a pavement - they, of course, were easier to fit to each other.

The pavement had a slightly convex profile, and the rainwater that fell on it did not stand in puddles, but flowed into the drainage grooves running on both sides of the pavement.

Of course, engineering tasks were not limited to laying the route and creating the basis for the road surface. The construction of roads took place in a constant struggle with the relief. Sometimes the road was raised to the embankment, sometimes, on the contrary, it was necessary to cut passages in the rocks. Bridges were thrown across the rivers, and tunnels were laid in the mountains, if possible.

It was especially difficult when crossing swamps. Here they came up with all sorts of ingenious solutions, such as wooden structures placed under the road, installed on wooden piles. In particular, the Appian Way passed through the Pomptine Marshes, a lowland separated from the sea by sand dunes and consisting of many shallow reservoirs and marshes, in which malarial mosquitoes bred in abundance. For about 30 km, an embankment was laid through the swamp, which was constantly washed away, and the road had to be repaired frequently. In the middle of the II century AD. on this stretch of the path, it was even necessary to dig a drainage channel parallel to the road, and many Romans preferred to overcome the swamp by water, on ships.

The Romans placed milestones along the roads. The Roman mile measured 1480 m, and the very name of this measure of length comes from the Latin phrase milia passuum - “a thousand steps”. Most of the milestones looked like a column, round in section, placed on a pedestal. The inscriptions on milestones indicated distances to settlements and contained other reference information.

Pillar roads

Roman roads often passed through sparsely populated areas, so additional facilities were required for comfortable and relatively safe movement along them. Every 10-15 km, mutationes were arranged along the roads - horse changing stations, or postal stations. At a distance of a day's march - 25-50 km from each other - there were mansiones, inns with taverns, rooms for the night and even a kind of "service station", where for a fee it was possible to repair the wagon, feed the horses and, if necessary, provide them veterinary care.

Already in imperial Rome, a postal service arose, which, of course, used the road network. Changing horses at postal stations, the postman could deliver a message 70-80 km from the destination in a day, or even further. For the European Middle Ages, such a speed would have seemed fantastic!

A separate type of monumental creativity of the ancient Romans was milestones, thanks to which those traveling along the roads could easily determine which path had already been traveled and how much was left. And although in fact the poles were not installed on every mile, the number was more than offset by grandiosity. Each column was a cylindrical column from one and a half to four meters high, placed on cubic bases. This giant weighed an average of about two tons. In addition to numbers indicating the distance to the nearest settlement, one could read on it who and when built the road and erected a stone on it. In the reign of Emperor Augustus Octavian, in 20 BC. in the Roman Forum, the “golden” milestone of the empire was placed - miliarium aurem. It became a kind of zero point (in fact, the Romans did not know the number "0"), the very symbolic point in Rome, to which, as the famous saying goes, "all paths lead."

Between the living and the dead

Helping to quickly transfer troops to rebellious provinces, deliver mail and conduct trade, Roman roads occupied a special place in the attitude of the inhabitants of the great Mediterranean empire. In Rome, as in other large cities, it was forbidden to bury the dead in the city, and therefore cemeteries were arranged in the vicinity, along the roads. Entering the city or leaving it, the Roman, as it were, crossed the border between the worlds, between the momentary and vain, on the one hand, and the eternal, unshakable, covered with legends, on the other. Funeral monuments and mausoleums along the roads reminded of the glorious deeds of ancestors and demonstrated the vanity of noble families. For demonstration and edifying purposes, the roads were sometimes used by the government. In 73 AD in Italy, an uprising arose under the leadership of Spartacus, a gladiator from Capua, the very city where Appius Claudius Caecus led his famous “via” from Rome. Two years later, the army finally succeeded in crushing the rebels. The captured slaves were sentenced to death and crucified on 6,000 crosses lined up along the Appian Way.

What is good for the Romans...

If modern designers prefer to go around even a low hill (plus or minus a kilometer is not essential for a car), then the Romans tried not to deviate from a straight line and storm hills and ridges head-on, unless, of course, the slope was too steep. Hence the almost perfect straightness of many Roman roads.
However, what was good for Roman troops, merchants and postmen, even on horseback moving no faster than 20 km / h, becomes a serious disadvantage in the age of cars.
The highways in Western Europe following the routes of Roman roads are often full of "closed" sections due to sharp ups and downs, so that the driver approaching the top of the hill does not see what is happening on the road just a few tens of meters ahead, then is, in seconds of a way. In addition, the almost ideal straightness of such highways provokes the person behind the wheel to "remove the gas to the floor", and this is also not conducive to traffic safety.

It is difficult to say for sure how the inhabitants of the "barbarian" outskirts of the empire treated the Roman blessing - paved paths, like a sword, cut through the lands of the conquered peoples and did not take into account the traditional borders of the tribes. Yes, Roman roads brought with them ease of movement, facilitated commerce, but they also brought tax collectors, and in case of disobedience, soldiers. However, it happened differently.

In 61 AD Boudicca (Boadicea), the widow of the leader of the Briton Iceni tribe, raised a rebellion against Roman rule in Britain. The rebels managed to clear out foreign troops and capture the cities of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulanium (St. Albans). Judging by this sequence, the Boudicca army moved along the roads built by the Romans, and on the last stretch between Londinium and Verulanium, the rebels "saddled" the famous Watling Street - the Roman time route, which is actively used in an updated form to this day.

And that was just the first call. The road network of the Roman Empire for a long time helped to keep a huge part of the world in subjection. When the power of the state began to weaken, the great creation of the Romans turned against its creators. Now the hordes of barbarians took advantage of the roads to quickly break through to the treasures of the decrepit state.

After the final collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century AD. stone roads, like many other achievements of Antiquity, were practically abandoned and fell into disrepair. Road construction resumed in Europe only about 800 years later.

The ancient Romans created many engineering achievements, and one of the most important was the developed road network with a total length of about 100 thousand kilometers, which connected the majestic capital of the Empire with its numerous possessions. For thousands of years, the glory of the Roman roads was ensured not so much by their quantity as by their quality: the stone pavement served many peoples for many years after the fall of the Roman Empire, and some of its sections are still preserved.

Story

Ancient Rome is known as a country of conquerors, possessing considerable power and even greater ambitions. With the growth of the territory of the country and the territories subject to it, there was an increasing need for rapid movement between points. If a messenger or a military detachment could, due to experience and mobility, move more or less well over rough terrain, then it became increasingly difficult for carts, settlers and ordinary merchants.

Like most Roman endeavors, the road plan was notable for its pomp: good roads can be built in any country, the Empire builds the best. The development of the roadway structure was approached from the point of view of practicality - the roads were planned to be operated, not repaired. The multi-layer heterogeneous composition gave the coating not only excellent durability, but also served as protection against damage caused by temperature changes.

A lot of inconvenience at that time was caused by rains that carried stones onto dirt roads or simply washed them away. From the first misfortune, the Romans decided to escape with a high curb stone, and from the second - by organizing a well-thought-out drainage system.

We have all heard the ancient saying that all roads lead to Rome, but the causes are not so much superficial as the effect. Of course, the direct rays of the Roman roads, diverging in all directions from the capital, made it easier to decide on the choice of direction and save time spent on the road, and the Roman army ended up at the border before the enemy had time to cross it. The simple and understandable organization of the road network helped to easily reach Rome, for this it was enough to turn onto a wider road at each fork. However, equally easy access from Rome to any of its provinces was also necessary for a quick response to outbreaks of uprisings.

A huge road network required appropriate infrastructure: inns, forges, stables - all this was built as the roadbed was being built, so that by the end of the work the new direction would immediately become active.

Construction technology

The main Roman roads were built not by slaves and not even hired workers. Along with most of the fortifications, the road was considered as a military facility, therefore it was built by the forces of the army (but not at its expense, of course). This can explain the incredible margin of safety, designed for aggressive handling.

One of the mandatory conditions set before the start of construction was the continuous accessibility of the road in any weather. For this, the roadbed not only rose 40-50 cm above the terrain, but also had a sloping shape in section, which is why there were never puddles on it. Drainage ditches on either side of the roadway diverted water away from it, giving it no chance to begin to erode the foundation.

It went down in history and one of the striking features of Roman roads is their straightness. For the sake of maintaining this characteristic, convenience was often sacrificed: the road could turn to the side only because of a very serious obstacle, otherwise a bridge was built across the river, a tunnel was dug in the mountain, and gently sloping hills were not considered a problem at all, which is why travelers often had to climb steep ascents and descents.

Standards

If the composition and thickness of the road surface were approximately the same everywhere and differed only depending on the nature of the soil, then its width was created for strictly defined purposes, i.e. two chariots, two food carts, or even a couple of horsemen could disperse freely on it. Such accuracy is quite understandable, because the labor costs for the construction of the road were colossal, and the extra half a meter not only delayed the work, but also significantly affected the treasury of the Empire.

The narrowest roads belonged to private individuals and were intended to serve their possessions. The width of such paths did not exceed 4 meters if the traffic was carried out in two directions, and 2.5 meters if the traffic was predominantly one-way. The roads between small towns and villages were also quite modest, four meters wide was enough for small peasant carts to pass. The most impressive were the main transport arteries, which were of military importance. For them, a width of 6 meters was considered the minimum, but usually it was more and could reach 12 meters. A whole army could move along such an avenue at a sufficiently high speed.

On almost all central and some secondary roads, milestones were installed - heavy stone pillars, dotted with inscriptions. The name of these signs should not be misleading, they were not at all placed every mile. The inscriptions on the stone told the traveler the distance to the nearest village or city, to a major intersection, to the border, and sometimes to Rome. Distances were given in miles, hence the name.

in the Crimea, a Roman road leading through the Shaitan-Merdven pass has been preserved.This is a road that once connected Charax on Cape Ai-Todor and Chersonese, the two main bases of the Roman troops. 10 km of a real Roman road have been preserved, here is a photo:


From here

Usage

Although military power was the main goal of the creators of a network of excellent paved roads, merchants benefited most of all from this system. Their wagons could now freely cross the whole country (and also some of the neighboring ones) without the risk of falling apart on the next bump. And even paid travel in some areas could not block the obvious benefits. Large ports have become even richer, because. goods from the arriving ships were immediately exported to neighboring settlements and sold, the turnover increased significantly compared to the “off-road” period.

The first Roman roads were called very simply - by the name of the city to which they led and by the name of the architect who built it. Some of the most famous and significant of them are described below.

Salt road (Via Salaria)

This ancient trade route was established in the 4th century BC. and, as the name suggests, was used to deliver products from the salt mines. The Salt Road starts from the Roman Salt Gate of the Aurelius Wall and stretches 242 km to the Adriatic coast, where the city of Castrum Truentinum (today Porto d'Ascoli) used to be. The road passed through the cities of Reate (Rieti) and Asculum (Ascoli Picento).

Photo allaboutitaly.info

Appian Way (Via Appia)

This road was built in 312 BC. under the direction of Appius Claudius Caecus. It was founded as a military road and eventually became one of the most strategically important for the country. The Appian Way connected Rome Capua, and later Brundisium (modern Brindisi) - the main port on the Adriatic coast, connecting the Roman Empire with Greece and the countries of the East. Over the centuries-old history, 540 km of the ancient road managed to become witnesses of various events, becoming the keepers of legends and ancient monuments.

Aurelian road (Via Aurelia)

The Aurelian Way, built in 241 BC, was named after its creator, Gaius Aurelius Cotta, who was the censor at the time. This path ran along the western coast of the Apennine Peninsula, connecting Rome and Pisa, and was intended mainly for the movement of war chariots.

Flaminiev road (Via Flaminia)

The construction manager, consul Gaius Flaminius, in 220 BC. e. paved the way from Rome to the port of Fanum Fortuna (Fano) to the north of Italy, and later it was extended along the coast to Ariminum (Rimini). This road received a second life in the Middle Ages, when it was restored and began to be actively exploited again under the name of the Ravenna road.

Cassia road (Via Cassia)

Starting from 187 BC. this road was built by representatives of the noble family of Kassiev. It duplicated the Via Aurelian but ran much further from the coast. It started from the Via Flaminius near the Milvian Bridge and joined the Aurelius in Luni.

Postumiev road (Via Postumia)

This road, built in 148 BC. e. on the initiative of the consul Spurius Postuminus Albinus, connected the northern cities of the Roman Empire and served to move troops on the border with Gaul. In addition, she united the major ports on the west and east coasts: Genoa and Aquileia. Aquileia, although somewhat removed from the coast itself, has a river outlet to it. The postumian road ran from Genoa through the mountains to Dertona (Tortona), then through Placentia (Piacenza), from it crossed the Po River, reached Cremona, from where it turned east to Bedriacum (Calvatone), where it bifurcated: the left direction led to Verona, and the right to Aquileia via Mantua and Gemona.

Egnatiev road (Via Egnatia)

This is one of the largest Roman projects during the conquests. It was decided to create a road similar to those that had already been built on the territory of modern Italy in the subject territories of the Balkans. The road, built in 146 BC. e. Proconsul Gaius Egnatius crossed the provinces of Illyricum, Macedonia and Thrace, whose territory is today part of Albania, Macedonia, Greece and Turkey, and ended in Byzantium. Its length was 1120 km, and its width was about 6 meters.

Aquitaine road (Via Aquitania)

This road began to be built shortly after the victory over the southern Gallic tribes, in 118 BC. e. It connected the newly founded Roman colony of Narbo Martius (Narbonne) with Toulouse and the city of Bourdigala (Bordeaux) on the Atlantic coast, stretching for a distance of about 400 km.

Reconstructed section of the Aquitaine road. Photo xtremearttourists1.blogspot.com

Domitia road (Via Domitia)

This road was built simultaneously with the Aquitaine and may have had one creator. It became the first land route linking Italy, its colonies in southern Gaul, and Spain. According to legend, it was based on the ancient routes along which Hercules traveled, performing his exploits, and it was along them that the troops of Hannibal at one time penetrated from the north into Italy.

Road Emilia Scavra (Via Aemilia Scauri)

The road built under the direction of the censor Marcus Aemilius Scaurus in 109 BC. e., connected Pisa, Luni, Genoa and Placentia (Piacenza). It partially overlapped with other, earlier routes, uniting them.

Photo castelnuovobormida.net

Claudia-August Road (Via Claudia Augusta)

This is one of the most difficult roads created by the Romans. Its construction began in 15 BC. e. and lasted about three years. The road, created by Emperor Augustus and his adopted son Claudius, spread over the Alps and connected Venice and the entire Po Valley with the province of Rezia (now the territory of southern Germany).

A modern copy of a milestone found near Bavaria

The Claudius-August road is one of the few that has been perfectly preserved to this day. It has been restored many times and today is of great value as a cycling route through the Alps, which starts in Donauwert (Germany) and ends in Venice or Ostilla.

August road (Via Augusta)

The Iberian Peninsula had scattered roads of various types until, at the dawn of the new millennium, the Roman emperor Augustus improved them, united them into a real transport network, which received his name, and added it to the developed system of Roman roads. The total length of the highly branched August road is about 1500 km.

The process of reconstruction of the August road. A photoJose Francisco Ruiz

Fosse Way

This was the name of the Roman road built in Britain in the middle of the 1st century and connecting the southern coast of the island with the northern one (about 300 km). The name comes from the Latin word "pits", and most likely meant a defensive ditch with which the Romans, who invaded Britain, protected their transport route.

Watling Street

Almost simultaneously with the construction of Fosse Way, a road was being created from the western part of the British Isle (Dover) to the east coast (Wales). In the language of the Anglo-Saxons, the word "street" meant a paved road with a complex layered structure and had nothing to do with inner city streets.

Stonegate

In Old English, Stonegate means "stone road". It was built by the Romans in the I-II centuries on the territory of modern northern England and was intended to communicate between two important river forts: Corstopitum (Corbridge) and Luguvalium (Carlisle). Stangate has an important difference from all routes previously created by the Romans: the road was built with minimal slopes, which is why it turned out to be quite winding. For the Romans, on the other hand, straight laying was typical, even if comfort and ease of movement had to be sacrificed in order to maintain direction.