Many businessmen had to deal with the fact that their managerial activities did not bring the expected results. What is the matter, why sometimes projects are not implemented as we would like, or they did not become as successful as they were originally planned? Very often, the problem is that managers do not fully understand how important it is to be able to properly build fruitful relationships with their business partners and customers. While Western business development specialists have made this area of ​​activity a separate science, not all entrepreneurs use their developments in reality.

Relationship marketing is still a fairly young concept that does not have a single definition. This discipline causes a lot of controversy and questions, because most often its theory is based only on the basis of empirical research by marketing specialists. In recent years, a sufficient amount of information has accumulated on how relationships affect the development of companies and brands, but all this knowledge has only just begun to be systematized and translated from the plane of abstract data into a more practical direction.

Reorientation of accents

More recently, those entrepreneurs who were able to offer their customers a quality product at an affordable price achieved the highest results. Over time, the number of criteria that determine the success of a business has increased. They can be briefly described using the four “P” theory known to any marketer (English):

• product (goods) - the creation of a good;
• price (price) - definition of an acceptable price;
• promotion (marketing) - promotion in the market;
• place (place of sale) - the right choice of a place of sale, limiting your target audience.

In the early days of capitalism, as well as during its heyday, following such a concept did bring solid profits to companies. However, now high competition in each of the business areas is forcing all participants in market relations to raise the bar for the provision of services. Consumers have become more demanding, they are no longer satisfied with the minimum set that all more or less normal companies offer. Looking for new ways of development for business structures, promotion specialists noticed how strongly the loyalty of partners and customers affects the success of the project. In this regard, such a concept as relationship marketing was introduced into economics. Initially, it was applied only to industrial enterprises, but over time it has become more and more identified with the service sector, since it is in this area of ​​​​commercial activity that the most active increase in profitability is observed. Nevertheless, relationship marketing must be considered from several positions at once, for example, "manufacturer - supplier", "manufacturer - distributor", "distributor - end customer".

Difficulty in defining a concept

Economists-theorists have been dealing with the issue of studying the relationships between various economic entities for several decades. But despite the existing successes in this matter, they have so far been able to give an unambiguous definition of what relationship marketing is. Business interactions are so vast and unpredictable, and influenced by so many outside factors, that every marketer has a different opinion on the correct definition of the term.

On the one hand, it is understood as the processes of managing the microclimate that has been created between all business partners (suppliers, distributors, buyers), and on the other hand, marketers believe that a more targeted approach to each of these groups of partners is much more important. They put forward the theory that it will be more productive for a company to work in a one-on-one format with a client. That is, all marketing research is carried out about each specific partner, and all subsequent promotional actions should be directed to him personally, then a truly loyal relationship will be built between him and the company.

It is also not entirely clear who is faced with the task of attracting and retaining customers and what is generally more important - finding new ones or retaining old ones. Ideally, well-designed customer relationship marketing should not only be the idea of ​​​​the head of the company, it must be “implanted” into the strategy of the enterprise and made the starting point for the functioning of all employees.

generally accepted standard

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that by and large this concept is very multifaceted. In order to somehow standardize and unify relationship marketing, it must be considered comprehensively. It is important for the head of the company to be able to correctly prioritize activities and direct their efforts in the right direction. To do this, economists have compiled a visual diagram similar to Maslow's famous pyramid, in which the depth of the study of different types of relationships with partners is determined at three levels:

• database marketing;
• partnerships with partners;
• relationships with consumers.

This ranking demonstrates that customer relationships are still key to business development. Thus, we can conclude that relationship marketing is the management of the processes of building long-term relationships with key business partners. There are several fundamental points that separate successful business relationships from unpromising ones. First, relationship marketing should be aimed at ensuring that partners bring profit or other benefits to the company. Secondly, it confirms the fact that retaining existing customers, distributors and suppliers is much cheaper for a company than finding new ones.

Main course

Relationship marketing management is aimed at achieving sustainable privileged relationships with business partners, as well as increasing the company's competitiveness in the market. That is, it needs to achieve a level of loyalty from customers, suppliers and other entities related to the production or marketing of a product that would contribute to stable profits. That is the purpose of relationship marketing.

The main tools for achieving such results are:

• adequate pricing policy;
• first class service;
• targeted work with key partners.

Relationship marketing helps a company increase profitability not by having staff sell one product to thousands of customers, on the contrary, sales managers must work out each customer as well as possible in order to sell him several positions at once. Good results are achieved through an individual approach to consumers.

Tasks

But still, marketing is not sales in its purest form, it is only the tool that helps to increase them, to promote the product on the market. Despite such a vague formulation of this economic doctrine, its results are quite predictable, they can be evaluated and analyzed. So, if the marketing campaign went off with a bang, then this will most likely lead to an increase in the profitability of the enterprise.

Relationships are a little more complicated in this regard, because it is an even more abstract concept related to the intended results. The objectives of relationship marketing are not limited to a banal increase in sales and a growing turnover. They relate to such aspects of interaction between business partners:

• guarantees of long-term obligations;
• speed of response to commercial offers;
• level of trust between partners;
• their mutual interest in each other.

The main task facing relationship marketing is, first of all, to build trusting relationships with far-reaching plans between partners. If successful, the company receives an invaluable asset in its portfolio, which in the future will become an excellent prerequisite for the implementation of its strategic goals.

The main slogan of the "fathers" of the doctrine of the relationship between business partners is the following phrase: "Concluding a deal is not the end of a relationship with a client, but their beginning."

Based on this postulate, we can say that the main concept of relationship marketing is high-quality after-sales customer service. The company must “bind” the client to itself, making him its permanent partner, providing him with such a comprehensive range of services that he will not need to address a similar issue to another organization.

In what form is it expressed?

The main form of relationship marketing has a clear commercial shape. Any actions of the company are always aimed at increasing profits. Therefore, maintaining a good relationship with customers or suppliers does not make sense if it does not bring real money now or has no prospects for generating income in the future. It must be clearly understood that sometimes customer service is too expensive for the company, and the resources spent on retaining it do not pay off.

Of course, in this case we can talk about prestige, raising the status, but you should always calculate all the pros and cons of interacting with customers, especially from the VIP category. Relationship marketing is not necessarily work for one specific consumer. Often you need to evaluate the effectiveness of promoting a product or service to a specific target audience.

Examples

Very clear examples of high-level relationship marketing are the sale of banking, insurance, medical services or goods intended for a specific group of consumers - young people, children, pensioners, etc.

Many financial organizations, having fine-tuned the mechanism of their work, began a full-scale capture of potential customers. At the same time, the tactics of their actions looks quite aggressive. Most often, they promote their products through various information channels, direct impact on consumers, personalized messages, comprehensive imposition of their services, including violent ones (through direct agreements with employers, hospitals, etc.).

But few companies can act so openly, for example, it is quite difficult for industrial enterprises to establish a direct dialogue with their customers. However, there are a number of brands that have risen to the challenge. For example, the Italian confectionery giant Ferrero. Their marketing campaigns have a strict focus, in addition, the company has well-established feedback mechanisms with its customers, it cares about its reputation, being a role model in its field of activity.

Macro approach to the question

Customer relationship marketing strategies are always focused on long-term partnerships, maintaining long-term relationships with consumers and business partners.

A relationship marketing strategy should address the following questions:

• ways of forming long-term relationships with clients;
• search for responsible and obligatory partners;
• increasing customer loyalty;
• work with databases;
• creating an attractive image of the company in the eyes of partners and consumers.

Of course, in each individual case, the marketing strategy will have features inherent in one particular company, this is the difficulty of building long-term working relationships - it is impossible to rely entirely on the experience of other enterprises, because the success of any project is influenced by too many third-party factors.

Interaction issues

On the one hand, the company faces the question of how to build relationships with business partners - suppliers, distributors, contractors, subsidiaries and stand-alone divisions. In this vein, the only correct solution that can partly guarantee a fruitful, stable, long-term relationship is documenting the relationship. Oral agreements in business are unacceptable. Nothing secures a deal more securely than a well-drafted, detailed contract.

interpersonal relationships

But with personal communication, things are much more complicated. No contract will make two people like each other. If antipathy is ripening between partners, they are unlikely to be able to work together normally in the future. This explains in many respects that relationship marketing very often depends on the human factor. Experts in this field believe that any company strategy based on building long-term relationships with customers must have support from employees at all levels of value creation. That is, it should be equally implemented by all employees of the enterprise, from top management to ordinary workers.

Chasing the whole world

At the moment, relationship marketing in Russia and abroad has significant differences. The customer orientation of domestic enterprises has not yet reached the level of the Western model, although it is very much striving for European and American options for evaluating the quality of work. By and large, they are pushed to this by the consumers themselves, who, being abroad, know what good service and after-sales customer service are. The first on this path were companies with foreign capital, as well as those who work on a franchise. It is quite expected that following them, their Russian competitors will also begin to win customers, trying to win back their place under the sun.

For experimental research, it is extremely important to identify some basic types of human interactions. The most common is the dichotomous division of all possible types of interactions into two opposite types: cooperation and competition. Different authors designate these two main species with different terms. In addition to cooperation and competition, they talk about agreement and conflict, adaptation and opposition, association and dissociation, and so on. For example, F. Znanetsky divides all types of social actions into two general categories: adaptation and opposition. The first includes all those actions that cause the desired behavior of individuals or groups without threatening any of the values ​​or capabilities of the communication partner. The author refers to adaptation as a means of influence by invitation, involvement, leadership in joint activities, imitation, etc. To the second - all those that are associated with threats and repression: opposing oneself to others, repression and rebellion, aggression, hostility, resistance, etc.

Behind all these concepts, the principle of distinguishing different types of interaction is clearly visible. In the first case, such manifestations are analyzed that contribute to the organization of joint activities, are “positive” from this point of view. The second group includes interactions that in one way or another "shatter" joint activity, representing a certain kind of obstacle to it.

Cooperation, or cooperative interaction, means the coordination of the individual forces of the participants (ordering, combining, summing up these forces). Cooperation is a necessary element of joint activity, generated by its special nature.

A.N. Leontiev identifies two main features of joint activities:

a) division of a single process of activity between participants;

b) a change in the activity of each, since the result of the activity of each does not lead to the satisfaction of his needs, which in general psychological language means that the “subject” and “motive” of the activity do not coincide.

How is the direct result of the activity of each participant connected with the final result of joint activity? The means of such a connection are relations developed in the course of joint activity, which are realized, first of all, in cooperation. An important indicator of the tightness of cooperative interaction is the involvement of all participants in the process. Therefore, experimental studies of cooperation most often deal with the analysis of the contributions of the participants in the interaction and the degree of their involvement in it.

As for the other type of interactions - competition, here, most often, the analysis is concentrated on its most striking form, namely, on the conflict (see Section 5). Competition (from lat. concurro - run away, collide) is one of the main forms of organization of interpersonal interaction, characterized by the achievement of individual or group goals, interests in a confrontation with those who achieve the same goals and interests of other individuals and groups. Competition is characterized by strong involvement in the struggle and partial depersonalization of ideas about the enemy.

When analyzing various types of interaction, the problem of the content of the activity within which certain types of interaction are given is of fundamental importance. Thus, it is possible to state a cooperative form of interaction not only in the conditions of production, but, for example, in the implementation of any asocial, illegal acts - joint robbery, theft, etc. Therefore, cooperation in socially negative activities is not necessarily the form that needs to be stimulated: on the contrary, activities that are conflicting in the context of asocial activities can be evaluated positively. Cooperation and competition are only forms of the “psychological pattern” of interaction, while the content in both cases is given by a broader system of activity, where cooperation or competition is included. Therefore, when studying both cooperative and competitive forms of interaction, it is unacceptable to consider them both outside the general context of activity.

The selection of two polar types of interaction plays a certain positive role in the analysis of the interactive side of communication. However, only such a dichotomous consideration of the types of interaction turns out to be insufficient for experimental practice. Therefore, in social psychology, there are searches of a different kind, that is, the selection of more “small” types of interaction that could be used in the experiment as a unit of observation.

In everyday life, people enter into an infinite number of different types of interaction, often guided by the following main motives for interaction:

maximizing the total gain (motive of cooperation);

maximizing one's own gain (individualism);

maximizing the relative gain (competition);

maximizing the other person's gain (altruism);

minimizing the gain of another (aggression);

minimizing differences in payoffs (equality).

According to the listed motives, it is possible to determine the leading strategies of behavior in interaction (Scheme 11):

1) cooperation is aimed at the full satisfaction of the participants in the interaction of their needs without infringing on the interests of the other (the motives of cooperation or competition are realized);

2) rivalry (opposition) - involves focusing solely on one's own goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism);

3) compromise - is realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality;

4) compliance (adaptation) involves the sacrifice of one's own goals in order to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism);

5) avoidance - is a departure from contact, the loss of one's own goals to exclude the gain of another.

Similar information.

POSSESSION OF TECHNOLOGIES OF CONTACT INTERACTION AS A STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF CONTACT OF THE HEAD OF THE ORGANIZATION

Shagaeva Elena Alekseevna

Postgraduate Student, Department of Social Psychology,

Tambov State University named after G.R. Derzhavin, Tambov

At present, such competence as contact has an increasing influence on the effectiveness of the head of the organization.

One of the important issues in considering the problem of contact of the head of the organization is the characterization and systematization of its content components.

In our opinion, the structure of contact as a competence of a leader can be represented as a combination of the following elements:

motives for contact interaction;

cooperative orientation of the leader's personality;

Possession of technologies of contact interaction;

emotional regulation of the leader's state in the process of contact interaction;

· reflection of contact of the head .

In this article, I would like to dwell in more detail on such a structural component of contact as the possession of contact interaction technologies.

This component includes knowledge of strategies and tactics of contact interaction, the specifics of conducting business negotiations, organizing conferences, meetings, interviews, various skills of contact interaction necessary for a manager in managing an organization.

The list of communicative knowledge described in modern psychological science is extremely large and varied. Communicative knowledge can be conditionally divided into the knowledge necessary to establish and maintain intra-organizational and external contacts of the leader.

To the communicative knowledge necessary in establishing, maintaining and developing intra-organizational contacts, we include:

knowledge of the specifics of personal-group and interpersonal interaction;

knowledge of the patterns of personal and professional development of employees;

knowledge of the basics of team building;

Knowledge of ways to regulate and prevent conflicts in the team;

Knowledge of ways to motivate employees and encourage initiative;

knowledge of speech etiquette;

knowledge in the field of preparation of oral and written orders and familiarization of employees of the organization with them;

· knowledge in the field of technology of preparation and conducting meetings;

knowledge of business negotiation technologies;

knowledge about the development of organizational culture, etc.

Among the communicative knowledge necessary to build contacts with partners, competitors, public authorities and authorities, consumers, or external contacts, first of all, the following can be noted:

knowledge of the features of written and oral communication;

knowledge in the field of non-verbal communication;

knowledge in the field of organization management (including knowledge of anti-crisis management methods);

knowledge of strategies and tactics of contact interaction;

knowledge of creating an attractive image of the organization;

knowledge in the field of PR organization;

knowledge of the specifics of business etiquette;

· knowledge in the field of technology of preparation and conducting business meetings;

· knowledge in the field of conducting business correspondence;

knowledge of technologies for conducting business negotiations, business conversations (including telephone conversations);

knowledge of the latest communication technologies, etc.

Description of individual communication skills as a set of actions based on high theoretical and practical preparedness, allowing creative use of communicative knowledge necessary for the head of the organization to build positive contacts with subordinates, colleagues, competitors, we find in the publications of Yu. M. Zhukov, M. A. Lukashenko , L. L. Odinets, L. A. Petrovskoy, P. V. Rastyainikova and others.

M.S. Savina divides the manager's skills in the field of contact interaction into several groups: socio-psychological, psychological, speech skills, the ability to use the norms of speech etiquette, use non-verbal means of communication, interact, communicate in the form of political activity.

Socio-psychological skills can be represented as follows: the ability to enter into communication, maintain communication, stimulate the activity of individuals, predict the development of a communicative situation, anticipate the reactions of partners, keep the initiative in communication, form a mood for communication. Psychological skills include the ability to overcome psychological barriers in communication, relieve excessive tension, choose appropriate situations, gestures, rhythms of behavior, distribute efforts in communication, use emotions as a means of communication. Speech skills include: the ability to competently and clearly form a thought, achieve the desired communicative goal, speak expressively, achieve the semantic integrity of the statement, speak meaningfully, logically, coherently, etc. The ability to use the norms of speech etiquette consists in knowing the situational norms of greeting, the ability to adequately express the situation request, correctly express advice, wishes, reproaches or sympathy. The ability to use non-verbal means of communication contains awareness and the ability to understand paralinguistic, extralinguistic, kinetic, proxemic means of communication. The ability to interact implies the ability to enter into a dialogue with a person or a small group, in a polylogue with a large group. The group of communication skills in the form of political activity can be represented by the skills of establishing relationships, planning joint activities, the ability to participate in polemics and discussions.

The list of contact interaction skills is most accurately presented in the works of I.P. Cherednichenko, N.V. Telnykh. The skills of contact interaction as techniques that contribute to a quick and accurate reflection of the situation of interaction, ensuring ease of communication and facilitating contact with the partner include: contact making skills, contact maintenance skills, skills for removing communication barriers, effective listening skills, skills for compiling and posing questions to the interlocutor, skills establishing feedback, skills to activate the interlocutor, persuasion skills, skills of argumentation and counter-argumentation, skills to complete contact, skills to counter manipulation.

In addition to the layer of knowledge internalized in the skills and abilities of contact interaction, behavioral tactics and the use of various strategies for establishing, developing and maintaining contacts are of great importance for the head of the organization.

To describe the contact interaction strategies, we will use the developments of V. Yu. Andreeva, S. E. Zhuchkova, F. L. Kuzin, N. V. Muravyova and others.

According to F.L. Kuzina, knowledge of a constructive strategy, possession of reasonable tactics of contact interaction and its skillful application are a factor in the communicative attractiveness of a professional. The contact strategy implies general approaches and initial attitudes of a specialist to establishing, maintaining, developing contacts, the technique of such behavior is correlated with the ability to use certain techniques and methods of business communication, contact tactics - with the ability to choose from them the most suitable for a given business situation and therefore the most actively contributing to the implementation of the set goals.

The description of strategies and tactics for establishing contact is quite widely presented in the work of S.E. Zhuchkova. She notes that it is necessary to develop an optimal strategy and tactics of contact in order to obtain a good result of contact interaction.

Based on the work of V.Yu. Andreeva, S.E. Zhuchkova, we define the contact interaction strategy as a set of actions planned (depending on the specific conditions of communication and the personalities of the partners) and implemented in the process of interaction aimed at achieving the goal formed under the influence of the motive of contact interaction, which, in turn, is conditioned by the corresponding need.

The tactics of contact interaction is, hierarchically, a smaller level of planning and "acts as a way to implement the strategy."

S.E. Zhuchkova identifies four strategies for establishing contact: the strategy of manipulation, the strategy of power, the strategy of increasing self-esteem and the strategy of facilitation. Characterizing each of the indicated strategies, S.E. Zhuchkova notes that the choice of a strategy for establishing contact is determined by two factors: the basic need and the value orientation of the communicator.

A number of works by Russian scientists are devoted to the study of strategies for communicative influence (V. N. Gerchikova, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, E. L. Dotsenko, A. L. Zhuravlev, S. G. Kara-Murza, L. A. Kiseleva and others. ). Under the strategies of communicative influence are understood the methods of selection, structuring and presentation in the message (both in its verbal and non-verbal parts) of certain information, subject to the goals of communicative influence. Based on the studies of these authors, we can talk about two types of communication strategies:

1. positioning strategies, that is, strategies that form a certain perception of the object;

2. optimizing strategies, that is, strategies aimed at optimizing the impact of the message, at overcoming adverse communication conditions.

As for the description of contact tactics, among the few works in this area, special attention should be paid to the works of V. Yu. Andreeva, F. L. Kuzin, N. V. Muravyova and others.

N. V. Muravyova points out that a leader's conscious achievement of the set goal at minimal cost is impossible without activity planning - without a "strategy" and "tactics" of contact. The contact strategy is considered by her as the art of leadership, based on correct predictions about the goal, and contact tactics - as techniques, ways to achieve this goal. The strategy contains a plan of contact interaction, which involves certain communicative goals (against the background of certain attitudes) and manifests itself through interaction tactics in typical behavior patterns.

“Communicative tactics,” says N.V. Muravyov, is a specific implementation of the strategy, it is a set of actions that we perform in one sequence or another, which implement / do not implement the communicative strategy and obey / do not obey certain rules) .

F. L. Kuzin outlined the technology of practical application of tactics for establishing and maintaining contacts in the business sphere. Based on the practical experience of American psychologists R. Fisher and W. Urey, he described the tactics of conducting business negotiations in the case when the interlocutor is set up for constructive contact and when he behaves destructively, criticizes and seeks to benefit from contact.

Negotiation tactics are also directly implemented with the help of tactics that allow you to achieve your goal, on the basis of certain rules. Among such techniques, widely used at all stages of the negotiation process, are the following:

Reception "leaving, or avoiding the fight";

Reception "delay", "waiting";

reception of "packaging";

Reception "overestimation of requirements";

Reception "placement of false accents in one's own position";

Reception "advancement of demands at the last minute".

Thus, for effective work, a manager needs to have a large amount of knowledge, skills and abilities that contribute to contact interaction, as well as to possess behavioral tactics and strategies for establishing, developing and maintaining contacts.

Bibliography:

1. Andreeva V. Yu. Strategies and tactics of communicative sabotage: Abstract of the thesis. diss. … cand. philol. Sciences / 10.02.19. Kursk, 2009. 23 p.

2. Zhuchkova S. E. Social and psychological features of building and maintaining contact with the audience: Diss. ... cand. psychol. Sciences / 19.00.05. M.: RGB, 2006. 206 p.

3. Kuzin F. L. The image of a businessman. - M.: "Os-89", 1996. 304 p.

4.Muravieva NV The language of the conflict [electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.library.cjes.ru/online/?a=con&b_id=192

5. Savina M. S. Business communication. M. MSEU, 2003.

6. Cherednichenko I. P., Telnykh N. V. Psychology of management. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2004. - 608 p.

7. Shagaeva E. A. Psychological structure of the manager's contact // Bulletin of the Tambov University. Series Humanities. Tambov, 2011. Issue. 10(102). pp. 119-123.

In the process of joint activity, different people behave differently. Some successfully work in relative loneliness - they are disturbed by the presence of colleagues, communication distracts from work. Others can do their job well only in cooperation. Some are capable of effective activity only by subordinating others to themselves - communication in this case helps to establish dictate. There are other strategies in the communication process. These strategies depend on the psychological compatibility of partners in communication or other activities. Psychological compatibility is understood as such a combination of communicative partners, in which some complement the others as much as possible. When communicating with psychologically compatible partners, there is either no tension at all, or it is relatively easy to overcome. Studies have shown that the most compatible were people who have a high need for communication. This quality turned out to be especially important at the first stage of interaction, when contact was just being established. It is curious that psychological compatibility can arise both with the similarity of certain personality traits (sociable with sociable, emotional with emotional), and with their opposites (strong - weak). Psychologists have identified the social qualities of people that are most pronounced when interacting with other people and affect the effectiveness of communication. Let's consider some of them. Participants in a conversation can be seen as dominant and non-dominant interlocutor. A dominant interlocutor, if he feels the need to turn to a partner, does not care too much about whether this is appropriate, whether it will interfere, whether he will be understood. He has a subconscious confidence that it is he who decides whether to interact, whether to respond to an appeal or request. Usually this person is assertive, tough. He easily interrupts the interlocutor, but at the same time reacts painfully if he is interrupted. If he explains something, he literally “throws in”. If he listens, he will certainly ask clarifying questions. In a word, he leads in communication. This kind of communication is not always pleasant. To fully communicate with such an interlocutor, you should stay calm and confident. But do not stop or ridicule his manner or verbal techniques. It is important to remember that a smart dominant is a very valuable partner in interaction: he knows how to take responsibility. Endowed with nobility and generosity, such communication partners often become favorites in their environment. The opposite of the type of communication partner described above is most often shy, sensitive to external signs of the interlocutor's strength, indecisive. In order for interaction with him to take place, you need to remember that it is better to praise, encourage, encourage him more often. Given that the non-dominant interlocutor tends to shift responsibility to others, it is appropriate to let him feel that he himself is able to make a decision. Another pair of opposites in communication - mobile and rigid interlocutors. The former easily switch to communication from any other activities, they are contact, although they are easily distracted. The speech of such an interlocutor is fast, even hasty, facial expressions are changeable. In conversation, he often jumps from one topic to another. If a problem is solved with such an interlocutor, dozens of versions come to his mind, which, however, are easily replaced by others. Obviously, for successful interaction with such a partner, it is important to help him focus on the chosen strategy of joint action. A completely different matter is a rigid interlocutor. He does not immediately join the conversation, he needs time to think about it first, to draw up a plan of his actions. He, like a heavy flywheel, is gradually gaining momentum, and having gained them, he shows solidity. He is usually an ideal listener, speaks thoughtfully, tries to choose the most accurate words, does not like being interrupted. If he is offended, he will not leave soon. For an impatient person, communication with such a partner is quite tiring. However, if you know the features of such an interaction partner, you can use them successfully, you just have to not be lazy to repeat once again what you agreed on, do not get annoyed and do not rush to complete the conversation you have started until the partner understands the most important thing for himself. extroverts and introverts(from Latin extra - outside, intro - inside, versio - turn, turn) also differ in communication during interaction. An extrovert is very social. Not being able to talk, he misses. He needs any partner, he is sure that people can always understand each other without difficulty. Sometimes his friendliness is superficial, not very enduring. To attract attention, he is capable of extravagant actions, statements, external manifestations (details of clothing, hairstyle, etc.). Most often, joint activities with such a person proceed easily and naturally, he does not remember insults, "he does not hold a stone in his bosom." An introvert, on the other hand, is not prone to external communication. It often seems to him that he will not be understood (it is indeed sometimes difficult to understand him, because he seems to be having an internal conversation with himself). Many introverts seem strange to others. It is sometimes easier for them to learn the plan of the city than to ask for directions. Of course, in real interaction, communication partners often appear as something in between these ideal types, they carry the features of both. However, in order for communication to take place as a successful interaction, it is useful to keep in mind that it is necessary to take into account the psychological characteristics of the participants in communication, to strive to understand the other, to take the place of the other.

To describe the types of behavior, K. Thomas singled out two indicators: a person's orientation to the interests of other people and attention to their own interests. By the ratio of focus on oneself and focus on a partner, one can judge the development of a strategy for human interaction. An interaction strategy is a set of dominant features of a person's behavior in relations with other people, manifested in a particular social situation.

There are five main interaction strategies.

Rivalry It consists in the desire of a person to achieve the satisfaction of his interests to the detriment of another. Competition and competition are types of rivalry. This strategy often leads to conflict, as competing subjects strive to get their way at any cost, persistently defending their point of view.

Compromise consists in the desire of the subjects of interaction to make mutual concessions and realize their interests, taking into account the interests of the opposite side. In most social situations of interaction, this strategy is used, since social situations are rarely so favorable that the interests of both parties are fully satisfied.

Cooperation- this is an interaction strategy that allows partners to come to an alternative that fully satisfies the interests of both parties. This is a rather rare strategy, since its implementation requires a combination of several conditions: a relatively favorable social situation; psychological compatibility of participants in the interaction; their desire to go towards each other.

fixture It is the sacrifice of one's own interests for the interests of another person.

Avoidance is characterized by both the lack of desire to satisfy the interests of another person, and the lack of a tendency to achieve one's own goals.

The first three strategies - rivalry, compromise and cooperation - are active strategies characteristic of initiative and entrepreneurial people who are confident in their abilities. Individuals with a less active social position and reduced self-esteem are more likely to choose coping and avoidance strategies.

We will consider these strategies in more detail in the next chapter on conflict interaction.

Interaction styles

S.L. Bratchenko understands the style of interaction as an individual model of interpersonal communication preferred by a particular person.

Criteria for highlighting styles:

The ratio of the positions of the interlocutor (freedom, power, subordination);

the degree of mutual understanding;

· results, consequences and opportunities for interaction (Table 1).

table 2

Interaction styles

Style	Position ratio	Degree of understanding	Opportunities
1. Dialogic	Complete equality, mutual freedom, trust, respect	High level of mutual understanding	Maximum opportunities for self-disclosure, self-development of both partners
2. Authoritarian		Unwillingness to understand and empathize, the demand to be understood	Lack of opportunities for one with maximum opportunities for the other
3. Manipulative	Inequality in relationships, the power of one over the other	The desire to hide one's position and the desire to reveal the vulnerable sides of the partner	Development at the expense of others
4. Altruistic	Inequality at your own expense	The desire for understanding, empathy; ignoring your problems	Opportunities for the development of the interlocutor at your own expense
5. Conformal	Lack of own position, adherence to the opinion of a partner or group	Striving for Uncritical Consensus	Lack of opportunities for self-development
6. Indifferent	Pragmatic position	Ignoring the psychological problems of interaction	Lack of opportunities for the development of another

Interaction types

The most common is the dichotomous division of all possible types of interactions into two opposite types: cooperation and competition.

Cooperation, or cooperative interaction, means the coordination of the individual forces of the participants (ordering, combining, summing up these forces). An important indicator of cooperative interaction is the involvement in it of all participants in joint activities.

There are three types of cooperative interaction:

Ø combining individual efforts (for example, teachers in the same school);

Ø consistent joint activity (for example, a conveyor);

Ø actual joint activity (for example, actors playing in the same performance).

Competition is in competition. The most striking form of competition is conflict.

A conflict is a contradiction that arises between people on aspects of interaction that are significant to them and disrupts their normal interaction, and therefore causes certain actions on the part of the participants in the conflict to resolve the problem in their own interests.

The main characteristics of conflicts include the following.

Conflict is a common feature of social systems, it is inevitable and inevitable, and therefore should be considered as a natural part of human life. Conflict must be accepted as a form of normal human interaction.

Conflict does not always and does not necessarily lead to destruction. On the contrary, it is one of the basic processes that serve to preserve the whole. Conflict is not always bad.

Conflict contains potential positive opportunities. If we stop seeing conflict as a threat and start treating it as a signal that something needs to change, we will take a more constructive stance.

The conflict can be managed, and in such a way that its negative, destructive consequences can be minimized, and constructive ones can be strengthened. Conflict is an area that can and should be dealt with.

Allocate constructive and destructive functions of the conflict.

Constructive functions of conflict:

developing - it acts as a source of development, improvement of the interaction process;

Cognitive - detects the contradiction that has arisen;

instrumental - designed to resolve the contradiction;

Perestroika - has objective consequences associated with changing circumstances.

Destructive functions of conflict:

§ psychological discomfort, tension, depression or excessive excitement;

§ the system of interconnections is broken;

§ the effectiveness of joint activities decreases.

N.V. Grishina distinguishes the following types of conflicts:

v social (processes that take place at the level of macrostructures) - this is a social process or situation in which one social group is in conscious opposition to another or other groups, since these groups pursue incompatible goals;

v socio-psychological (at the level of intergroup and interpersonal interaction). We are talking about small groups that are in direct interaction or at the level of interaction of individuals, their interests, etc.;

v psychological (intrapersonal level) The collision of various personal formations (motives, goals, interests), represented in the mind of the individual by the corresponding experiences. The main condition of psychological conflict is the subjective insolubility of the situation.

Altruism and aggression

Altruism- rendering assistance to someone, not consciously connected with one's own selfish interests (45), according to the theory of social exchange by J. Homans, assistance, like any behavior in society, is motivated by the desire to minimize costs and increase income as much as possible. Others of this theory believe that a genuinely altruistic concern for the plight of others can also motivate people (45).

Social norm theory describes two social norms that motivate altruism: the norm of reciprocity and the norm of social responsibility. The norm of reciprocity encourages people to respond to help with help and not harm the one who gave it to us. The norm of social responsibility compels to provide assistance to those in need, even if they are not able to respond in kind (45). F. Zimbardo, M. Leippe believe that the repeated manifestation of altruism can be stimulated by a social norm, which they called the “rule of duty” or “rule of sequence”: asking for a small favor often makes a person show altruism (22).

Evolutionary theory recognizes two types of altruism: kinship and reciprocity (45).

There are several contributing factors that can help:

the number of eyewitnesses. The greater the number of eyewitnesses to an emergency, the less their proportion notices what happened, the less they are inclined to consider it as an emergency, the less they are inclined to take responsibility for its resolution;

the influence of emotions. People tend to help when they feel guilty towards someone, sad, happy;

religiosity stimulates the provision of assistance;

the impact of the situation. The manifestation of altruism is stimulated by the example of others who provide assistance, the presence of free time.

Aggression- motivated behavior that is contrary to the norms and rules of the coexistence of people in society, causing harm to the objects of attack (animate and inanimate), causing physical damage to people or causing them psychological discomfort (negative experiences, a state of tension, fear, depression, etc.) ( Chernova G.R., 2005).

Almost all theories of human aggression can be divided into two large groups. The first group consists of those theories that consider aggression as species behavior. The second - those who consider aggression as a manifestation of the individuality of the individual, that is, as aggressiveness.

Representatives of the instinctivist theory, or the theory of attraction (Z. Freud, K. Lorentz and others) believe that aggression occurs because human beings are genetically or constitutionally "programmed" for such actions.

From the point of view of behaviorists (A. Bandura, L. Berkowitz, etc.), aggressive behavior, like other forms of behavior, is acquired and is determined by the fact that a person seeks to achieve maximum advantage.

The frustration theory of J. Dollard arose as an opposition to the concept of drives: here aggressive behavior is considered as a situational, not an evolutionary process, that is, aggression is not an attraction that automatically arises in the human body, but a reaction to frustration: an attempt to overcome an obstacle on the way to satisfying needs, achievement of pleasure and emotional balance.

Interaction theories

Action theory(M. Weber, P. Sorokin, T. Parson). Sociologist T. Parson proposed a description of the structure of social action, which includes:

a) an agent;

b) "other" (the object to which the action is directed);

c) norms (according to which interaction is organized;

d) values ​​(which each participant accepts);

e) the situation (in which the action is performed).

This scheme turned out to be too abstract, and therefore unsuitable for empirical analysis.

Social exchange theory(Neobehaviorism) by J. Homans. Homans believed that people interact with each other based on their experience, weighing possible rewards and costs. He formulated four principles of interaction:

The more a certain type of behavior is rewarded, the more often it will be repeated;

if the reward for certain types of behavior depends on some conditions, the person seeks to recreate these conditions;

if the reward is high, the person is willing to put in more effort to get it;

When a person's needs are close to saturation, he is less willing to make efforts to satisfy them.

Thus, Homans sees social interaction as a complex system of exchanges conditioned by the ways in which rewards and costs are balanced.

Social connection theory Ya. Shchepansky. This theory describes the development of interaction. The central concept is the concept of social connection. It can be represented as a sequential implementation:

a) spatial contact;

b) mental contact (mutual interest);

c) social contact (joint activity);

d) interaction (defined as a systematic, continuous implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction from the partner);

e) social relationship.

Psychoanalytic theory interactions (Z. Freud, K. Horney, G. Sullivan). Z. Freud believed that interpersonal interaction is determined mainly by the ideas learned in early childhood and the conflicts experienced during this period of life. The family is the prototype of relationships with the outside world.

K. Horney identified three possible compensatory strategies that are developed from childhood and determine the nature of interaction with other people:

Ø movement towards people;

Ø movement against people;

Ø Movement away from people.

Usually all three strategies are used fairly evenly, the predominance of any one may indicate neurosis.

Impression Management Theory E. Hoffman. The theory is based on the assumption that situations of social interaction resemble dramatic performances in which people, like actors, strive to create and maintain a favorable impression. In order to manifest and express the symbolic meaning with which to make a good impression on others, people themselves prepare and create appropriate situations. This concept is also called the theory of social dramaturgy.

Interactionist theory(G. Blumer, J. Mead, C. Cooley, R. Linton and others). The key concept is "interaction", hence the name of the direction in which the theory of symbolic interactionism, role theory, was developed.

Theory of symbolic interactionism J. Mead, G. Blumer. Any interaction between people is carried out with the help of symbols. Without symbols there can be neither human communication nor human society, since symbols provide the means by which people can communicate. Blumer formulated three main provisions of the theory:

human activity is carried out on the basis of the meanings that people attach to objects and events;

These values ​​are the product of interaction (interaction) between individuals;

· the meanings are the result of the interpretation of the symbols surrounding each individual.

role theory(T. Sarbin, J. Mead, T. Shibutani). In order for the interaction to continue, everyone involved in it must also interpret the intentions of others through “role-taking”.

Social role - 1) a set of requirements imposed by society on persons occupying a certain social position; 2) the sum of a person's expectations in relation to himself - "what I should be"; 3) the actual behavior of a person in a particular position.

T. Shibutani (1969) distinguishes between conventional and interpersonal roles. Conventional roles mean a prescribed pattern of behavior that is expected and required of a person in a given situation. Learning these roles occurs through participation in organized groups. Interpersonal roles are determined by the interaction of people with each other.

inclusion in the interaction;

stage of control - the establishment of a hierarchy in relation, the desire to control the situation or, otherwise, be under the control of another person;

intimacy.

Experimental scheme for registering interactions R.F. Bales. Bales developed a scheme that allows, according to a single plan, to register various types of human interaction. Using the method of observation, real manifestations of interaction are recorded in accordance with four categories or areas of interaction:

Transactional Analysis Theory E. Bern. E. Berne introduced the concept of transaction to designate a functional unit of communication. A transaction is an interaction of two ego-states of individuals, where the ego-state is understood as the actual mode of existence of the I-subject. There are three main ego-states in which a person can be.

1. Ego state Parent b manifests itself in a person's desire to comply with the norms of social control, to implement ideal requirements, prohibitions, dogmas, etc.

2. Ego state Adult reveals itself in a person's desire to realistically assess the situation, rationally and competently resolve all issues.

3. Ego state Child associated with the emotional experiences of the individual (Table 2).

Table 3

Ego states of a person

Manifestations	Parent	Adult	Child
Characteristic words and expressions	n I know that... n You should never... n I don't understand how this is allowed... etc.	How? What? When? Where? Why? Possibly... Probably... etc.	n I'm angry with you... n Great... n Great... n Disgusting... etc.
intonation	Blaming, condescending, critical, suppressive, etc.	reality bound	very emotional
characteristic state	Haughty, super-correct, very decent, etc.	Mindfulness, search for information	Clumsy, playful, depressed, oppressed
Facial expression	Frowning, dissatisfied, worried	Open eyes, maximum attention	Oppressed, depressed, surprised, enthusiastic, etc.
Characteristic postures	Hands at the sides, “pointing finger”, hands folded on the chest	The body is tilted towards the interlocutor, the head turns after him	Spontaneous mobility (clenching fists, pulling a button, etc.)

Transaction types:

Additional or parallel: transactions - stimulus and transaction - response do not intersect, but complement each other. There are equal and unequal complementary transactions;

Intersecting: transactions - stimulus and transactions - response do not match (shown in the diagram as intersecting vectors). It is the overlapping transactions that are often the cause or effect of conflict;

latent: those transactions, the meaning of which is not related to the observed behavior; include two levels at the same time: explicit, verbally expressed (social), and hidden, implied (psychological). Explicit and covert interaction occurs from different positions. Usually, explicit, open to others present, occurs from the position of Adult - Adult, hidden interaction, directed only to the partner, occurs from a different position. Hidden transactions are angular and double.

Standard chains of transactions form games that are opposed to spontaneous, open communication. Games are played to obtain certain “rewards”: stress relief, praise, time structuring, sympathy, etc. There are three types of games: victim, persecutor and deliverer.

In addition to the analysis of games, E. Bern considered it important to analyze life scenarios. By script, he meant "what a person is going to do in the future." What is actually obtained, he called the path of life. The basis of a person's life scenario is his parental programming. The child accepts it for the following reasons:

he receives a ready-made goal of life, which otherwise he would have to choose himself;

Parental programming gives the child a ready-made option for structuring their time, especially since it will be approved by the parents;

The child just needs to be explained how to do certain things and how to behave in some situations (learning everything yourself is interesting, but it is very unproductive to learn from your mistakes).

The next step in transactional analysis is the analysis of a position that reflects a person's attitude to the world in general, to his environment - friends and enemies. Positions are bilateral and tripartite. Bilateral positions are based on the concepts of "good" (+) and "bad" (-). There are four main positions.

1. I (-) - You (+). I am bad, you are good. This is the position with which a person is born. From a psychological point of view, it is depressive, and from a social point of view, it is self-abasement. In an adult, it can contribute to the appearance of envy in relation to others. And this position often encourages a child to imitate others, learn from them, it can transform over time into three others.

2. I (+) - You (-). I am good, you are bad. This is a point of view of superiority, arrogance, snobbery. It can form in child-centric families, when the child sees that everything is done for him and for his sake. In transactional theory, this position is interpreted as a dead end: if I am the best, then who should I look up to, who should I learn from, whose words should I listen to?

3. I (-) - You (-). I am bad, you are bad. This is an attitude of hopelessness that can underlie auto-aggression and be the cause of suicidal behavior. It is often formed in families at risk, where the child feels abandoned, useless, and the behavior of the parents does not meet social norms.

4. I (+) - You (+). I am good, you are good. This is the position of a healthy, socially mature person, which reflects a decent life, a positive outlook on the situation, faith in success.

The tripartite positions include the components I, You and They.

1. I (+), You (+), They (+). In a democratic society, this position can be occupied by entire families. It can be considered ideal. Slogan: "We love everyone!"

2. I (+), You (+), They (-). This position is biased, as a rule, it is occupied by a talker, a snob or a bully. Slogan: "I don't care about them!"

3. I (+), You (-), They (+). This is the position of a discontented person, for example, a missionary: "You are not as good as those."

4. I (+), You (-), They (-). This is the position of a critical person who looks down on everyone: "Everyone is obliged to bow before me and be like me."

5. I (-), You (+), They (+). The position of a self-degrading person, a saint or a masochist. Slogan: "I am the worst in this world!"

6. I (-), You (+), They (-). The position of a sycophant, when a person does this not out of necessity, but out of snobbery: "I grovel, and the reward awaits me, not those people."

7. I (-), You (-), They (+). An attitude of obsequious envy or political action: "They don't like us because we are worse than them."

8. I (-), You (-), They (-). The position of pessimists and cynics, those who are sure: "In our time there are no good people."

Positions are closely related to the life scenario and often influence the nature of games.

Questions to check:

1. Describe the structure of the interaction.

2. What socio-psychological phenomena can arise in the process of interaction?

3. What interaction strategies did K. Thomas describe?

4. Name the functions of the conflict.

5. What psychoanalytic theories of interaction do you know?

6. List aspects of a social role.

7. What ego-states did E. Berne single out?

8. Name the types of transactions.

9. What areas of interaction did R. Bales single out?

10. List the principles of social interaction formulated by J. Homans.

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., 2000.

2. Andrienko E.V. Social Psychology. - M., 2000.

3. Bern E. Games that people play. People who play games. - M., 2003.

4. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

5. Krizhanskaya Yu.S., Tretyakov V.P. Grammar of communication. - M., 1990.

6. Kronik A.A., Kronik E.A. Psychology of human relations. - Dubka, 1998.

7. Levin K. Resolution of social conflicts. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

9. Communication and optimization of joint activities. - M., 1985.

10. Pines E., Maslach K. Workshop on social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

11. Rogov E.I. Psychology of communication. - M., 2002.

12. Filatova O.G. Social Psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

13. Chernova G.R. The phenomenon of cruelty (cultural and anthropological aspect). - St. Petersburg, 2005.

14. Shibutani T. Social psychology. - M., 1969.

Chapter 5. Introduction to Conflictology

Conflict Management

The concept of conflict

Despite the persistent interest in the nature of conflict interaction, conflicts have not been the subject of scientific research for a long time. It was only in the 1950s and 1960s that conflictology took shape as a special interdisciplinary field that combines theoretical, methodological and methodological approaches to the description, study and development of the practice of working with conflict phenomena of various kinds. Conflictologyis a system of knowledge about the laws and mechanisms of the emergence and development of conflicts, as well as about the principles and technologies for managing them.

One of the reasons for the development of science was the transition from the complete denial of conflicts, which was characteristic of the 20s of the last century, to their partial recognition. Prior to this, it was believed that a “good world” is one where there are no conflicts. One of the first works in the field of conflictology can be considered the work of Kurt Lewin "Resolution of Social Conflicts", which was published in 1948. The first conference of psychologists in our country dedicated to conflicts was held in 1990 in Krasnoyarsk (Grishina N.V., 2008).

At present, it can be stated that several relatively independent areas in conflictology have been formed: organizational, legal, pedagogical, industrial, economic, which closely interact with the general theory of conflicts.

The modern theory of conflict is often seen as a theoretical protest against the dominance of structural functionalism, the principles of which are: stability, stability, consent.

The main changes in the field of conflict research that have influenced the attitude towards conflicts and the practice of working with them can be formulated in a few simple theses:

1. Conflict is a common feature of social systems, it is inevitable and unavoidable, and therefore should be considered as a natural part of human life.

2. Conflict must be accepted as one of the forms of normal human interaction.

3. Conflict does not always and does not necessarily lead to destruction. On the contrary, it is one of the main processes that serve to preserve the whole. Under certain conditions, even open conflicts can contribute to the viability and sustainability of the social whole. The modern understanding of conflict suggests that conflict is not necessarily a negative interaction.

4. Conflict is a phenomenon that can and should be dealt with.

The concept of conflict belongs to both ordinary consciousness and science. Each of us intuitively understands what conflict is, but this does not make determining its content any easier.

In everyday speech, the word "conflict" is used in relation to a wide range of phenomena - from armed clashes and opposition of various social groups to official and marital disagreements. We call a conflict a family quarrel, military actions, discussions in parliament and a clash of internal motives, and so on.

The nature of the word "conflict" originates from the Latin conflictus, which means clash in translation. According to Webster's Dictionary (American Tradition, 1983), the concept of conflict was originally interpreted as "fight, battle, war", i.e. as a physical contradiction, confrontation between the parties. Then this meaning expanded to include "a sharp divergence or opposition of parties, interests, ideas." Thus, now this term implies not only physical opposition, but also its psychological background. As a result, the term "conflict" is used so widely that it may well lose the status of an unambiguous term.

In many cases, the conflict is understood as one of the forms of human interaction, which is based on real or illusory contradictions between people with attempts to resolve them against the background of the manifestation of emotions. By our definition, conflict - this is a contradiction between oppositely directed tendencies in the mind of one person, in interpersonal interactions or in the relations of groups of people, characterized by significance, activity and interconnectedness at the same time. The difference in views, motives, goals, means of achieving these goals may lie at the heart of social conflict.

The concepts of conflict and conflict situation are divided, which is understood as the base or foundation of the conflict. Not every conflict situation develops into a conflict. The ratio of these terms can be compared with the roots that are underground - this is a conflict situation and with what grows out of them - grass, bush or tree - this is a more or less large-scale conflict. From a psychological point of view, a situation is an external circumstance as interpreted by an individual. Following the theorem of W. Thomas: If a situation is defined by a person as real, then regardless of its real content, it becomes such in its consequences.(Grishina N.V., 2008) , it becomes clear why one situation "does not grow" into a conflict, and the other "grows" . What is important is whether we perceive the current situation as a conflict or not, since the very objective situation of interaction can contain a variety of contradictions that are regarded by different people in completely different ways.

Each conflict has a more or less clearly defined structure. Structure of the conflict- a set of stable elements of the conflict, dynamically interconnected and organizing the conflict into an integral system and process.

Causes of conflicts

The causes are most often understood as phenomena or events, facts, situations that precede the conflict, and under certain conditions cause it.

W. Lincoln identifies 5 main types of causes of conflicts:

v Information reasons:

§ Incomplete and inaccurate facts, including issues related to the accuracy of the presentation of the problem and the history of the conflict;

§ Rumors, arbitrary and involuntary disinformation;

§ Time mismatched information, i.e. premature or late;

§ Unreliability of sources of information or data;

§ Inaccuracy of translations and media reports;

§ Unwanted disclosure of information;

§ Incorrect interpretation of the language used;

§ Controversial interpretation of legal issues, rules of procedure, stereotypes.

v Behavioral:

§ Rudeness;

§ Selfishness;

§ The desire of one of the parties for superiority;

§ Manifestation of aggressiveness;

§ Manifestation of a threat to personal safety;

§ Manifestation of a threat to self-esteem;

§ Breaking a promise;

§ Stress, inconvenience, discomfort.

v Relations, the essence of which boils down to dissatisfaction with the interaction between the parties:

§ The contribution of the parties, the balance of power in the relationship;

§ The importance of the relationship for each of the parties; compatibility of the values ​​of the parties, their behavior, personal and professional goals and personal communication;

§ Differences in educational level, their duration, negative sediment from past conflicts, level of trust and authority;

§ The values ​​of the groups to which the parties belong and their pressure on the relationship of the parties.

v Valuable:

§ Personal systems of beliefs and behaviors (prejudices, preferences and authorities);

§ Group (including professional) traditions, values, needs and norms;

§ Modes of action and methods peculiar to individual institutions, organizations and professions;

§ Religious, cultural, regional and political values;

§ Traditional belief systems and associated expectations: beliefs about "right" and "wrong", "bad" and "good";

§ Ways and methods for assessing relevance, effectiveness, "fairness", "practicality", "realism", attitude to progress or change, maintaining the old, to the status quo.

v Structural reasons conflicts are relatively stable circumstances that exist objectively, regardless of the wishes of the parties, which are difficult or impossible to change. These are the law, age, ranks of parties, fixed dates, technologically necessary time, income, availability of technology, etc. Structural causes exist initially and initially predetermine the emergence of conflicts.