Personal problem and its role in the formation of individual social-perceptual distortions of the subject.
The term "problem" is understood in the literature as "the realization of the impossibility to overcome the difficulties and contradictions that arise in the current situation, by means of existing knowledge and experience" personality - "a specific living person with consciousness and self-awareness, a self-regulating dynamic functional system of qualities, relationships and actions that continuously interact , the subject of social relations and conscious activity "The indicated terms provide for the activity of the conscious aspects of the psyche, the personal problem is determined by unconscious tendencies, and therefore does not lend itself to independent rational cognition, therefore it is determined from the standpoint of psychodynamic theory as such," which the subject himself cannot solve as a result of misunderstanding of it prerequisites, causal aspects associated with an internal, stabilized contradiction »

Terms " personality problem», « personal issues» are insufficiently covered in the scientific literature. Classical psychoanalysis uses the concept of a symptom to designate morbid states of the psyche requiring psychoanalytic treatment. In psychotherapy, the phenomena of the psyche that are subject to correction and treatment are called psychological dysfunctions, or defect "I". These include borderline states of the psyche, pronounced character accentuations, neurotic manifestations, as well as mental deviations. In practical psychology, the concept of a personal problem originated in psycho-correctional group work with people who are within the limits of mental health. In psychoanalysis there is the concept of its defect. This concept is associated with a violation of the perception of reality, when the adequacy of the assessment of the external phenomena of the world, a realistic understanding of interpersonal relations is lost. In psychology, there is also the concept of destructive behavior, which is formed in childhood under the influence of persistent negative emotional experiences caused by the dissatisfaction of important psychological needs. There is a concept of a disharmonious organization of a personality in conflict with itself. K. Horney says that the internal conflict is leveled by denying the existence of intrapsychic conflicts, finds expression in the formation of an idealized image of one's own "I". Under such conditions, harmonious internal development is inhibited, since a person is not interested in personal life, but in his own image, which he seeks to maintain. In the literature, the concept of destruction is distinguished, which is defined as the destruction, destruction, violation of the normal structure of something. According to Freud's research, destructiveness has a biological basis associated with the natural instincts of life and death: in order to avoid self-destruction, an individual destroys the external environment, another person. According to E. Fromm, human destructiveness is formed by society, and at the same time it is the choice of the person himself.
The concept of destruction concerns the personal aspect of a person and is not identical with the concept of a personal problem. If a personal problem is an individually unique tendency to a certain unproductive activity associated with an infantile aspect, then destruction manifests itself in patterned and rigid behavior aimed at causing harm to another person. Destructions are actualized in the process of interpersonal interaction. T. Yatsenko claims that “before personal destruction belong stabilized formations of the subject’s psyche, which give rise to barriers to communication and weaken contacts with other people, which makes it difficult for the subject to self-realization” 2. Such activity is generated by an unconscious desire to get rid of internal tension, to support one’s own idealized “I” for account of the expected feedback from other people.

According to psychodynamic theory, the personal problems of the subject are determined by the consequences of oedipal addiction: the realization of the impossibility of intimate (libidinal) relationships with loved ones predetermines the repression of unwanted (taboo) impulses, is reinforced by the protective tendencies of the psyche.

The essence of the problems determined by oedipal addiction lies in the fact that there is an emotional tension associated with the experience of certain emotional states (depression, aggression, frustration, etc.), which are actualized by the situation of communication. At the same time, irrational behavior is observed, the consequences of which cannot be predicted by the subject himself. Interesting in this sense is the opinion of L. Gozman: "... on an intuitive level, emotional relationships appear to be absolutely spontaneous, unpredictable and not determined by anything" . Closeness to new experience continues in situations that actualize infantile aspirations. Thus, the formation of a personal problem is associated with the laws of the functioning of the psyche, which, as you know, integrates two contradictions: the principle of reality and the principle of pleasure. This is expressed in three global contradictions identified by T. Yatsenko - between strength and weakness, between life and death, between the desire for unity with people and the tendency "from people".
The complexity of understanding a personal problem is associated with the emergence of certain illusions that appear as a result of the distortion of self-consciousness and socio-perceptual information.

The following psychological phenomena can be attributed to the manifestations of a personal problem: a feeling of disharmony of the inner world; aggressiveness as a result of blocking the possibilities of expressing constructive feelings; anxiety and unmotivated fear; actualization of feelings of inferiority; egocentrism, concentration on one's own problems and interests of one's own "I"; passivity, blocking of creative potential and ability to self-realization; depressive and affective mental states; blocking adequate self-reflection and reflection of objective reality, other people. As T. Yatsenko notes, personal destruction is associated with communication strategies, among which are authoritarian and manipulative. Authoritarianism implies direct subordination to one's own interests of a communication partner, capturing him in a kind of psychological captivity. A manipulative strategy is characterized by a hidden influence on a partner in order to satisfy one's own needs. The partner is not aware of the manipulative impact and perceives communication from the manipulator "as a pure reality." Destruction can manifest itself, for example, when a psychologist, burdened with problems, uses personal and professional knowledge and achievements to manipulate other people.

The presence of internal contradictions is associated with the energy overexpenditure of the subject, requires replenishment at the expense of other people (the effect of "psychological vampirism"). There is also a phenomenon of self-absorption like autism. Behavior under such conditions is subject to the activity of painful points of the “I”, the actualization of which prompts sudden personal changes within the poles: plus or minus, love - hate, activity - passivity. According to E. Berne, the way to resolve an internal conflict is an unconscious tendency, according to which one or another feeling (love and hate) dominates, which blocks a person’s ability to direct his internal forces to achieve
constructive goals.

T. Yatsenko notes that the personal destruction of the subject, which manifests itself in communication dysfunctions, can have disguised forms, and the subject often does not recognize them. At the same time, irrational components, unmotivated actions begin to dominate in behavior. Destructive tendencies find their expression in the specific semantics of the problem
personality.

The consequence of the personal problem is the distortion of social-perceptual reality in the perception of reality. The category of distortion is interpreted in the psychological literature as any individual deviation from the standard interpretation of the stimulus, from the objectively existing reality in terms of its subjective perception, determined not only by deep prerequisites, but also by the social situation of interaction. The theory of personal meaning in psychological science confirms the socio-psychological nature of distortions, which are defined as "subjectively perceived overestimated significance of an object, action or event", "an individualized reflection of the actual attitude of the individual to the objects for which the activity is deployed". Emphasized the central role of a significant event in the formation of psychological distortions (the influence of which may not be realized by the subject), which is associated with the conscious beginning of a person, which is reflected in actions, social norms, ideals and values. In the presence of a personal problem (which is difficult for an enterprise to solve on its own as a result of a misunderstanding of its deep sources), mental processes acquire priority disintegration: as a result of the action of the protective system, the intellectual-rational is disconnected from sensory-emotional cognition, as a result of which the soil is created for the emergence of socio-perceptual distortions. At the same time, the destructive influence of distortions on the perception of social-perceptual information is observed.
The Swiss psychologist E. Blair calls autism an extreme form of deviation from reality, in which there is both immersion in the world of one's own experiences and hypertrophied activity in the outside world. T. Yatsenko rightly notes that "distortions should be understood as any reflection of the real world that is distorted due to internal psychological reasons." Lack of understanding by the subject of the presence of his own distortions predetermines social maladaptation and psychological insecurity, and, consequently, excessive waste of energy, the replenishment of which requires additional deviations from reality in the process of communication. At the same time, failures and hardships are attributed to adverse circumstances or opposition from other people. A phenomenon of walking in a vicious circle is created: that a person has a greater degree of discrepancy between internal logics: “who I am” and “who I want to be”, then more often and more intensively the psyche is “forced” to retreat from reality. The reasoning of K. Rogers is interesting: the body reacts with distortions of experience in order to preserve its own “I-concept”, which is incompatible with real experience. At the concrete-behavioral level, the invisibility of distortions is ensured by tendencies to rationalize one's own actions (the effect of "good intentions").
Let's try to highlight some individually unique variations of distortions, which, however, are common and stereotyped consequences of the protective system. In individuals, the significance of objective-objective activity is maximized to such an extent that they ignore the person himself as a reality (the effect of "Aryan blood"), and, consequently, violate the principle of equality and partnership in communication. An unconscious feeling of inferiority leads to a tendency to exaggerate one's own preferences. Let us give an example: successes in the professional activity of a person are absolutized and generalized to other areas (for example, communication with colleagues). Under such conditions, there is an expectation that the people surrounding the person treat her positively according to her "elevation". A striking example of distortion is the effect of megalomania, which is manifested, in particular, in axiological value orientations: “I am more significant than you”, “I know more than another person”. The consequence of such a distortion is the depersonalization of other people or the observance of a dismissive (“parental”) attitude, when the other person has no choice but to take the position of an “unreasonable child”. Curvature inhibits adaptation to the current situation. Due to deviations from reality, the subjective feeling of one's own failure in professional activity is often masked by simplifying the understanding of professional aspects and concepts.
The conditionality of the value of acquiring personal independence can cause ingratitude towards other people. If the feeling of gratitude, as a criterion of professional adjustment, joins the ideal "I", acquiring conventions, then disadaptation occurs: there is a desire to express gratitude regardless of situational nuances, since it is expressed for one's own self-affirmation. The inability to feel and contribute to the realization of the interests of the environment is masked by the projection of such tendencies onto another person. A problematic person is irrational about the prospects of satisfying one's own "I".
In this way, personal problems of the subject - a complex and capacious phenomenon that reflects the inconsistency and dysfunctionality of the psyche. The deep psychological origins of a personal problem determine its imperative force, which, without psychological correction, can weaken and maladjust a practical psychologist: it is the internal problems that cause unproductive errors in the perception of another person and the situation of communication, the inconsistency of the constructive intentions of the subject with his real actions, closeness to new experience. These tendencies have an individually unique expression, which, however, does not remove their destructive influence on the nature of interpersonal interaction. Understanding the relationship between infantile factors of the problematic and the nature of socio-perceptual distortions gives the future psychologist the opportunity not only to level emotional overload, but also to optimize the situation of communication, to get as close as possible to the principle of reality, which contributes to his professional development, an adequate vision of the problems of another person.

The federal law “On the Fundamentals of Social Services for the Population in the Russian Federation” names the following types of difficult life situations: disability, inability to self-service due to old age, illness, orphanhood, neglect, low income, unemployment, lack of a fixed place of residence, conflicts and abuse in family, loneliness. Therefore, to consider various types of personal problems, we turn to the typology of difficult life situations.

Invisibility. The Latin word "invalid" (invalid) means "unfit" and serves to characterize persons who, due to illness, injury, mutilation, are limited in the manifestation of vital activity. Initially, when characterizing disability, the emphasis was on the relationship “personality-ability to work”. Since disability is an obstacle to a full-fledged professional activity and deprives a person of the opportunity to independently provide for his existence, first of all, attention was paid to the medical aspects of disability and the problems of material assistance to the disabled, appropriate institutions were created to compensate for the lack of material means of subsistence for the disabled. At the beginning of the XX century. ideas about disability were humanized, this problem began to be considered in the coordinate system “personality-ability for full-fledged life”, ideas were put forward about the need for such assistance, which would give the disabled person the opportunity to build their own life.

The modern interpretation of disability is associated with a persistent health disorder caused by diseases, the consequences of injuries or defects, leading to a limitation of life and causing the need for social protection and assistance. The main sign of disability is considered to be a lack of physical resource, which is externally expressed in the limitation of life activity (complete or partial loss of the ability or ability to carry out self-service, move independently, navigate, communicate, control one's behavior, study and engage in labor activity).

Restrictions of a disabled person in employment lead simultaneously to a low property status and excessive temporary potential. The social status of disabled people is quite low and is expressed in social discrimination against this group of the population. The state of other resources depends on the period of life during which the disability occurred. Disability of children as a problem is associated with the danger of insufficient development of abilities, limited development of individual social experience, the formation of such negative traits as infantilism and dependency (characterizing life position and self-attitude).

Inability to self-care due to old age, disease. The content of a difficult life situation is contained in its name, but the problem is limited to two groups of causes (old age and illness), such causes as infancy and disability fell out. The inability to self-service fixes attention on the insufficient state of the physical resource, perhaps this is the most extreme quality. Here it must be borne in mind that the inability to self-care due to illness may be temporary, while at the same time it seems possible to differentiate the levels of inability (restriction of movement, restriction of movement, restriction of existence).

Orphanhood. This type of difficult life situations can be considered in the system "child-parents' implementation of their functions". According to the law, orphans are called persons under the age of 18 whose both or only parent have died, and children left without parental care are persons under the age of 18 who are left without the care of a single or both parents. The main functions of parents are maintenance (food, care, clothing, etc.), education (family education, organization of education), psychological support, representation of interests, supervision. The natural-social institution of parenthood actually plays the role of a temporary intermediary between society and the child. The loss of such a social intermediary by a child creates serious difficulties in meeting the entire gamut of human needs and social needs.

Neglect is caused by the parents' failure to fulfill their functions of supervision and upbringing of the child and differs from orphanhood by the nominal presence of parents. A private and most socially dangerous case of neglect is the complete rupture of the child and the family (lack of a permanent place of residence, limited contacts with parents or persons replacing them). The personal aspect of the problem of homelessness consists in the absence of normal human conditions of life and upbringing, lack of control over behavior and pastime, leading to social decapitation. Homelessness is caused by the child leaving the family due to parental abuse or conflict. Characteristic features of the life situation of homeless children: constant stay outside the parental apartment or social institution (sleeping at train stations, landfills, in thermal communications), existence by collecting bottles and non-ferrous metals, theft, begging, prostitution.

Neglect creates social problems both in the present (neglected children become participants and victims of illegal actions) and in the future (the formation of an asocial personality type, the rooting of negative life skills).

low income as a personal problem is the insufficiency of a material resource as a means of satisfying vital and social needs. The life situation of low-income citizens of working age is also characterized by low social status, the formation of an inferiority complex, the growth of social apathy, for children brought up in low-income families, there is a danger of lowering social standards, the development of aggressiveness both in relation to the state, society, and to individual layers, population groups and individuals. For elderly citizens experiencing material difficulties, this provision causes disappointment in relation to the state they served, paid taxes, defended in wartime.

When the state solves the problems of low income, the observance of the principle of social justice comes to the fore. Due to the fact that human needs are determined by the specific socio-cultural situation of a person or family, the state is forced to develop minimum standards of security. For this, a method is used to determine a set of goods and services that guarantees a minimum standard of living and ensures the satisfaction of both physiological and some social needs. The main tool for determining the monetary income necessary for a minimum adequate standard of living is usually the consumer budget of the corresponding standard of living, which contains quantitative sets of goods and services and is valued at retail prices.

Unemployment is a problem of able-bodied citizens who do not have jobs and earnings (income) ready to start working. Unemployment is a special case of unemployment, when a person, for one reason or another, does not participate in production activities, but an unemployed individual may not be ready to work.

The social side of the problem of unemployment is expressed in the interest of any state in the maximum involvement of the population in the production of material and spiritual goods (these people are taxpayers and feed dependent categories - children and the elderly). In addition, the unemployed represent an unstable, potentially criminogenic social group (the unemployed have a higher risk of antisocial behavior). And finally, the unemployed are the segments of the population that need protection and assistance (in the form of additional payments, compensations, etc.). Therefore, it is cheaper for the state to overcome unemployment than to support the unemployed.

The personal component of the problem of unemployment is associated with the loss of the source of material resources, the loss of position in society, the structuring of personal time, the degradation of the sphere of abilities and professional experience, the gradual destruction of positive self-identification.

A. V. Panchenko identifies three types of behavior of the unemployed:

• 1) activity and awareness - during the observed period, the unemployed actively seeks work, is aware of the problems he faces, and to overcome them, changes the content of his activity;
• 2) activity and unconsciousness- during the observed period, the unemployed actively seeks work, however, the form and direction of the job search remain unchanged, even if they are no longer adequate to the prevailing conditions;
• 3) passivity - during the observed period, the unemployed person does not make active efforts to find a job, although he feels the need for employment (for example, after a number of unsuccessful attempts, the unemployed person stops looking for a job, because “there is no work in the city”, “you can get a good job only by acquaintance”, etc. .).

Lack of a fixed place of residence- a specific personal problem associated not only and not so much with the insufficiency of the economic resource, but with the violation of the human "microworld" - the system of existence, embedded in society. Individuals with problems of this kind are called "homeless" (without a fixed place of residence), they are forced to wander, to be vagrants. The very word "tramp" is explained in dictionaries as "an impoverished, homeless person wandering without certain occupations."

There are main causes of vagrancy: family, housing, moral problems and mental illness of a person. Based on this, among persons without a fixed place of residence, three groups can be conventionally distinguished. The first is people of disabled age who have taken the path of vagrancy under the influence of life and family circumstances (impossibility of living in a family, illness, loneliness, senile dementia). The second - individuals who have lost their homes due to their stay in places of deprivation of liberty or with deceit in the exchange or sale of housing, who have lost their documents and are unable to get out of the created life situation. The third is people, as a rule, of working age, who fundamentally do not want to work, who are prone to alcoholism, who have sold their housing or lost it for other reasons.

Conflicts and abuse in the family. Conflicts in the family are a clash of spouses, children and parents, caused by intractable contradictions associated with confrontation and acute emotional experiences. The conflict leads to a breakdown in the functioning of the family, a disruption in the process of realizing the needs of its members.

Ill-treatment, according to international standards, includes all forms of physical or mental violence, beating or insulting, inattentive, negligent or cruel treatment, exploitation, including sexual assault. The following forms of violent actions are distinguished in the literature: physical violence; mental (emotional) violence; sexual (sexual) violence, neglect of vital needs.

Under physical violence the following actions are understood: murders, beatings, mutilations, murder of a baby, coercion to refuse food, coercion to refuse medical care, coercion in the reproductive sphere. sexual abuse includes: rape, incest, various kinds of sexual harassment; under mental abuse are understood as: restriction in behavior, threats, forced marriage. Neglect of the needs of life implies a situation where parents or persons replacing them do not provide the child with food, shelter, clothing, hygiene conditions that meet his needs.

Physically or psychologically weak family members, as a rule, women, children, and the elderly become the object of domestic violence. There are three types of family violence:

1) on the part of parents in relation to children; 2) on the part of one spouse in relation to the other; 3) on the part of children and grandchildren in relation to elderly relatives.

Child abuse leads to different consequences, but they are united by one thing - damage to the health or danger to the life of the child, not to mention the violation of his rights. Conflicts in the family destroy the sense of security, psychological comfort, cause anxious anxiety, give rise to mental illness, leaving the family, and suicidal attempts.

Loneliness- this is an experience that causes a complex and acute feeling that expresses a certain form of self-consciousness, indicating a split in the relationships and connections of the inner world of the individual. The sources of loneliness are not only personality traits, but also the specifics of the life situation. Loneliness appears as a result of the insufficiency of the social interaction of the individual, the interaction that satisfies the basic social needs of the individual.

There are two types of loneliness: emotional loneliness(lack of close intimate attachment, such as love or marriage); social loneliness(lack of meaningful friendships or sense of community).

The largest percentage of single people is given by large cities, life in which separates its inhabitants. Many citizens have difficulties with communication, with finding an adequate partner.

There are many obvious examples of social loneliness of people who, as a result of some social changes, have been rejected by society or a certain group. These include the elderly, the poor, people who are naturally eccentric, those whose pursuits are outside the norm, and in some cases, teenagers and women.

Loneliness can be the cause of many disappointments, but the worst is when it becomes a cause of frustration. Lonely people feel abandoned, torn off, forgotten, deprived, unnecessary. These are excruciating sensations because they occur contrary to normal human expectations. Loneliness presupposes the rupture of ties or their complete absence, while our usual hopes, expectations are oriented towards coherence, connection, connection. A severe form of loneliness can mean confusion and emptiness and cause an individual feeling of homelessness, a feeling that a person is “out of place” everywhere.

• Federal Law “On additional guarantees for social support for orphans and children left without parental care” of December 21, 1996 No. 159-FZ.

Ecology of consciousness: How does a personal problem differ from a life task? Does the ability to solve such problems depend on education and intelligence? What are the stages in the process of solving personal problems

How is a personal problem different from a life problem? Does the ability to solve such problems depend on education and intelligence? What are the steps involved in the problem solving process? Candidate of Psychological Sciences Natalya Kiselnikova answers these and other questions.

The psychology of solving personal problems is an area that is at the junction of two other areas in psychology. This is the psychology of thinking, which deals directly with solving problems, and the psychology of personality, or specifically the section that concerns the psychology of the life path of the individual, various difficult life situations, crises, and so on.

The selection of some branch in psychology suggests that it has its own subject of study - for this branch, these are, in fact, personal problems. And before answering the burning question for everyone, “But how to solve them?”, You need to understand what it is in general. What we actually decide. And at the everyday level, this phrase is very often used, if not just by people, then, in any case, by practicing psychologists, especially consultants, psychotherapists - a rather common phrase. If you want to find a definition for this phrase, then you will not find this definition in any dictionary or Wiktionary on the Internet, which is quite surprising, because this, in my opinion, is the favorite pastime of scientists - to give definitions.

There is an unspoken agreement among experts that there is such a concept, we all think about the same thing. But such a situation, of course, does not suit scientists, they always want to understand, to clearly understand what the essence of the phenomenon is, and for this, the concepts of “problem” and “task” are first divorced.

There is the concept of a “life task” that a person faces, and he somehow solves it or does not solve it. And there is the concept of "problem". And it must be said that the concepts of "task" and "problem" exist not only for the individual, but also in the psychology of thinking: people who explore the ability to solve problems and tasks also have such a distinction between a task and a problem.

As such characteristics, which are very important for the problem, its complexity, inconsistency, and opacity of conditions stand out - a person may not know all the circumstances of this problem, and they can be revealed only in the course of solving. This is dynamic, that is, the problem itself can develop, especially if it is very complex and involves many external circumstances of life.

All these characteristics are also characteristic of a personal problem as one of the types of problems. Especially such a characteristic as "complexity", "complexity" comes to the fore. Because the problem - any, in particular, personal - is similar to a very complex mechanism, in which there are many levers, many wheels. And very often a person who is not an expert in this field cannot accurately predict which wheels will spin if he pulls on some string or twists on some lever. The reaction can be so chain that in the end a person can get a completely different result that he thinks to get.

We often see this story with clients who come to a psychotherapist and ask to do something with them so that life, as it seems to them, becomes better. But an experienced specialist knows that, having saved a person from one problem, you can easily lead him to another. For example, a client thinks that if he becomes more self-confident, then his life will change for the better and everything will be fine.

But in the course of work, it turns out that behind such restraint in behavior or insecurity very often lies a high level of aggression.

As soon as a person gains self-confidence, his relationships with people begin to deteriorate dramatically, because he releases emotions that he previously held back and hid under the guise of insecurity.

This is one of the simple examples, but the problems are much more complex. Therefore, the question of solving a problem is far from being as simple as the question of solving some vital task. And if we talk about the definition of a personal problem - what is it, in fact? There is the concept of difficulty, there is the concept of a difficult life situation. There are a lot of seemingly similar phenomena that can also be attributed to a personal problem. Psychologists have a concept of "personal meaning". It is very closely related to the motives, needs, values ​​of a person. In fact, this is the answer to the question: what does something mean to me? What does this item mean to me? What does this person mean to me? For me personally. Not for anyone there. This is the personal meaning of some part of reality.

A personal problem - one of the variants of its understanding - is understood as a situation in which a person experiences very great difficulties or even does not have the opportunity to realize his personal meaning, find it or somehow change it so that his inner feelings of harmony, comfort appear or return.

Practical research in the field of psychology of solving personal problems in Russia, unfortunately, has not been carried out. We do not yet have any empirical studies on our material. But abroad, these studies have already been carried out for more than 30 years, although the concepts there are just as bad as they are here. Nevertheless, several interesting facts have been revealed about people who demonstrate good and not so good ability to solve personal problems. Specifically, people with good problem solving abilities have been found to be more independent in their decision making, have better physical health scores, feel more confident, and have a more positive self-image.

It is also interesting that the solution of complex, including complex personal problems, depends little on the level of intelligence. Although it would seem that this is a direct connection. At the everyday level, it seems that the smarter a person is, the better he solves some problems, including personal ones. It turned out that this is not the case at all and, most likely, the ability to solve complex problems well is associated with resistance to uncertainty, that is, to the unpredictability of conditions, to the uncertainty of the future.

There are people with a fairly well-developed intellect who become disorganized in a situation where a person does not know what awaits him. And his intellectual schemes, the usual ways of solving turn out to be ineffective. At the same time, a person with a not so well-developed intellect, but with greater resistance to the same uncertainty, copes quite effectively and successfully.

Another interesting hypothesis that was tested in the course of the research was that people with a technical background would probably be better at solving personal problems than humanities students, because they have good analytical skills. These differences were also not revealed; this ability does not depend on the direction of education. As for the process of solving and the result of solving a personal problem, obviously, each person is one way or another an intuitive solver: we all face these problems and somehow try to solve them, effectively or not.

But there are also professionals in this field. They refer, of course, to psychotherapists, counseling psychologists, and coaches. The subject of their activity is the solution of the problem, and there are certain technologies for solving problems that can and should be taught. Not all areas of psychotherapy and counseling are truly problem-oriented. There are a very large number of process-oriented schools that do not directly aim to solve the client's problems, for the client or together with the client. They set themselves the goal, rather, to lead the client on this path.

Nevertheless, many experts consider a solved problem to be a good result of psychotherapy, if a person came with one.

Solving the problem involves several steps. They are not specific to a personal problem - they are exactly the same as for any other problem: this is setting goals, defining conditions, planning - hypothesizing and planning a solution, this is its implementation and testing of results. But the personality problem is characterized very often by the fact that all these stages are confused. They do not go sequentially, and a person can skip, skip some stages, return. This is very often due to the fact that a person is emotionally involved in this problem. And the problem is different in that it cannot be given from the outside, like a task: such conditions - come to such a result, find the unknown. The problem, in principle, arises only when a person is aware of it as such. A specialist who helps a person solve a problem has just such a scheme inside his head and helps a person go from beginning to end, or at least until the moment of awareness of the problem, which is also often necessary to solve it and to change the person’s feeling. published

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MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Educational Institution

higher professional education

Tyumen Law Institute

General Law Faculty

Extramural studies

TEST

By discipline: Philosophy

On the topic: "Problems of a person's personality"

Option 39

Completed: 1st year student

distance learning

on a reduced program

gr. 09-3.5 OPF TUI MIA of Russia

Alkova N.A.

record book number 79

Tyumen 2010

Introduction

1. Problems of personality in philosophy

2. Moral foundations of personality

3. Religious morality. Features of Christian morality

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The problem of personality is an immense, significant and complex problem, covering a huge field of research. The concept of personality is one of the most complex in human knowledge. Until now, there has not yet been a sufficiently substantiated and generally accepted definition of this concept.

Personality as a community and scientific term can mean:

1. the human individual as a subject of relations and conscious activity (persons, in the broad sense of the word)

2. a stable system of socially significant features that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society or community.

Although these two concepts - the person as the integrity of a person (Latin persona) and the personality as his social and psychological appearance (Latin personalitas) - are terminologically quite distinct, they are sometimes used as synonyms.

The Latin word persona originally referred to the masks worn by actors during a theatrical performance in ancient Greek drama. The slave was not considered as a person, for this one must be a free person. The expression “to lose face”, which is found in many languages, means that a person loses his place and status in a certain hierarchy. In Russian, the term “face” has long been used to characterize the image on the icon.

In both Eastern and Western thinking, the preservation of one's “face”, that is, personality, is a categorical imperative of human dignity, without which human civilization would lose all meaning.

1. Problemspersonality in philosophy

The problem of personality in philosophy is not solved in isolation from the solution of another problem - the question of the very nature (essence) of man, his origin and purpose, the place of man in the world.

In ancient Chinese, Indian, Greek philosophy, a person is conceived as a part of the cosmos, some single supertemporal order and structure of being, as a small world, the microcosm is a reflection and symbol of the Universe, the macrocosm (in turn, understood anthropomorphically - as a living spiritualized organism). A person contains all the basic elements (elements) of the cosmos, consists of a body and soul (body, soul, spirit), considered as two aspects of a single reality or as heterogeneous substances.

In the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, developed by Indian philosophy, the boundary between living beings (plants, animals, man, gods) turns out to be mobile. However, only a person is inherent in the desire for liberation from the fetters of empirical existence with its law of karma - samsara. According to Vedanta, the specific beginning of a person is atman (soul, spirit, essence, subject), identical in its inner essence with the universal spiritual beginning - brahman.

In the philosophy of Aristotle, the understanding of man as a living being, endowed with spirit, reason and the ability to social life, found expression defining for ancient philosophy.

In Christianity, the biblical idea of ​​man as the “image and likeness of God,” internally divided as a result of the fall, is combined with the doctrine of the union of divine and human nature in the person of Christ and the possibility, because of this, of communion of each person with divine grace.

In medieval philosophy, an understanding of the personality is outlined as different from the psychophysical individuality and irreducible to any universal nature, or substance (bodily, mental, spiritual), as a unique relationship.

The problem of personality is central to any modern concept of man. Marxism approached the explanation of the natural and the social in man on the basis of the principle of dialectical materialistic monism. The starting point of such an understanding of man is the interpretation of him as a derivative of society, as a product and subject of social labor activity. K. Marx wrote that “... the essence of a person is not an abstract inherent in a separate individual. In its activity it is the totality of all social relations.

The social history of man was preceded by his natural prehistory: the beginnings of labor-like activity in anthropoid apes, the development of herd relations in higher animals, the development of sound and motor means of signaling.

Animals cannot make fundamental changes in the conditions of their existence, they adapt to the environment, which determines their way of life. A person does not just adapt to these conditions, but, uniting in joint work, transform them in accordance with his constantly developing needs, creates a world of material and spiritual culture. Culture is created by man to the same extent that man himself is shaped by culture.

One of the concepts with which to begin the study of the problem of personality is the individual. Literally, it means an indivisible particle of some whole. This is a kind of “social atom”, an individual is considered not only as a single representative of the human race, but also as a member of some social group.

Much more meaningful is another term - "individuality", denoting the uniqueness and uniqueness of a person in all the richness of his personal qualities and properties. Man acts first as an individual, a “random individual” (K. Marx), then as a social individual, a personified social group, and then as a personality. Personality is the more significant, the more universal, universal characteristics are represented in its refraction.

For ancient Greek philosophy, for example, a person outside a community or a polis is just as unreal as a biological organ torn off from the whole organism.

However, already in antiquity, the problem of a discrepancy between the real behavior of a person and his essence, as he himself sees it, and the motives of guilt and responsibility associated with this, appear. Different religious and philosophical systems highlight different aspects of this problem. If in ancient philosophy a person acts mainly as a relation, then in Christianity it is understood as a special entity, an “individual substance” of a rational nature, a synonym for the immaterial soul. In the philosophy of the new time, a dualistic understanding of personality is spreading, the problem of self-consciousness as a person's relationship to himself comes to the fore. The concept of personality practically merges with the concept of "I", the identity of the personality is seen in its state. According to Kant, a person becomes a person thanks to self-consciousness, which distinguishes him from animals and allows him to freely subordinate his "I" to the moral law.

Since Marxist philosophy defines the essence of a person not as "... an abstract inherent in an individual", but "... the totality of all social relations", then the absolute opposition of the individual to society loses its meaning. The world ceases to be a simple collection of external things, becomes a human world, and the human individual acquires a social nature. The basis for the formation of personality, both in phylogenesis and in ontogenesis, is social production activity, which always involves interaction with others. Powerless, as an abstract, isolated individual, a person becomes an omnipotent creator together with others, as part of public and social groups.

Man is a living system, which is a unity of the physical and spiritual, natural and social, hereditary and acquired in life. As a living organism, a person is included in the natural connection of phenomena and is subject to biological (biophysical, biochemical, physiological) laws. At the level of the conscious psyche and personality, a person is turned to social being with its specific patterns. The physical, morphological organization of a person is the highest level of organization of matter in the part of the universe known to us. Man crystallizes in himself everything that has been accumulated by mankind over the centuries.

This crystallization is carried out through familiarization with the cultural tradition, and through the mechanism of biological heredity. A child inherits a store of genetic information through a specifically human body structure, the structure of the brain, the nervous system, and inclinations. However, natural (anatomical and physiological) inclinations develop and are realized only in the conditions of a social way of life in the process of communication between a child and adults. Manifestations of the biological patterns of human life are socially conditioned. Human life is determined by a single system of conditions, which includes both biological and social elements. At the same time, the biological components of this system play the role of only necessary conditions, and not the driving forces of development. A person's actions, the way he thinks and feels, depend on the objective historical conditions in which he lives, on the characteristics of the social group whose interests he consciously or unconsciously represents. The content of a person's spiritual life and the laws of his life are hereditarily non-programmable. But this cannot be said about some potential abilities for creative activity, about the individual characteristics of talent that are formed by society, but on the basis of hereditary inclinations. Hereditary moments, to one degree or another, primarily through the characteristics of the higher nervous system, also affect the nature of the development of a person's inclinations and abilities.

If we turn to the problem of the genesis of a person's personal characteristics, then the question arises: when is a person born?

Obviously, the term "personality" is not applicable to a newborn child, although all people are born as individuals and as individuals. The latter is understood as the fact that in each newborn child, in a unique and inimitable way, both in the genotype and in the phenotype, his entire prehistory is imprinted.

Many prerequisites for personal development are laid down in the prenatal period, which requires reflection within the framework of a certain worldview. It is important to emphasize that a person comes into life with the experience of birth, and to birth - with the experience of prenatal community. Data on the study of the specifics of the human genome indicate that we are in the deepest relationship with animate and inanimate nature, and in this sense, the prerequisites for the personality of each are largely determined by the natural justification of man. That is, a newborn is already a pronounced, bright individuality, and every day of his life increases the need for diverse reactions to the world around him. Literally from the first moments of life, from the first feedings, a child's own, special style of behavior is formed, so well recognized by the mother and relatives.

A world of things and social formations stretches before each person entering into life, in which the activity of previous generations is embodied and determined. It is this humanized world, in which every object and process, as it were, is charged with human meaning, social function, purpose, and surrounds a person. At the same time, the achievements of human culture are not given to a person in a ready-made form in the objective conditions that embody them, but are only set in them. The development of social, historically established forms of activity is the main condition and decisive mechanism for the individual formation of a person. In order to make these forms his personal abilities and part of his individuality, a person from early childhood is introduced into such communication with adults, which is expressed in the form of imitation, teaching and learning. As a result of this, an individually developing person acquires the ability to act intelligently with tools, with various symbols, words, ideas and concepts, with the entire set of social norms. Mastering the humanized nature, the child joins the being of culture in various ways. A person is comprehensively included in contact, communication with society, even when he is left alone with himself. A person's awareness of himself as such is always mediated by his attitude towards other people.

2 . Moral foundations of personality

In the process of familiarization with culture, a person develops mechanisms of his self-control, expressed in the ability to regulate a wide range of drives, instincts, etc. by volitional effort. This self-control is essentially social control. It suppresses impulses that are unacceptable for a given social group and constitutes a necessary condition for the life of society. The more intensively humanity develops, the more complex are the problems of education and upbringing, the formation of a person as a person.

Historically established norms of law, morality, everyday life, rules of thinking and grammar, aesthetic tastes, etc. form the behavior and mind of a person, make an individual a representative of a certain way of life, culture and psychology.

3 . religious morality.Features of Christian morality

Religious morality is an integral part, and perhaps the basis, of universal morality. The history of human society is simply inseparable from the history of religion: in different countries and at different times it is difficult to find periods when, so to speak, secular morality could be separated from religious morality. As it seems now, Russia, too, has for centuries been a country of deep faith and living on the basis of religious morality.

A Russian person from birth to death was associated with the church and checked all his actions with the norms and rules of Christian morality. Although the Orthodox Church has always been separated from the state, not a single more or less significant event in Russia took place without its participation, and all Russian rulers have always been true believers. And it is impossible now to dispute the assertion that the mentality of a Russian person was largely formed under the influence of the church, and the morality of a person who considers himself an unbeliever or even an active atheist is only a veiled reflection of generally accepted religious morality.

Although seven decades of experience in applying the “class approach” in creating moral categories and evaluating spiritual values ​​in Russia, it seems that its citizens have led to a complete absence of any kind of morality, neither the publicity of religiosity (or pseudo-religiosity) of politicians, nor some political engagement of the Russian Orthodox Churches do not force the thinking person today to doubt the values ​​of religious teachings.

It's not about faith or atheism. Although the ideal of any church is a deeply religious person who has fully devoted himself to serving God, at the present stage, in her desire to accustom a person to faith, she does not make demands on him that could make him come into conflict with society - it does not require a rejection of an active life position, from planning your future, from obtaining material wealth, from entertainment. Now the church, rather, seeks to accustom a person to non-specific, universal moral categories, which have enduring value in all ages and under any political system, indicated or not indicated in the works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism.

Religious morality is a set of moral concepts, principles, ethical norms that are formed under the direct influence of the religious worldview. She argues that morality has a supernatural, divine origin, and thus proclaims the eternity and immutability of religious moral institutions, their timeless, supra-class nature. With all the wide opportunity to challenge this thesis, humanity has lived with it for millennia, and a period of seventy years is not capable of changing this situation.

In modern Russia, on the ruins of a once mighty state, with the impotence of political power, in the complete absence of any values, it may be that Christian ideas are able to unite the nation and resist chaos and destruction.

The moral code of Christianity was created over the centuries, in different socio-historical conditions, and the poet cannot be rejected or corrupted after seventy years of oblivion and distortion. Of course, it is possible to detect a variety of ideological strata in it, reflecting the moral ideas of different social strata and groups of believers, and it is not free from internal contradictions and obvious “irregularities”, but the modern church does not require a literal and thoughtless adherence to all the norms and rules set forth in sacred books that have remained unchanged for many centuries.

Christian morality, first of all, finds its expression in peculiar ideas and concepts of moral and immoral, in the totality of certain moral norms (for example, commandments), in specific; religious and moral feelings (Christian love, conscience, etc.) and some volitional qualities of a believer (patience, humility, etc.), as well as in systems of moral theology or theological ethics. Together, these elements make up the Christian moral consciousness.

The moral consciousness of Christians is a socially and historically conditioned reflection of their practical behavior in the collective and society. Although initially Christian morality may have arisen as a reflection of the impotence of slaves and peoples enslaved by Rome in the struggle for their freedom and happiness, in subsequent development it acquired some independence, manifested in the fact that Christian moral consciousness in its ideological and figurative content continues to exist up to our days. In its centuries-old historical existence, Christian morality adapted to the socio-political interests of various classes, embodied, on the one hand, in its class varieties: Christian-feudal Catholic and Orthodox morality, as well as Christian-bourgeois Protestant morality, on the other hand, in Christian-democratic morality. the morality of medieval folk heresies and even Christian-proletarian morality in the early stages of the development of capitalism (“Christian socialism”). For all that, Christian morality retained a stable religious and moral core, which makes it possible to single out Christian moral consciousness as an independent ideological phenomenon with specific features and undeniable value.

One of the features of Christian (as well as any religious) morality is that its main provisions are put in a mandatory connection with the dogmas of the dogma. Since the "God-revealed" dogmas of Christian doctrine are considered unchanged, the basic norms of Christian morality, in their abstract content, are also relatively stable, retaining their influence in each new generation of believers. This is the conservatism and strength of religious morality, which in socially changing -historical conditions are able to keep the moral foundations of any society unchanged and stable.

Another feature of Christian morality, arising from its connection with the dogmas of the dogma, is that it contains such moral instructions that cannot be found in systems of non-religious morality. Such, for example, is the Christian teaching about suffering as a blessing, about forgiveness, love for enemies, non-resistance to evil, and other positions that seem to contradict the vital interests of people's real life.

In the most concise form, Christian morality can be defined as a system of moral ideas, concepts, norms and feelings and their corresponding behavior, closely related to the dogmas of the Christian dogma. Since religion is an indirect reflection in the heads of people of external forces that dominate them in their daily life, real interpersonal relations are reflected in the Christian consciousness in a form altered by religious ideas.

Christian morality includes a set of norms (rules) designed to regulate relationships between people in the family, in the community of believers, in society. . Such are the well-known Old Testament commandments, the gospel "commandments of beatitude" and other New Testament moral instructions. In their totality, they constitute what can be called the official code of Christian morality approved by the church. Christian theologians consider the biblical commandments divinely revealed in origin and universal in their moral significance, since "God is one. However, the Christian-theological interpretation of the origin and essence of moral norms can be completely different from the scientific point of view. Marxism, for example, proves the social conditioning of the moral consciousness of people. Since the life of society takes place in conditions of class division of people, all the systems that existed in society were class morality and, therefore, there cannot be a single, universal moral code.But the point is not at all the existence of different moral codes for different sections of society.Even if they exist, they are based on common requirements attitudes to the behavior of the individual in any community, the simplest norms of morality, without which the existence of any community of people is impossible.

Conclusion

The problem of personality and its moral foundations, inseparable from the problem of the essence of man himself, has occupied the best minds of mankind throughout its history. But even now, on the threshold of the 21st century, it cannot be said that we have come close to solving it.

Yes, now we know more about a person: we know more about his physiology, psychology, we can to some extent control the actions and deeds of an individual and various social groups, we can make a person happy or sad, good or evil. But did this knowledge and skill make a person more understandable, did humanity become more intelligent because of this? Have we managed to wean a person from committing terrible crimes? Have we managed to understand why geniuses are born so rarely?

Yes, and do we need it? Will a person become happier from his predictability and the predetermination of his fate? And will humanity lose the meaning of its existence when it finds out everything?

The utilitarian, applied side of the personality problem requires its solution, because it is directly related to the survival of mankind. The increase in the population of the Earth, the lack of its natural resources and the ever-increasing differentiation of the rich and poor strata of society put humanity on the brink of death.

The existing type of personality, the ways of satisfying his needs become incompatible with the existence of the planet itself. Until man understands this, until he learns to control his passions and limit his needs, the prospects for the survival of mankind remain very bleak.

Bibliography

1. Ilyenkov I.V., “What is a personality”, textbook, M., 2001.

2. Hjell D., Ziegler D., "Personality Theory", textbook, M., 1999.

3. O.A. Mitroshenkov, Philosophy, Textbook, Problems of personality typology, M., 2001.

4. Shishkin A.F., Human nature and morality, M., 2005.

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In the domestic psychology of the last decade, a paradoxical situation has developed. The recognized successes of practical psychology are determined not only by the increased social demand, but also by the concrete results that have developed in line with the natural scientific tradition. But life began to put forward new challenges. The problems of psychological assistance to people in difficult and emergency situations, psychological support for the activities of state and commercial structures, political parties, movements, election campaigns, etc., have become more acute. Practical psychologists came face to face with the realities of the most complex principles and mechanisms of human subjective consciousness, the search for optimal life strategies, ways to overcome everyday difficulties and spiritual crises. But the categories of spirit, soul, complex phenomena of consciousness were outside the natural scientific tradition. They existed and remained in philosophy, ethics, theology, and other humanities.

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The subject of humanitarian psychology is still outlined in the most general terms. In methodological terms, it is guided by the traditions of the humanities, which have a unit of analysis of a holistic person. In a broad sense, it is proposed to consider it as a postclassical period in the development of psychological science. The research field of humanitarian psychology is expanding significantly.

Natural-science psychology studied the psyche as a special apparatus or instrument for reflecting the world and orienting in it. But man is a generic, scaleless, self-transcending being. V. Frankl emphasized that a person is more than a psyche: a person is a spirit. In domestic psychology, the idea of ​​expanding the research field of psychology and including the psychological problems of a person, his essence, his development has been repeatedly put forward. In his recent works, S. L. Rubinshtein wrote that behind the problem of the mental “naturally, necessarily, another one arises, as an initial and more fundamental one - about the place not only of consciousness as such in the interconnections of the phenomena of the material world, but about the place of man in the world, in life".

Humanitarian psychology of the 90s of our century brings together philosophical and psychological, cultural, concrete psychological and other approaches to the phenomenon of man and highlights the problem of his self-development, revealing his essence and personality. In the psychology of the XX century. these problems were posed and substantiated by K. Jung. He turned to the study of the spiritual beginning of the personality, in a new way comprehended the dynamics of her spiritual life. The problem of self-development of a person, his essence and personality becomes central in the spiritually oriented concepts of personality.

P. D. Uspensky distinguishes two main substructures in a person - essence and personality. By essence, he refers to the innate spiritual and hereditary natural properties of man. They are stable and cannot be lost. Essential natural properties determine the centers of the simplest mental functions - intellectual, emotional, sexual, motor, instinctive. Essential spiritual properties determine the development of consciousness and higher emotional and intellectual functions.

P.D. Uspensky refers to the personality the properties that a person acquires and which express his attitude towards other people and different parts of the world. They can change and even be lost, but they play a huge role in his life. According to P. D. Uspensky, in the structure of the psyche, personality takes second place after essence. But a person is necessary for a person, as well as his essence, and they must develop evenly, without suppressing each other, preserving the hierarchy of a person’s mental make-up.

The conditions of modern life, notes P. D. Uspensky, favor the underdevelopment of the essence of man. On the other hand, the formed personal properties, expectations, claims can both contribute to and hinder its development.

In domestic psychology, the attention of S. L. Rubinshtein was drawn to the problem of the essence of man in his recent works. The main characteristic of a person is his attitude towards another person: “... The first of the first conditions of a person's life is another person. The attitude towards another person, people is the main fabric of human life, its core ... The psychological analysis of human life, aimed at revealing the relationship of a person to other people, is the core of a truly life psychology.(Psychological understanding of the human phenomenon unfolds in the 90s.) B. S. Bratus finds new ways of philosophical-psychological and concrete-psychological understanding of a person, bringing these approaches together. Firstly, the author substantiates the need to overcome the substitution of a person for a personality, an attempt to derive from it the very foundations of human life, a kind of personacentrism successfully implanted in psychology.

Domestic psychologists, who have done so much to separate the concepts of "individual", "personality", "individuality", etc., have passed by the fundamentally important issue of distinguishing between the concepts of "person" and "personality". Man is considered as a scaleless generic being, transcending its boundaries, not amenable to final definitions. The apparatus of psychology cannot and should not be fully applied to him. Another matter - the personality, from positions of the psychologist. It can be understood, the author believes, as a special psychological tool for a person's self-development.

In psychology, it is customary to emphasize that it is not memory or thinking that remembers or thinks, but a person. Similarly, it is not a person, but a person, who exists. Man is the only subject of existence. It should be noted that personality is far from the only psychological tool of a person. This includes cognitive processes, and emotions, and character, and other psychological formations. And each of them plays its part in the formation of the subject. If a teenager sticks out his character, then a young man is already a personality with character, and in a mature person, personality at a certain stage exhausts its capabilities, departs, “is removed” as having served, and what it serves is fully revealed. “The ultimate thing for every person,” writes B. S. Bratus, “is to hear: This is a person.”

Personality, thus, is a complex, unique inner key of a person. What is the specificity of personality as a psychological tool? The essential spiritual properties of a person at birth are given in potency. He needs to develop them, “to highlight” in himself. He needs a body that will allow him to direct and coordinate the most complex process of self-building in himself, in his essence. This organ is the personality. It's about human development. Personality, as a tool, or tool, is evaluated depending on how it serves its purpose, i.e. whether it contributes or not to the involvement of the subject of his human essence.

Secondly, B. S. Bratus substantiated the main way, or the principle of the psychological study of a person - the correlation of his "vertical" and "horizontal" dimensions. Traditional psychology dealt mainly with the "horizontal" connections of the individual, considered it as a social being, a subject of activity.

A large amount of material has been accumulated here, objective methods are fully justified, addressed primarily to the study of individual personality traits. These methods have entered the fund of psychological science and will, of course, "work" in it. Following L. S. Vygotsky, entire generations of Russian psychologists only dreamed of a “peak” psychology.

New trends in psychology of the 90s. XX century., B. S. Bratus caught the spirit of change faster than others. He raised the question that for many years psychology has been breeding the concepts: "individual", "personality", "subject of activity", "individuality". Now it's time to look for ways to connect them. The humanities, in whose orbit psychology enters, have the whole person as the unit of analysis. The author proposes to consider the correlation of "vertical" and "horizontal" dimensions as the main principle of the psychological study of a person.

Psychology of the XX century. characterized by a persistent desire to overcome its inherent narrow elementalism, functionalism and to understand a person as an integral being. But the foundations of integrity are understood in different ways. The key questions about human nature are also solved in different ways - about the leading sources of internal activity, about internal freedom or determinism, rationality or irrationality, etc.

A whole range of general psychological concepts is being formed, which are united by a common orientation towards solving these issues and separate the results, conclusions, and generalizations. Among these theories in Russian psychology, three areas have gained the greatest influence: psychodynamic; cultural-historical and behavioral; humanistic and spiritually oriented. On the basis of each of these areas, their general therapeutic methods have developed. Based on them, the latest psychotechnologies and other psychotechnical developments have been created in recent years. Thus, it is in the field of general psychological teachings that a breakthrough and convergence of academic and practical psychology takes place. The first such general psychological theory was the theory of Z. Freud.

In science, the category of personality is studied by many disciplines: jurisprudence, pedagogy, psychiatry, etc. In psychology, the formation of the concept of "personality" took place in several stages. Each of them is associated with the accumulation of facts and, on the other hand, with a certain three-dimensional concept - personality.

1 stage of collecting and accumulation. Here, personality is understood in a broad sense and is identified with the concept of a person. From this point of view everyone can be called a "personality". The concept of personality includes both natural and social qualities of a person. Such an understanding was very convenient at the initial stage of accumulating knowledge about the personality, but when this knowledge became very voluminous and the volume of personal qualities exceeded 1500, psychology required systematization and it was gradually implemented - typical of Rubenstein, Cattell, Eysenck, and others.

The first systematization of personal qualities was with the Russian scientist Lazursky. He divided St. people into 2 groups: endopsychic and exopsychic.

Endopsychics include - thinking, will, character, memory;

To exopsyche - attitude to oneself, to the world, to people.

From endopsychics, Rubinstein began to develop his theory: a set of internal properties that refract the external world.

Myasishchev's and Vodalev's theories began their development from exopsychics - personality is how a person relates to the world, people, himself.

These 2 groups were connected by Platonov's concept, he believed that personality is a biosocial structure, including 4 substructures:

- orientation,

- an experience;

- mental processes;

- temperaments.

Despite the classification, all these approaches represented a collective understanding of personality. In 60-70s. such an understanding began to hamper the development of the science of age-related, medical psychology. Therefore, there was a need for a clearer distinction between the saints in the concept of personality, for the scientific study of these properties and methods of influencing them.

Generalization and classification - at this stage, for the first time, a distinction is made between the individual and the personality. It was first substantiated by Leontiev. He suggested that biological, genotypic features and life experience do not belong to the concept of "personality".

That. the concept of personality does not include temperament, inclinations, as well as skills acquired during life. All this refers to the concept of "individual".

The basis for this was his position that individual traits can constantly change and improve throughout life. But they will never become personal traits.

That. property of the individual are the conditions for the formation of personality. Personality is understood as a special quality of a person, which is acquired by him in society, the main dimension of which is the system of human values.

Personality is that position of a person that answers the question of how and for what a person uses hostile and acquired ones.

According to Leontiev, only other people can answer the question of whether a person is a person or not: “I find my “I” not in myself, but others see it in me.”

A narrow concept of personality

At the present stage, a distinction is made within the very concept of "personality", the concept of "social individual" is excluded from it, those qualities that are formed in him under the influence of his life in society. And then the personality is considered, which is characterized by 3 parameters:

- this quality unites and subordinates personal, natural and social traits to the highest moral and cultural values;

- a person is aware of his responsibility for actions, deeds and their consequences to himself, other people, humanity;

- personality is not given to a person from birth, is not formed as a result of his socialization, but is created by the person himself as a result of his active internal work on the development of cultural values.

6 question. The structure of personality. Needs, motives and their motivation. Classification of motives. Hierarchy and mutual influence of motives.

For the first time it was considered by foreign scientists. Z. Freud was the first to consider, he distinguished 3 instants: IT, I, SUPER-I. To achieve mental health, you need to develop - I.

Simultaneously with Freud, 3 components of personality were distinguished by W. James:

Physical "I";

Social "I";

Spiritual "I".

Subsequently, scientists also identified 3 components of personality. Jung pointed out:

personal unconscious,

Collective unconscious.

- "I" conscious.

Eric Berne distinguished 3 instances:

Parent,

Adult,

Child.

Leontiev in his theory of "emotions" distinguishes 3 parts:

affects,

social emotions,

The senses.

There are 3 plans of the personal principle (according to Petrovsky):

1 plan- intro-individual - (within oneself). It manifests itself as going beyond oneself, beyond situational requirements, beyond role prescriptions. It is said that a person exhibits “above-situational activity”. A person improves something even though no one asks for it and demands it. (self-development, self-improvement).

2 plan interindividual - (among themselves) in relations between people, manifests itself in the actions of a person in various social interactions, but the most visible is a personal act.

Characteristics of a personal act:

1. an act occurs in an uncertain situation, when a person has to make a choice and this choice is difficult, not defined.

2. It arises when social and cultural values ​​do not match.

3. The decision is usually painful, associated with suffering.

4. The motive of a personal act is the motive of moral self-esteem, and then the act is altruistic, for the sake of others.

3 plan– meta-individual (over oneself) it manifests itself in the real contributions of a person to other people.

In cultural objects: in paintings, poems, architecture, or personality can manifest itself as a result of the transformation of another person, as a transformation of oneself in another.

Speaking about the growth of personality, they mean all 3 planes of personal manifestation. Regardless of the type of manifestation, the core of the personality is a stable hierarchy (subordination) of motives. For the first time about the system of motives gov. Leontiev. He identified two types of motives:

incentive motives,

Meaning motives.

For the growth and development of the personality, the main ones are the meaning-forming motives, the cat. perform the role of giving personal meaning to the actions and deeds of a person and a goal-forming role, i.e. Motives are capable of shaping a person's goals.

Sense-forming motives play the role of controlling motives and incentives. The meaning of the action plays a decisive role. Personal growth at the interindividual level takes a path that can be expressed "from thought to action"

Thought - word - action.

Question 7 Basic concepts of temperament. The influence of temperament on the characteristics of personality. Temperament and character.

Temperament is one of the longest studied psychological categories. The history of the study of temperament has more than 2.5 thousand years. The term "temperament" was introduced into scientific use by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC). Translated from Latin, "temperament" means "proper ratio of parts." Hippocrates developed the doctrine that temperament is determined by the ratio, the proportion of four fluids in the body: blood, mucus, bile and black bile. The predominance of blood corresponds to the sanguine temperament (sanguine - blood (lat.), mucus - phlegmatic (phlegm - mucus (Greek), bile - choleric (chole - bile (Greek), black bile - melancholic (melana chole - black bile (Greek) Hippocrates included both physiological and psychological traits in temperament.Typology of Hippocrates is the first classification of temperaments in the history of science.

According to Hippocrates, the sanguine person is highly active, rich in gestures. He is mobile, impressionable, quickly responds to surrounding events, relatively easily survives troubles.

Choleric is characterized by a high level of activity; he is energetic, sharp and impetuous in movements, impulsive. In emotional situations shows incontinence, irascibility, anger.

The melancholic is characterized by a low level of activity and increased emotional sensitivity. These features largely determine emotional vulnerability, a reduced level of motor and speech activity. The melancholic is closed, prone to deep inner experiences.

Phlegmatic is distinguished by a low level of behavioral activity: he is slow, imperturbable, even, calm. He experiences internal discomfort when trying to switch from one activity to another. The phlegmatic is inclined to constancy in the sphere of feelings and moods.

Hippocrates' typology of temperaments belongs to the category of humoral theories that connect temperament with the properties of certain body fluids.

In modern times, the psychological characteristics of these types of temperament were first generalized and systematized by the German philosopher I. Kant, but his description was a description of personality characteristics.

The theory of temperament by E. Kretschmer, which became widespread in the 30-40s. XX century, was based on the study of the connection between the mental characteristics of a person and his constitution. Kretschmer noted that patients suffering from manic-depressive psychosis (cyclothymia) (body build: broad chest, stocky, broad figure, large head, protruding abdomen) have a cycloid (cyclotomic) temperament. It is characterized by an adequate response to external stimuli, the desire for communication, easy adaptability to the environment. It is not typical for a cycloid to oppose himself to the world around him, he "demands life for himself and allows others to live."

People belonging to this type accept life as it is. They are not people of strict sequence and a well-thought-out scheme, "these are practitioners who first get to know a person and real possibilities, and then reckon with the principle."

In the group of cycloid temperaments, Kretschmer identified several subgroups

1) talkatively cheerful;

2) calm comedians;

3) quiet, sincere people;

4) careless lovers of life;

5) energetic practices.

The schizoid (schizotoimic) temperament, corresponding to the asthenic constitution, is characterized by such features as isolation, lack of sociability, a tendency to withdraw into oneself, and inadequacy of reactions to external influences. Kretschmer pointed out that schizoids have surface and depth. Behind external manifestations it is difficult to understand the psychology of these people. Kretschmer wrote about it this way: "Many schizoid people are like Roman houses and villas with their simple and smooth facades, with windows closed from the bright sun with shutters, but where festivities take place in the semi-darkness of the interior."

Schizoids live by the events of predominantly internal rather than external life. In the group of schizoid temperament, Kretschmer also identified three subgroups:

1) unsociable, quiet, reserved, serious (devoid of humor), eccentric;

2) shy, timid, sensitive, nervous, sentimental, friend of books and nature;

3) obedient, good-natured, indifferent, stupid.

The features of the first group, Kretschmer believed, run like a red thread through the second and third groups as the most common.

The emotions of schizoids are between the poles of emotional sensitivity and insensitivity (dullness). Those of the schizoids who are closer to the pole of emotional insensitivity are distinguished by emotional coldness, inaccessibility, restraint, and indifference.

A characteristic feature of any schizoid is autism (self-absorption). The reasons for lack of sociability are different - from timidity and anxiety to coldness and active rejection of others. Individual schizoids prefer selective sociability - in a certain social environment, with people selected on a certain basis. A distinctive feature of their communication is a superficial character, the absence of deep emotions.

W. Sheldon, an American physician and psychologist, continued the scientific study of the connection between the main types of temperament and the type of somatic structure.

The starting point for Sheldon was not the concept of "type", but the component of physique. In total, he singled out three body types - endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic.

The first type of physique - endomorphic, was characterized by a general spherical shape, softness, the presence of a large belly, a large amount of fat on the shoulders and hips, a large head, large internal organs, sluggish arms and legs, underdeveloped bones and muscles.

Mesomorphic type with broad shoulders and chest, massive head, muscular arms and legs, poorly developed fat layer.

Ectomorphic - with long and thin arms and legs, a narrow chest and shoulders, underdeveloped muscles, no subcutaneous fat layer, a well-developed nervous system. They have a long face, a high forehead, a quiet voice.

The physique of each person Sheldon considered in terms of the quantitative representation of types. Numerical values ​​could range from 1 to 7. Thus, the physique of each person turned out to be represented by a three-digit score. They reflected the degree of severity of body components - somatotype. Further, Sheldon found that the components of the physique correspond to certain components of temperament, which he singled out as primary. They received the names "viscerotonia", "somatotonia", "cerebrotonia". The viscerotonic type of temperament corresponds to an endomorphic physique, somatic - mesomorphic, cerebrotonic - ectomorphic.

Viscerotonics are sociable, friendly, oriented towards other people, tolerant, need communication in difficult times. They are characterized by deep sleep, love of food and comfort, relaxed posture and movements.

Somatotonics love adventure, risk and exercise. They are energetic, aggressive, brave, insensitive to pain, have a loud voice. In communication, they try to occupy dominant positions, strive for power, are psychologically insensitive, and not tactful enough.

Cerebrotonics are distinguished by secrecy of feelings, restraint of manners, and a quiet voice. They are anxious, have difficulties in communication, prefer mental activity, are prone to loneliness.

The conclusions of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon have repeatedly been subjected to experimental verification. Many of the results obtained were contradictory. However, in general, the researchers came to the conclusion that between the physique of a person and his temperamental qualities, there is, although a weak, but statistically significant relationship.

The humoral and morphological theories described above ignored the role of the nervous system in the structure of psychological individual differences. The Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlov was the first to show the connection between the four types of temperament identified by ancient researchers and the properties of the nervous system.

Pavlov established that temperament is represented by the ratio of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. He identified three main properties of the nervous system:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, which depends on the performance of nerve cells;

2) the balance of the nervous system (the degree of correspondence between the force of excitation and the force of inhibition);

3) the mobility of nervous processes (the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa).

IP Pavlov described four main types of combinations of these properties as four types of higher nervous activity. They correspond to four types of temperament.

A strong, balanced, mobile type of nervous system corresponds to the temperament of a sanguine person. A strong, balanced, inert type characterizes the phlegmatic temperament. Strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of the excitation process, the type determines the temperament of the choleric. Weak nervous processes are a hallmark of the melancholic.

IP Pavlov developed an extensive set of techniques for measuring the properties of nervous processes. Here is a description of some of them. To assess the strength of excitation, the rate of formation and strengthening of the conditioned reflex was determined. The faster this process went on, the stronger the excitation process, respectively. In accordance with the "caffeine test" method, the dose of caffeine was determined, at which a weakening of the conditioned reflex was observed. The higher the dose at which deterioration in conditioned reflex activity occurred, the stronger was the process of excitation.

According to IP Pavlov, the vital importance of the properties of the nervous system is associated with the need to adapt a person to environmental influences. The stimuli acting from it are often distinguished by great strength and intensity. At the same time, nerve cells must endure these extraordinary stresses. If this does not happen, disruptions of the nervous system are possible. This is the vital importance of the strength of the nervous processes.

In addition, the body has to suppress, delay the action of some stimuli under the influence of others, more significant. For this, the force is no longer excitatory, but inhibitory. The property of balance of the nervous system reflects the degree of balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The value of the property of mobility is due to the fact that stimuli in the environment can fluctuate frequently and unexpectedly. The body must adequately respond to these changes, keep up with them.

Isolation of the basic properties of the nervous system was the greatest achievement of the scientific thought of the XX century. IP Pavlov's doctrine of types has a long and complex history. He began to engage in experimental research on this issue in 1909, and only in 1935 did he arrive at a general theory of types of higher nervous activity.

Singling out the general types of the nervous system as the basic determinants of temperament, Pavlov, however, allowed the existence of other properties of the nervous system, as well as another combination of them. Pavlov's students B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn continued the line of research begun by him. They showed that there are such properties of the nervous system as lability and dynamism associated with temperament. In addition, they found that such a property of the nervous system as strength does not in itself determine a person's productivity. Depending on the attitude to work, on the breadth and direction of interests, knowledge, skills, ability to organize their activities, the work of people with a similar nervous system will differ in the final results.

The work of the Teplov-Nebylitsyn school showed that the properties of the nervous system should not be considered in the abstract, but in relation to the processes of excitation and inhibition. In this regard, the concept of primary and secondary properties is formulated. The primary ones include strength, lability, dynamism and mobility in terms of excitation and inhibition, while the secondary ones include balance in these parameters.

Within the framework of this school, it was established that the lability of the nervous system is a property that determines the rate of occurrence of excitatory or inhibitory processes. Dynamism determines the speed and ease of developing positive and negative conditioned reflexes.

V. M. Rusalov is the successor of studies of the structure of temperament in connection with the properties of the nervous system. He considers the structure of temperament as a combination of substructures of ergicity, plasticity, tempo, emotional sensitivity, acting both separately and having a social connotation (6).

By ergicity, Rusalov understands the degree of intensity of human interaction with the subject environment. Social ergicity reflects the degree of tension with the social environment (the world of people). Plasticity is manifested in the degree of ease of transition from one subject behavioral program to another. Social plasticity reflects the ease of transition from one social program of behavior to another. Individual pace characterizes the speed of implementation of behavioral subject programs. Visual - the speed of implementation of social programs. Emotionality is understood as sensitivity. Emotionality social - sensitivity in social contacts.

Created by V. M. Rusalov, a special theory of individuality is aimed at explaining the laws of generation, formation and development of temperament. Considering temperament as a basic characteristic of individuality, he reveals its connection with other substructures - abilities and character. He considers temperament as an important condition for the formation of general abilities. It has been experimentally proved that in the process of their development, general abilities interact with temperament primarily through the characteristics of activity - ergicity, plasticity, tempo.

Temperament cannot directly determine the content aspects of the personality (aspirations, interests, ideals), however, both the dynamic and emotional aspects of temperament largely affect the character of a person. Such qualities as vigor, the ability to get passionately carried away, poise in behavior, flexibility, dynamism of reactions, affect the system of social relations of the individual, which are determined by the properties of character.

The above theories of temperament differ in the number and significance of its characteristics, however, most scientists recognize the existence of two main properties of temperament - this is general activity and emotionality. Currently, various questionnaires are used to assess the properties of temperament - a questionnaire for the structure of temperament by V. M. Rusalov, measuring anxiety (Spielberger, Taylor), neuroticism (Eysenck), activity (J. Strelyau) and others.

A distinctive feature of temperament is its stability. This means that temperament is little subject to change both during life and in brief life situations. Temperament is the result of the interaction of two factors - hereditary and environmental.

The influence of the hereditary factor has been well studied in animals. So, in experiments on the selection and separation of the most active and passive rats according to motor behavior and subsequent crossing within each group, it is possible to derive "pure" lines - active and passive.

To study the role of heredity in the formation of individual differences, the twin method plays an important role. The twin method proved that physical activity, complex movements, especially subtle movements of the hands, are hereditary. The individual pace of performing a wide variety of activities is also largely controlled by the genotype.

The fact that many human properties are determined by heredity speaks of the relative stability of the influence of upbringing and environment. The assertion that temperament can be changed in the process of education is erroneous. Thanks to education, the skills and habits of a person change, but not the temperament. In this regard, in the process of education, it is necessary to form in the child such skills, habits, ways of behavior that would help smooth out the natural shortcomings of temperament.

However, not only educators influence the manifestations of the child's temperament, it itself affects the process of education.

So, from the moment of birth, some features of temperament cause quite definite behavior of adults (primarily parents). Thus, the temperament of the child affects the educational methods of adults. This suggests that the environment affects the child indirectly, through the properties of his temperament.

8 question. Character and its place in the system of individual properties. Typology and character formation.

The character is called A set of stable properties of an individual, in which ways of behavior and emotional response are expressed.

It is known that the success of a person in family life, interpersonal relationships, professional activities directly depends not only on his intellectual abilities, but also on his character. It plays an important role in the processes of harmonization of personality, its spiritual growth. It reflects the level of moral and ethical self-development of a person and his art of living. Characterology has long emerged as an important sub-discipline of psychology. Its problems expanded to the nature of age, gender, people, social character. Despite this, the theoretical understanding of this phenomenon has evolved and is developing difficult, many questions still remain open, there are contradictions.

The first attempts to get an idea of ​​the character were made by Plato. The term “character” introduced by him, translated from the Greek “feature”, “sign”, “chasing”, was in use to denote the peculiar features of a person. Along with it, the term "ethos" was used - temper, custom. Plato believed that character is determined by innate virtues, and tried to classify them based on ethical principles.

Theophrastus wrote the first treatise on characters. He gave a description of 30 types from the point of view of the predominance of moral traits - the types of flatterer, talker, coward, hypocrite, etc. For many centuries this treatise, written very brightly and expressively, was considered an example of a typology of characters. Only in the XVII century. Theophrastus' translator, the French moralist and writer J. de La Bruyère, compiled a new treatise, The Characters, or Morals of the Present Age. Many prominent philosophers addressed the problems of character, for example, K. Helvetius, D. Diderot, J.S. Mill, in their works an ethical approach to the phenomenon of character is developed, questions are raised about its nature and place in the structure of personality.