MIDDLE AGES
Their length. "Beautiful" and "ugly" Middle Ages
At school, we are told that the 16th century is the Renaissance, the 17th century is the era of classicism, the 18th is the century of the Enlightenment. When does the Middle Ages begin and end?
The Middle Ages lasted a very long time - at least a thousand years! Usually, when they talk about the Middle Ages, they mean the period from 1000 to 1500, although in fact they began at least five centuries earlier - about 500, back in the 5th century from the birth of Christ. In 476, the barbarian leader Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor and seized power in Rome. This event marked the end of the Roman Empire and, moreover, the end of Antiquity.
But the epochs do not change every time a king is overthrown or a royal or imperial dynasty is suppressed.
Quite right. There were other important changes in the 5th century. Firstly, the Great Migration of Peoples, which the Romans called barbarian, began in the 4th century. The barbarians came first from the north (Germans and northern European tribes) and from the west (Celts), then from the east (Hungarians and Slavs). The invasion of these hordes seems to us like a hurricane, sweeping away everything in its path. However, the picture of the peaceful resettlement of people who want to live further south than before is closer to the truth. Take the Vikings: you have probably come across images of them landing on the shores of Normandy to plunder and devastate the coastal territories. It is more likely, however, that these were merchants who came from the northern countries to trade, some of them remained “with us”.
Does that mean faith has changed?
Yes, but for different reasons. In the 4th-5th centuries, Christianity spread in the Roman Empire, the religion adopted by the emperors, and paganism came to an end - as Christians called the Roman belief in numerous gods and goddesses. Paganism disappeared gradually (but, of course, it did not completely disappear) and little by little gave way to Christianity. Polytheism was replaced by faith in the biblical God of the Old and New Testaments, one in three persons (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). Then the barbarians also began to accept Christianity: the name of the most famous of the converts in France is no doubt familiar to you: this is King Clovis of the Franks (AD 500). According to legend, he was baptized at the insistence of his wife Chrodechild.
- Is this a legend?
Yes, I deliberately said "according to the legend". And I would like to draw your attention to the fact that very few documents from the early Middle Ages have survived, and those that have survived - for example, the story of the baptism of Clovis - do not necessarily show the events as they happened. Therefore, they must be approached critically, compared with other documents, or, as historians say, sources. The authors of these stories had their own ideas: for example, in this case it was necessary to demonstrate that the lands that make up France were baptized from the very beginning, to emphasize Christian origins. In reality, everything is much more complicated.
- The teacher also spoke to us about a certain “long Middle Ages”.
There are reasons for this: there is much debate about the dating of the end of the Middle Ages. I said "about 1500" because your textbooks offer such a boundary. They write that at the end of the 15th century in Italy, and then throughout Europe, a new period began - the Renaissance (Renaissance). Also, as you will soon see, in the school curriculum, the 15th century is considered the beginning of the so-called New Age. Yet there are historians, including myself, who believe that the Middle Ages lasted until the end of the 18th century.
- Why?
In short, this era is marked by three phenomena that dramatically changed the life of society (I will clarify - Western society, European, and above all the most developed countries: England, France, the countries of Northern Europe). First, the rapid scientific progress, the introduction into circulation of more and more precise instruments and research methods. Further, as a result of scientific progress, the creation at the end of the 17th century of more and more efficient mechanisms and production technologies. In 1698, the first steam engine was launched in England (its inventors were the Frenchman Denis Papin and the Englishman Thomas Savery). All this would later be called the beginning of the "industrial revolution". Finally, there were political revolutions, in particular the Great French Revolution, recognized as a real turning point in the history of France, Europe and even the whole world: it put an end to the old political system, the old regime and the so-called feudalism, which became, in fact, a symbol of the “ugly” Middle Ages.
- Let's start with the very concept - "Middle Ages". Why "Average"?
The expression just appeared then, towards the end of the era. It was introduced into use by scientists and people of art, who assessed the recent past (for us, the core of the Middle Ages) as an intermediate, transitional stage, and at the same time dark, decadent compared to Antiquity. The ancient culture was idealized; from their point of view, she was more refined. This is, first of all, the idea of the Italian humanist poets of the late 15th - early 16th centuries, who were convinced that people have more virtues than medieval Christianity, fixated on the sinfulness of man in the face of the Lord, believes.
There is also another source. In the 18th century (the age of the Enlightenment, as you just rightly said) it was customary to treat the people and culture of the Middle Ages with contempt. The idea of a period of obscurantism, when faith in God suppressed the human mind, took root. Both enlighteners and humanists have forgotten how to see the beauty and grandeur of these centuries.
To summarize: The Middle Ages are those that lie between two epochs revered above them, that is, Antiquity and Modernity. The latter begins with the Renaissance - also a very characteristic word: in the XV-XVI centuries, antiquity is revived, as if the Middle Ages were an unnecessary retreat!
- So, everyone sees the "ugliness" of the Middle Ages. But you can't say that this side won!
Of course. In the 19th century, romantic writers saw another - beautiful and majestic. In what? Here the word "Gothic" has not yet been sounded, which in our view is firmly connected with medieval cathedrals. But in the Renaissance, this word meant "barbarian." Detractors of the ugly Middle Ages find its art barbaric. But romantics, on the contrary, admire the sophistication and unusualness of Gothic, especially Gothic churches. An example of such an attitude is the well-known novel Notre Dame Cathedral, in which Victor Hugo immortalized the cathedral of the same name in the heart of Paris, where thousands of tourists travel from all over the world today.
Nevertheless, we recognize that both stereotypes of the Middle Ages - the dark time and the golden time - still hold. Even from educated people you often hear: “We are not in the Middle Ages!” To call anything or anyone medieval is far from being a compliment...
- It's not so wrong!
I would say that the Middle Ages are not as leafy as the romantics sometimes imagined them to be, but also not an era of sorrows and ignorance (in fact, this is what repels us), as the Enlighteners tried to instill in us. The phenomenon must be studied in its entirety. Compared to Antiquity, the Middle Ages is a period of progress in many areas, and I can prove it. There was undoubtedly “ugliness” in it: the lords oppressed the peasants, the church was intolerant and subjected independent minds (the so-called heretics) to the court of the Inquisition, which tortured and burned rebels ... People often starved, and poverty flourished; people were afraid, they were afraid in panic, for example, of forests and the sea ... and the devil. But today we have even more fears, and some of them are even stronger (the fear of aliens or, much more real, of the atomic bomb).
But there is also a “beautiful” Middle Ages, it is it that is revealed in children's admiration for knights, castles, cathedrals, Romanesque and Gothic art, colorfulness (stained glass windows!) And holidays. It is often forgotten that women at that time, although they were considered lower than men in status, received, won a fairer status, higher and more authoritative, which was not known even in ancient Athens. And finally - but we will return to this - it was in the Middle Ages that Europe was born!
- Europe, you said?
Yes, this is very important: Europe is born and formed in the Middle Ages. Ancient Roman civilization covered only part of Europe - the southern territories, located mainly around the Mediterranean Sea. The northern lands (Germany, then Scandinavia), the western (Brittany, England, Ireland) and eastern (Hungary, Central Europe) only from the 5th century began to be gradually included in the common political and religious space that made up the future Europe.
- It turns out that the Roman Empire as a whole ceased to exist around 500 AD?
Exactly. From now on, the new inhabitants of the future Europe begin to unite, and in those territories where they settle, states will grow up, headed by a new, very important historical character, we will also return to him - the king.
- And Latin, the spoken language of the Roman Empire, ceased to exist.
The further north, the better the native language of the first settlers was preserved, although, of course, there were many borrowings from Latin. It became the written language of scholars and remained so until the 15th century. In the south, Latin, which was spoken in the Roman Empire, was transformed over the centuries, in each country in its own way. From it came a group of Romance languages: French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and (often forgotten) Romanian.
- In the next class, we have to decide whether we will learn Latin - what would you advise?
Latin is important because it gives us access to the legacy of the past. If you are preparing to devote yourself to the humanities, it makes sense to go to an elective where Latin is taught well. If you are inclined towards natural or exact sciences, choose classes that are easier, but do not neglect Latin at all. In my opinion, even a minimum of knowledge will help you in the future.
- And the West completely abandoned Greek - the language of the eastern part of the Roman Empire?
Yes, the Eastern Roman Empire became a separate world - the Byzantine Empire, since it was still headed by an emperor who ruled the country from Byzantium (later Constantinople). In the same city was the residence of the head of the Greek (Orthodox) church, who placed himself above the Pope.
Western Christendom quickly (since the 7th century) separated from Byzantium politically. The pope achieved independence not so soon, finally - in the 11th century.
Relations between Western, Roman Catholic, Christianity and Eastern, Byzantine, were cool, then frankly deteriorated. In 1204, the Catholics, on a crusade against the Muslim East, captured and sacked Constantinople.
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From the book History of Military Art author Delbruck HansThe Middle Ages is a special historical period between ancient and modern times. It is not possible to determine its boundaries with high accuracy, since it began and ended in different countries at different times.
Middle Ages: a general concept of the period
For most European countries, this historical period began after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ended with the Bourgeois Revolution in England. That is, the approximate borders are 12 centuries, starting from the fifth and ending with the seventeenth. At the same time, specialists in this part of history believe that the Middle Ages ended before the discovery of America, that is, approximately in 1500. For the first time the term "Middle Ages" was used in the era of humanism - so the figures of that time separated it from the "dark" past.
This entire period is divided into parts that differ significantly from each other in cultural and social terms - this is the early, middle and late Middle Ages.
This period had a significant impact on the cultural and historical development of mankind. Its main feature is the formation and development of feudal relations, which came to the place of slavery, characteristic of ancient times. It was at this time that many nationalities were born and the main features of their mentality were formed.
Rice. 1. Medieval feudal lord.
At that time, on the one hand, the church dictated conditions to the state and punished dissidents, on the other hand, this was a period of scientific and philosophical discoveries, without which the modern world would look completely different.
What gave the world the Middle Ages?
It was a difficult time: the people of that era were constantly fighting for their existence, and they were destroyed by hunger, the black plague and the fires of the Inquisition. However, it is precisely with the period of the Middle Ages that the cultural flowering is also associated, in particular, the active development of architecture. It was during this period that Winchester Cathedral and Notre Dame Cathedral were built, which remain examples of this art form today.
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Rice. 2. Notre Dame Cathedral.
In the Middle Ages, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci lived and worked, discovered the secrets of the stars Galileo and Copernicus. At the same time, most people continued to believe that the Earth was flat. This is a typical medieval contrast.
Rice. 3. Nicolaus Copernicus.
What have we learned?
We learned that the Middle Ages is a unique historical period for many reasons: in particular, because there is still debate about what the Middle Ages are from a chronological point of view. Information was received on what periods the Middle Ages is divided into and what distinctive features it has, as well as what its social and cultural characteristics are. Some of the views of medieval man on the world and society were determined. We learned when the term first appeared and who introduced it. It is indicated that human life throughout this time was very difficult, people were oppressed by the church - on the one hand, and natural factors - on the other. At the same time, these troubles pushed civilization to development.
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Setting a Time Frame
If we talk about the Middle Ages briefly, then this is one of the longest and most interesting eras after the ancient world. For a long time, there was no agreement among medieval scholars (medieval studies is one of the sections of history that studies the European Middle Ages) in defining the scope of this period in the history of mankind. The fact is that different countries developed in completely different ways. Someone went ahead in economic, political and social development, some countries, on the contrary, lagged far behind others. Therefore, now the Middle Ages, in short, is considered both as a general historical process and as a phenomenon that took place in any country. Here it could have its own specific features and time frames.
Brief History of the Middle Ages
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If we consider the Middle Ages, briefly outlined, then the beginning of this era is considered to be the time of the collapse of the Great Roman Empire - the 5th century AD. However, in some European sources it is customary to consider the beginning of the Middle Ages the time of the emergence of Islam - the 7th century. But the first date is considered more common.
As for the end of the Middle Ages, here again the opinion of historians diverges. Italian historians believe that this is the 15th century, Russian scientists took the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries as the final date. Again, for each country, this date was set according to its development.
The history of the term
For the first time this term - "Middle Ages", began to be used by Italian humanists. Before that, the name "dark ages" was used, which was coined by the great Italian Renaissance poet Petrarch.
In the 17th century, the name Middle Ages, in short, was finally fixed in science by Professor Christopher Keller. He also proposed the following division of world history into antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times.
Why this name was taken - because the Middle Ages is between antiquity and modern times.
For many years it was customary to consider the Middle Ages as a time of cruel wars and the dominance of the church. This era was referred to exclusively as the "dark ages", where ignorance, the inquisition, and barbarism dominated. Only in our time, the idea of the Middle Ages began to change radically. They started talking about it as a time full of romance, great discoveries, beautiful works of art.
Periodization in the Middle Ages
It is generally accepted that the history of the Middle Ages is divided into three major periods:
Early Middle Ages;
classical;
late Middle Ages.
Early Middle Ages
It begins with the fall of the Great Roman Empire and lasts about 500 centuries. This is the time of the so-called Great Migration of Peoples, which began in the 4th century and ended in the 7th. During this time, the Germanic tribes captured and subjugated all the countries of Western Europe, thus determining the face of the modern European world. The main reasons for mass migration during this period of the Middle Ages, in short, were the search for fertile lands and favorable conditions, as well as a sharp cooling of the climate. Therefore, the northern tribes moved closer to the south. In addition to the Germanic tribes, Turks, Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes participated in the resettlement. The great migration of peoples was accompanied by the destruction of many tribes and nomadic peoples.
The existence of the Byzantine Empire and the formation of the Frankish Empire are connected with the early Middle Ages.
High or Classical Middle Ages
This is the period of the formation of the first cities, the emergence of the feudal system, the heyday of the power of the Catholic Church and the Crusades. Lasted from 1000 to 1300 centuries.
During the classical Middle Ages, a hierarchical (feudal) ladder was formed - a special sequential arrangement of titles. The institutions of vassals and lords appeared. The owner of the land - the seigneur, could give a fief (land plot) for temporary use on special conditions. The vassal, who received the feud, became the military servant of his lord. For the right to use this land, he had to serve in the army 40 days a year. He also took the obligation to protect his liege. However, in the Middle Ages, in short, these conditions were often violated by both sides.
The basis of the economy of the Middle Ages was agriculture, which employed most of the population. The peasants cultivated both their land plots and those of the masters. More precisely, the peasants had nothing of their own; only personal freedom distinguished them from slaves.
Catholic Church
In the era of the classical Middle Ages in Europe, the Catholic Church reached its power. It influenced all spheres of human life. The rulers could not compare with its wealth - the church owned 1/3 of all land in each country.
Medieval man was extremely religious. What is considered incredible and supernatural for us was ordinary for him. Faith in the dark and light kingdoms, demons, spirits and angels - this is what surrounded a person, and in which he unconditionally believed.
The church strictly watched that its prestige was not damaged. All free-thinking thoughts were nipped in the bud. Many scientists suffered from the actions of the church: Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus and others. At the same time, in the Middle Ages, in short, it was the center of education and scientific thought. At the monasteries there were church schools, to which they taught literacy, prayers, the Latin language and the singing of hymns. In the workshops for copying books, in the same place, at the monasteries, the works of ancient authors were carefully copied, preserving them for posterity.
Knights
All the romance inherent in the Middle Ages is associated with knights. A knight is an equestrian warrior-feudal lord. Chivalry, as a special estate, arose from military warriors who became vassals and served their lords. Over time, only a warrior of noble birth could become a knight. They had their own code of conduct, in which the main place was occupied by honor, loyalty to the Lord and worship of their lady of the heart.
Crusades
A whole series of these campaigns took place over the course of 400 years, from the 11th to the 15th centuries. They were organized by the Catholic Church against Muslim countries under the slogan of protecting the Holy Sepulcher. In fact, it was an attempt to capture new territories. Knights from all over Europe went on these campaigns. For young warriors, participation in such an adventure was a prerequisite to prove their courage and confirm their knighthood.
Medieval cities
They arose primarily in places of lively trade. In Europe it was Italy and France. Here, cities appeared already in the 9th century. The time of the appearance of other cities refers to the X-XII centuries.
Late Middle Ages
This is one of the most tragic periods of the Middle Ages. In the XIV century, almost the whole world experienced several epidemics of the plague, the Black Death. In Europe alone, it killed more than 60 million people, almost half of the population. This is the time of the strongest peasant uprisings in England and France and the longest war in the history of mankind - the Hundred Years. But at the same time - this is the era of the great geographical discoveries and the Renaissance.
The Middle Ages is an amazing time that determined the future path of mankind in the period of the New Age.
Ecology of knowledge: If you have ever turned to texts created more than five centuries ago, then you will agree that the events described in them are presented in a completely different way than we are used to. Perhaps this is due to the fact that at that time the world was still presented to people in a wonderful dress of mystery, and European society had not yet lost faith in the supernatural. Let's try to figure out in what light life appeared when humanity and the world were younger.
Often the Middle Ages are considered a dark spot on the pages of history, the realm of obscurantism - witches were burned at the stake, and fear and ugliness reigned in the streets. The name itself emphasizes the facelessness of this era, which is overshadowed by two neighboring ones: antiquity and the Renaissance, richer in the aesthetic and cultural sense.
If you have ever turned to texts created more than five centuries ago, then you will agree that the events described in them are presented in a completely different way than we are used to. Perhaps this is due to the fact that at that time the world was still presented to people in a wonderful dress of mystery, and European society had not yet lost faith in the supernatural. Let's try to figure out in what light life appeared when humanity and the world were younger:
Brightness and sharpness of life
Human feelings were expressed more directly. The soul did not hide feelings, and the mind did not try to suppress them. Joy and sorrow, laughter and tears, poverty and wealth were demonstrated publicly without hesitation or fear. The ritual permeated every action or deed, "elevating them to another extraterrestrial lifestyle."
As one of the main researchers of the era, Johan Huizinga, noted, all aspects of life were then put on display.
This applied not only to the most important events of a person’s life (birth, marriage and death, reaching the brilliance of mystery), but also to public events: a solemn meeting of the king or an execution, which became not only moralizing, but also a vivid spectacle.
Of course, the life of a medieval person was not distinguished by beauty in itself. Living conditions without electricity, sewerage and heating were far from being called beautiful, and therefore beauty had to be created artificially.
Pursuit of a wonderful life
In the Middle Ages aesthetic worldview prevailed over logical and ethical. The forms of the way of life were transformed into artistic ones, and the society became more and more playful, to such an extent that any action turned into a ritual.
The art of the Renaissance did not appear in world history from scratch. Culture at the end of the Middle Ages - "the coloring of aristocratic life with ideal forms of life, flowing in the artificial lighting of knightly romance, this is a world disguised in the clothes of the times of King Arthur."
Such an artificial, aesthetic coverage of all events created a strong tension, shaping the thoughts and customs of a medieval person.
The life of the courtiers was imbued with aesthetic forms to the point of obscenity, the diversity of colors blinded the townspeople here, which once again proved and substantiated the power of the upper class. Dirty beggars, merchants and rednecks saw the true proof of noble birth in the beauty of noble robes and court decorations.
Formalization of life
Earthly life, clothed in aesthetic forms, not only attracted attention, but also acquired a dimension previously unknown to mankind. Formalism in relationships sometimes interfered with natural communication between people, however, gave them the greatest aesthetic pleasure, occupying an intermediate position between sincerity and etiquette.
There is something touching in the fact that the "beautiful forms" developed in the bitter struggle of a generation of people of ardent disposition sometimes turned into endless polite bickering. A visit to the temple turned into a kind of minuet - when leaving, rivalry arose for granting a person of a higher rank the right to cross a bridge or a narrow street before others. As soon as anyone reached his house, he had - as the Spanish custom still requires - to invite everyone to come to his house for something to drink, such an offer everyone had to politely refuse; then the others had to be seen off a bit, and all this, of course, was accompanied by mutual bickering.
Loud suffering for show was considered not only appropriate, but also beautiful, which turned everyday life into genuine dramatic art.
Pain takes on a rhythm
Funeral rites were also accompanied by a celebration of suffering, in which grief was clothed in beautiful and even sublime forms.
Reality moved into the realm of the dramatic. In more primitive cultures, funeral rites and poetic funeral laments are still one; mourning, with its splendor, was intended to emphasize how grieved the afflicted with grief.
In such forms, real experiences are easily lost. Here is an excerpt from the notes of Eleanor de Poitiers about the widowed Isabella of Bourbon: “When Madame remained on her own, she did not at all stay in bed, just as in the chambers.” Which indicates a conscious desire for drama, the cause of which was social customs.
People liked it when everything that had to do with the realm of the ethical took on aesthetic forms.
Preachers and ascetics were a special category of people to whom the townsfolk had a genuine interest. Amazement before the humility and mortification of the flesh of the holy ascetics, before the repentant renunciation of sins reached the highest degree of admiration and admiration. Any personal experience, excitement and achievement had to find the necessary public form of expression, fixed in culture.
Love and friendship
A special form of friendship appears, called a minion - it lasted until the 17th century. Every self-respecting courtier had a close friend whose habits, dress, and appearance had to necessarily repeat his own. Minions were taken with them on dates, walks, work. Such friendship was purely aesthetic meaning and was designed to dilute loneliness and boredom, as well as add symmetry to life.
Courtesy and etiquette were directly related to clothing, which had certain meanings.
For example, if a girl wanted to declare allegiance to her lover, then she wore blue clothes, while green clothes testified to love.
In love, for those who did not break with all earthly joys in general, the purpose and essence of enjoying the beautiful as such was manifested. The feeling of falling in love was valued much more than relationships, and even more so marriage. It often happened that a young married woman remained the lady of the heart of many knights who shouted her name on the battlefield.
Everything beautiful - every sound or flower - adorned love. Literature, fashion, customs streamlined the attitude towards love, created a beautiful illusion that people dreamed of following.
Love has become a form of fantastic desire. The jousting tournament offered the game of love in its most heroic form. The winner got a special gift in the form of a handkerchief or a kiss from his beloved.
Short circuit
It is important to understand that medieval man lived in a completely different world than we do. His life was permeated with divine mystery, and therefore any phenomenon was regarded as a sign from above. He lived in a semiotically saturated world. Full of semantic references and higher meanings of manifestations of God in things; he lived in nature, which constantly spoke the language of heraldry.
Lion, eagle, snake - not only real animals, but symbols that show a person the path to truth, that mattered more than the objects themselves. Allegorism extended to all phenomena of life and even served as calls to action.
Often, when the sound of rain is trance-like, or the light of a lamp is refracted in a certain way, we too can experience a different range of feelings, usually hidden in everyday life and affairs. This gives us a sense of the infinite mystery of the world and can make us a little happier, return to the state that medieval man has always experienced.
The Dark Ages are the cause of the light of the Renaissance
The beauty of everyday life was considered sinful, due to which it acquired a double attraction, and if they surrendered to it, then they enjoyed it more passionately than ever.
In art, the religious plot saved beauty from the seal of sin. If in the Middle Ages music and visual arts were seen as meaningful only if they were part of the veneration of Christ, and outside the church it was reprehensible to engage in art. That is already the Renaissance, having overcome the outdated idea of the joys of life as sinful, "strives to enjoy the whole life as a whole."
All life becomes art, and even the most unaesthetic forms are transformed into the highest evidence of beauty and admiration.
In the era of the New Time, people begin to enjoy art in isolation from life, it begins to rise above it, and life itself loses its aesthetic dimension. With this loss is connected the longing for the Middle Ages, an era in which the sky was higher and the grass greener.
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Explanation of the term "Middle Ages"
The first to use the term were Italian linguists and writers of the 15th century. Flavio Biondo in 1453 proposed the term "Middle Ages" instead of the concept of "Dark Ages" introduced by Petrarch. So they began to call the period of history that separates their time from antiquity. Following them, historians began to use the concept of "Middle Ages" to refer to the time period, which occupies the interval from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the contemporary period of the Renaissance.
Definition 1
The term is used in the narrow and broad senses. In a broad sense, the Middle Ages is a chronological period without indicating the characteristic features inherent in the Middle Ages, or a historical era with signs of European feudalism. In a narrow sense, the Middle Ages is the Western European Middle Ages, characterized by a system of feudal land tenure, vassal relations, the power of the Church, etc.
If historians unequivocally consider the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 to be the beginning of the Middle Ages, then the end of the Middle Ages is not precisely defined. They offer the following options:
- 1453 - the fall of Constantinople;
- 1492 - discovery of America;
- 1717 - the beginning of the Reformation;
- 1640 - the beginning of the English Revolution;
- 1789 - the beginning of the French Revolution.
Recently, Russian scientists have settled on the second option, associated with the Great Geographical Discoveries.
Periodization of the Middle Ages
Scientists distinguish three main periods in the Middle Ages:
- The Early Middle Ages covers the end of the 5th - the middle of the 11th centuries;
- The classical (or High) Middle Ages lasted from the middle of the 11th to the end of the 14th century;
- Late Middle Ages (it is also called the Early Modern Age) - XIV-XVI centuries.
General characteristics of the Middle Ages
The Middle Ages occupy a significant period of time in the history of mankind. In Europe, the Middle Ages spanned twelve centuries; in Asia they lasted even longer. Some countries still retain the features of this historical period.
The basis of the characteristics of the Middle Ages is the birth of feudalism, the establishment of its dominance and its subsequent decomposition. Some peoples switched to feudalism after the appearance of class differences, avoiding the formation of a slave-owning system. Other nations entered the Middle Ages after the collapse of the slave system, which became a brake on the development of society and the state. But the basis from the path of entry into the Middle Ages did not change. The main feature of the Middle Ages was present in all countries: the land turns into the monopoly property of landowners-feudal lords who exploit the peasants who were made dependent on them.
Feudalism was a progressive phenomenon in comparison with the previous stages of human development. The peasant, endowed with land, tried to increase labor productivity. This interest increased with a decrease in his dependence (personal and land) and the improvement of feudal relations.
At the stage of feudalism, manufactories appear, which marked the beginning of the birth of the classes of a new bourgeois society. Trade flourishes in the cities. Cities form a culture different from latifundia, based on the ideals of freedom (“the air of the city makes a person free”). The progress of commodity-money relations is forcing farmers to adapt to the demands of the market. The feudal lords are transferring the peasants from natural duties to a monetary tax.
Remark 1
The Middle Ages became the time of the formation of nationalities through the merging of tribes. Nationalities grew into nations. The barbarian kingdoms experienced transformations into centralized states based on the unification of the nation or the union of nations.
The culture of the Middle Ages stepped from the traditions inherited from antiquity to the formation of scientific ideas about the world.
