HISTORY, CURRENT STATUS AND PROSPECTS

Several periods can be distinguished in the history of ocean research and the development of oceanology. First period research from ancient times to the era of the great geographical discoveries is associated with the discoveries of the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the inhabitants of the island of Crete and their successors. They had a good idea of ​​the winds, currents and shores of the waters known to them. The Egyptians made their first, historically proven voyage across the Red Sea from the Gulf of Suez to the Gulf of Aden, opening the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.

Phoenician semi-merchants, semi-pirates sailed far from their native ports. Like all navigators of antiquity, they never voluntarily moved away from the coast beyond its visibility, they did not swim in winter and at night. The main purpose of their travels was to mine metal and hunt for slaves for Egypt and Babylonia, but at the same time they contributed to the spread of geographical knowledge about the ocean. The main object of their research in the II millennium BC was the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, they sailed through the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean to the East, where, bypassing the Malacca Strait, they possibly reached the Pacific Ocean. In the years 609-595 BC, the Phoenicians crossed the Red Sea in galleys, circled all of Africa and returned to the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar.

The discovery of the Indian Ocean is associated with the sailors of the ancient Harappan civilization that existed in the Indus basin in the III-II millennium BC. They used birds for navigational purposes and had a clear understanding of the monsoons. They were the first to master coastal navigation in the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman, and opened the Strait of Hormuz. Later, the ancient Indians sailed along the Bay of Bengal, in the 7th century BC penetrated the South China Sea and discovered the Indochinese Peninsula. At the end of the 1st millennium BC, they had a huge fleet, achieved significant success in the science of navigation and discovered the Malay Archipelago, Laccadive, Maldives, Andaman, Nicobar and other islands in the Indian Ocean. The sea travel routes of the ancient Chinese ran mainly along the waters of the South China, East China and Yellow Seas.

Of the ancient navigators of Europe, it should be noted the Cretans, who in the XV?-XV centuries BC were the first to penetrate through the Sea of ​​​​Marmara and the Bosphorus into the Black Sea (Pontus), became the discoverers of a significant part of Southern Europe.

In ancient times, geographical horizons expanded significantly. The area of ​​known lands and water areas has increased significantly. Geographical science has made amazing progress. Pytheas, a native of Massalia, sailed to the North Atlantic in the middle of the 5th century BC, where he first explored the phenomena of high and low tide, discovered the British Isles and Iceland. Aristotle expressed the idea of ​​the unity of the World Ocean, and Posidonius developed this idea and clearly outlined the theory of a single ocean. Ancient scientists knew a lot about the geography of the World Ocean, they had a fairly detailed description of its nature and maps with depth measurements.

In the middle of the 6th century, Irish monks sailed far to the north and west of the North Atlantic. They were not interested in trade. They were driven by pious motives, a thirst for adventure and a desire for solitude. Even before the Scandinavians, they visited Iceland and apparently reached the island of Greenland and the east coast of North America in their wanderings. In the discovery, often secondary, after the ancient Irish, and the development of the North Atlantic in the 7th-10th centuries, the Normans played a significant role. The main occupation of the ancient Normans was cattle breeding and sea crafts. In search of fish and sea animals, they made long voyages in the northern seas. In addition, they went overseas for trade in European countries, combining it with piracy and the slave trade. The Normans sailed the Baltic and Mediterranean seas. A native of Norway, Eirik Thorvaldson (Eirik Raudi), who settled in Iceland, discovered Greenland in 981. His son Leif Eirikson (Leif the Happy) is credited with discovering Baffin Bay, Labrador and Newfoundland. As a result of sea expeditions, the Normans also discovered the Baffin Sea, Hudson Bay marked the beginning of the discovery of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

In the Indian Ocean in the second half of the 15th century, Arab navigators dominated. They sailed the Red and Arabian Seas, the Bay of Bengal and the seas of Southeast Asia up to the island of Timor. The hereditary Arab navigator Ibn Majid in 1462 created “Haviyat al-Ihtisar...” (“Collection of results on the main principles of knowledge about the sea”), and in 1490 he completed the poem “Kitab al-fawaid ...” (“Book of benefits about principles and rules of marine science”). These navigational works contained information about the shores of the Indian Ocean, its marginal seas and the largest islands.

In the 12th - 13th centuries, Russian Pomor industrialists explored the seas of the Arctic Sulfur Ocean in search of a sea animal and a “fish tooth”. They discovered the Svalbard (Grumand) archipelago and the Kara Sea.

In the 15th century, one of the strongest maritime powers was Portugal. At this time in the Mediterranean, the Catalans, Genoese and Venetians monopolized all European trade with India. The Genoese Union dominated the North and Baltic Seas. Therefore, the Portuguese carried out their maritime expansion mainly in a southerly direction, along the coast of Africa. They explored the western and southern coasts of Africa, discovered the Cape Verde, Azores, Canaries and a number of others. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope.

Second period study of the oceans is associated with the era of the great geographical discoveries, the chronological framework, which is limited to the middle of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. Significant geographical discoveries became possible thanks to the successes of science and technology: the creation of sailing ships reliable enough for ocean navigation, the improvement of the compass and sea charts, the formation of ideas about the sphericity of the Earth, etc.

One of the most important events of this period was the discovery of America as a result of the expeditions of Christopher Columbus (1492-1504). It forced us to reconsider the views that existed until then on the distribution of land and sea. In the Atlantic Ocean, the distance from the coast of Europe to the Caribbean was fairly accurately established, the speed of the Northern Trade Wind Current was measured, the first depth measurements were made, soil samples were taken, tropical hurricanes were described for the first time, and magnetic declination anomalies near Bermuda were established. In 1952, the first bathymetric map was published in Spain with the designation of reefs, banks and shallow waters. At this time, the Brazilian, Guiana Current and Gulf Stream were discovered.

In the Pacific Ocean, in connection with the intensive search for new lands, a large amount of factual material was collected on the nature of the ocean, mainly of a navigational nature. But military campaigns, merchant navigation of this period also brought actual scientific information. So F. Magellan during the first circumnavigation (1519-1522) tried to measure the depth of the Pacific Ocean.

In 1497-1498, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama opened a sea route to India along the western coast of Africa. Following the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and English navigators rushed into the Indian Ocean, covering its various parts with their voyages.

The main goal of navigation in the Arctic Ocean is the discovery of new lands and means of communication. At that time, Russian, English and Dutch sailors tried to reach the North Pole, to pass the Northeast route along the coasts of Asia and the Northwest - along the coasts of North America. They, as a rule, did not have clear plans, the practice of swimming in ice and equipment appropriate for the polar latitudes. Therefore, their efforts did not produce the desired results. The expeditions of G. Thorn (1527), H. Willoughby (1553), V. Barents (1594-96), G. Hudson (1657) ended in complete failure. At the beginning of the 17th century, W. Buffin, trying to find the Northwest Passage, sailed along the western coast of Greenland to 77 ° 30 "N and opened the mouths of the Lancoster and Smith straits, Ellesmere Island and Devon. The ice did not allow him to penetrate into the straits, and Buffin concluded that there was no passage.

Russian researchers made a significant contribution to the study of the Northeast Passage. In 1648, S. Dezhnev for the first time passed through the strait connecting the Arctic and Pacific oceans, which later received the name Bering. However, S. Dezhnev's memorandum was lost in the Yakut archives for 88 years and became known only after his death.

The great geographical discoveries had a painful influence on the development of geographical knowledge. But, in the era under consideration, they were committed mainly by people who had a very distant relation to science. Therefore, the process of accumulating knowledge was very difficult. In 1650, the outstanding scientist of that time, Bernhard Varenius, wrote the book "General Geography", where he summarized all the new knowledge about the Earth, paying considerable attention to the oceans and seas.

Third period ocean research covers the second half of the 17th century and the entire 18th century. Distinctive features of this time were colonial expansion, the struggle for markets and dominance on the seas. Thanks to the construction of reliable sailboats, the improvement of navigational instruments, sea travel has become less difficult and relatively fast. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the level of expedition work has gradually changed. Journeys, the results of which are of scientific importance, begin to predominate. Some geographical discoveries of this period were events of world-historical significance. The coastline of North Asia was established, Northwest America was discovered, the entire east coast of Australia was revealed, and numerous islands in Oceania were discovered. The spatial outlook of the European peoples has expanded significantly thanks to the literature of travel. Travel diaries, ship's journals, letters, reports, notes, essays and other writings compiled by travelers and seafarers themselves, as well as by other persons from their words or based on their materials.

In the Arctic Ocean, the naval rivalry between Russia and England continued in the opening of the Northwest and Northeast passages. From the 17th to the 19th century, the British organized about 60 expeditions, some of the results of which did not become the property of scientists and navigators.

One of the most significant Russian expeditions of this period was the Great Northern Expedition (1733-1742) led by V. Bering. As a result of this expedition, the Bering Strait was crossed to the coast of North America, the Kuril Islands were mapped, the Eurasian shores of the Arctic Ocean were described and the possibility of navigation along them was established, etc. A sea, an island, a cape and a strait were named after V. Bering. The names of other members of the expedition are Cape Chirikov, the Laptev Sea, Cape Chelyuskin, the Pronchishchev coast, the Malygin Strait, etc.

The first high-latitude Russian expedition to the Arctic Ocean was organized in 1764-1766 on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov. During this expedition, led by V. Ya. Chichagov, a latitude of 80 ° 30 "N was reached, interesting material was obtained on the natural conditions of the Greenland Sea, the Spitsbergen archipelago, and information was summarized on the conditions and specifics of navigation in ice conditions.

In the 60s of the 18th century, Anglo-French rivalry flared up on the oceans. Round-the-world expeditions of D. Byron (1764-1767), S. Wallis (1766-1768), F. Carter (1767-1769), A. Bougainville ( 1766-1769), etc. A great contribution to the chronicle of territorial discoveries was made by the English navigator D. Cook, who made three trips around the world (1768-1771, 1772-1775, 1776-1780). One of the main tasks of his expeditions was the search for the southern mainland. He crossed the Arctic Circle three times, was convinced that the Southern Continent exists in the region of the Pole, but could not find it. As a result of the expeditions, Cook established that New Zealand is a double island, discovered the east coast of Australia, the South Sandwiches, New Caledonia, Hawaiian and other islands.

Despite the large number of expeditions and voyages, by the beginning of the 19th century, many geographical problems had not been resolved. The Southern Continent was not discovered, the Arctic coast of North America and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago were not identified, there was very little data on the depths, topography and currents of the World Ocean.

The fourth period The study of the oceans covers the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. It is characterized by increased colonial expansion and colonial wars, a fierce struggle for markets for industrial products and sources of raw materials, and significant intercontinental migrations of the population from Europe to other parts of the world. Geographical discoveries and research in the 19th - the first half of the 20th century were carried out in more favorable conditions than in previous periods. In connection with the development of shipbuilding, new ships had improved seaworthiness and ensured greater navigation safety. From the 20s of the 19th century, sailboats were replaced by sailing ships with a steam engine as an additional propulsion, and then steamships with auxiliary sailing equipment. The introduction of a propeller since the 40s of the 19th century and the construction of ships with an iron and then a steel hull, the use of an internal combustion engine since the end of the century significantly accelerated and facilitated research work, significantly reducing the effect of weather conditions on them. A qualitatively new stage in navigation began after the invention of radio (1895), the creation of a gyrocompass and a mechanical log at the beginning of the 20th century. Living and working conditions on long-distance sea voyages have improved greatly thanks to advances in technology and medicine. Matches appeared, the industrial production of canned food and medicines was established, firearms were improved, and photography was invented.

Part of the geographical discoveries of this period was of world-historical significance. The sixth continent of the planet, Antarctica, was discovered. The entire Arctic coast of North America has been traced, the discovery of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago has been completed, the true dimensions and configuration of Greenland have been established, and the coast of the Australian mainland has been completely revealed. Literature about voyages and travels in the XX century becomes almost boundless. From it, the most important sources of new geographical information were the reports of round-the-world and polar navigators, the works of geographers and naturalists.

Since about the middle of the 20th century, the importance of collective research organized by national academies, various museums, intelligence services, numerous learned societies, institutes and individuals has increased dramatically. The limits of human activity have expanded immeasurably, all the seas and oceans have become objects of systematic study by expeditions in which general geographic and special oceanological research was carried out.

At the beginning of the 10th century, during a round-the-world voyage led by I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky (1803-1806) measured the water temperature at different depths of the ocean, and made observations of atmospheric pressure. Systematic measurements of temperature, salinity and density of water at different depths were carried out by the expedition of O. E. Kotzebue (1823-1826). In 1820, F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev discovered Antarctica and 29 islands. A great contribution to the development of science was the journey of Charles Darwin on the ship "Beagle" (1831-1836). At the end of the 1940s, the American Matthew Fontaine Maury summarized information about the winds and currents of the World Ocean and published them in the form of a book “Manual to Navigators”. He also wrote the Physical Geography of the Ocean, which went through many editions.

The largest event that marked the beginning of a new era of oceanographic research was the English round-the-world expedition on a specially equipped vessel, the Challenger (1872-1876). During this expedition, a comprehensive oceanographic study of the World Ocean was carried out. 362 deep-water stations were made, at which depth was measured, dredging and trawling were carried out, and various characteristics of sea water were determined. During this voyage, 700 genera of new organisms were discovered, the Kerguelen underwater ridge in the Indian Ocean, the Mariana Trench, the Lord Howe underwater ridges, the Hawaiian, East Pacific and Chilean uplifts were discovered, and the study of deep-water basins was continued.

At the beginning of the 20th century, studies of the topography of the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean were carried out to lay a submarine cable between Europe and North America. The results of these works were summarized in the form of maps, atlases, scientific articles and monographs. During the development of the trans-Pacific submarine telegraph cable project between North America and Asia, since 1873, naval vessels began to be used to study the topography of the ocean floor. The measurements taken along the line of Fr. Vancouver - the Japanese Islands made it possible to obtain the first latitudinal profile of the Pacific Ocean floor. The Tuscarora corvette under the command of D. Belknep for the first time discovered the Markus-Necker seamounts, the Aleutian Range, the Japanese, Kuril-Kamchatka and Aleutian trenches, the North-Western and Central basins, etc.

From the end of the 20th century until the 20s of the 20th century, several large oceanographic expeditions were organized, among which the most significant are the American ones on the Albatross and Nero ships, the German ones on the Edie, Planet and Gazelle , English on "Terra-Nova", Russian on "Vityaz", etc. As a result of the work of these expeditions, new underwater ridges, uplifts, deep-sea trenches and basins were identified, maps of the bottom relief and bottom sediments were compiled, extensive material was collected about the organic world of the oceans .

Since the 1920s, an even more detailed study of the ocean began. The use of deep-sea recorder echo sounders made it possible to determine depths while the ship was moving. These studies made it possible to significantly expand knowledge about the structure of the ocean floor. Gravitational measurements in the World Ocean have refined ideas about the shape of the Earth. With the help of seismographs, the Pacific seismic ring was identified. Biological, hydrochemical and other studies of the oceans were further developed.

British expedition on the vessel "Discovery - ??" discovered the South Pacific Rise, the New Zealand Plateau, the Australo-Antarctic Rise. During the Second World War, Americans on the Cape Johnson military transport discovered more than a hundred guyots in the western Pacific Ocean.

A huge contribution to the geographical study of the World Ocean was made by polar explorers, especially Russian ones. At the beginning of the 20th century, N.P. Rumyantsev and I.F. Kruzenshtern proposed a project to search for the Northwest Passage and a detailed study of the coasts of North America. These plans were interrupted by the War of 1812. But already in 1815, O. E. Kotzebue on the brig "Rurik" went to explore the polar latitudes and discovered the bays of Kotzebue, St. Lawrence and others. In the first half of the 20th century, F.P. Wrangel and F.P. Litke carried out their expeditions. The results of these expeditions made a significant contribution to the study of the ice and hydrological regime of the Arctic Ocean. Great merit in the study of this ocean belongs to Admiral S. O. Makarov. According to his project and drawings, the first icebreaker “Ermak” was built, on which Makarov’s expedition reached 81 ° 29 "N.

The first international polar expedition in the history of human civilization was of great importance for the geographical study of the Earth. It is known as the First International Polar Year and was carried out in 1882-1883 by representatives of 12 countries of Europe and North America. The first end-to-end voyage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean by the Northwest Passage was made in 1903-1906 by R. Amundsen on a small yacht “Joa”. He found that in 70 years the North magnetic pole has shifted 50 km to the northeast. On April 6, 1909, the American R. Peary was the first to reach the North Pole.

In 1909, for the study of the Arctic Ocean, the first steel hydrographic ships of the icebreaking type "Vaigach" and "Taimyr" were built. With their help, in 1911, under the leadership of I. Sergeev and B. Vilkitsky, bathymetric work was carried out from the Bering Sea to the mouth of the Kolyma. In 1912, Russian explorers undertook 3 expeditions by G. Brusilov, V. Rusanov, G. Sedov to study the through passage along the coast of Siberia and reach the North Pole. However, none of them were successful. In 1925, R. Amundsen and L. Ellsworth organized the first air expedition to the Arctic and found that there is no land north of Greenland.

Significant research in Greenland, Barents, Kara and Chukchi was carried out in 1932-1933 as part of the International Polar Year. In 1934-1935, high-latitude complex expeditions were carried out on the ships Litke, Perseus, and Sedov. The first through navigation by the Northern Sea Route in one navigation was made by the expedition on the ship "Sibiryakov" headed by O.Yu. Schmidt. In 1937, under the leadership of I. D. Papanin, the hydrometeorological station “North Pole - 1” began to work in the ice of the Arctic.

And yet, by the end of this period, many geographical problems remained unresolved: it was not established whether Antarctica is a single continent, the discovery of the Arctic was not completed, the nature of the World Ocean was poorly studied, etc.

Beginning in the middle of the twentieth century fifth - modern period study of the oceans. At this stage in the history of mankind, science has become the main force in the development of society. The achievements of the Earth sciences have made it possible to resolve a number of global issues. Get direct evidence of the mobility of the Earth's lithosphere and its planetary divisibility. Determine the features of the structure of the earth's crust. Find the ratio of the land surface and oceans on Earth. Reveal the existence and significance of geosystems. Start using space technology to collect information about geosystems of different levels for any period of time.

After World War II, oceanographic technology improved. Three round-the-world expeditions equipped with new equipment are sent to the expanses of the World Ocean: Swedish on the Albatross (1947-1948), Danish on the Galatea (1950-1952) and British on the Challenger - ?? (1950-1952). During these and other expeditions, the thickness of the earth's crust of the oceans was measured, the heat flux at the bottom was measured, guyots and the benthic fauna of deep-sea trenches were studied. The mid-ocean ridges of the oceans and the giant faults of Mendocino, Murray, Clarion and others (1950-1959) were discovered and studied. A whole era of oceanographic research is associated with the work of the scientific vessel Vityaz. During the numerous expeditions of the Vityaz since 1949, major discoveries were made in the field of geology, geophysics, geochemistry and biology of the oceans. Long-term observations of currents were carried out on this ship for the first time, the deepest point of the ocean in the Mariana Trench was established, previously unknown landforms were discovered, etc. The work of the Vityaz was continued by the scientific ships Dmitry Mendeleev, Ob, Akademik Kurchatov ” and others. The post-war period is characterized by the development of international cooperation in the study of the World Ocean. The first joint work was the NORPAK program in the Pacific Ocean, which was carried out by ships from Japan, the USA and Canada. This was followed by the international programs of the International Geophysical Year (IGY, 1957-1959), EVAPAK, KUROSIO, WESTPAK, MIOE, PIGAP, POLIMODE and others. Stationary observations in the open ocean have been developed. The largest discovery of the 1950s was the discovery of subsurface equatorial countercurrents in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The accumulation and generalization of scientific data obtained during sea expeditions made it possible to reveal the patterns of air circulation on a planetary scale. Geological and geophysical studies of the World Ocean in the 1960s contributed to the development of the global theory of lithospheric plate tectonics. Since 1968, the International Deep Sea Drilling Program has been carried out using the American ship Glomar Challenger. Research under this program has significantly expanded knowledge about the structure of the bottom of the World Ocean and its sedimentary rocks.

In the Arctic Sulfuric Ocean, along with specialized expeditions, laboratory and theoretical studies were carried out during this period. The features of the ocean ice cover, the structure of currents, the topography of the bottom, and the acoustic and optical properties of Arctic waters were studied. Joint international studies were carried out. The materials collected by the expeditions made it possible to eliminate the last "white spots" on the map of the Arctic. The discovery of the Lomonosov and Mendeleev ridges and a number of deep-water basins changed the idea of ​​the topography of the ocean floor.

In 1948-1949, with the help of aviation, numerous short-term studies from three hours to several days were carried out in the ice of the Arctic. The work of the stations "North Pole" continued. In 1957, an expedition led by L. Gakkel discovered a mid-ocean ridge named after him in the Arctic Ocean. In 1963, the Leninsky Komsomolets submarine sailed under the ice to the North Pole. In 1977, a high-latitude expedition of the Institute of the Arctic and Antarctic on the Arktika nuclear-powered icebreaker reached the Pole, which made it possible for the first time to obtain reliable, modern information about the ice of the Central Ocean.

In the 1970s-1980s, significant scientific research was carried out in the World Ocean within the framework of the Sections program. The main objective of this program is to study the impact of the ocean on short-term fluctuations in the Earth's climate. Oceanographic, meteorological, radiation, and aerological observations were carried out in the energy-active zones of the ocean under the "Razrezy" program. More than 20 voyages of research vessels were carried out annually. The program was carried out mainly by scientists from the USSR. Unique data on the nature of the World Ocean were obtained, many scientific articles and monographs were published. Now, under the auspices of the International Committee on Climate Change and Oceanography, ocean research is being carried out under two major WOCE and TOGA programs providing for comprehensive research of the World Ocean.

The further development of oceanological research is determined by the demands of practice and the improvement of technical methods for its study. The expansion of methods and ways of using the ocean increases the requirements for predicting its state, which leads to the need for comprehensive monitoring of the World Ocean. It consists in the continuous recording of surface temperature, waves, near-surface wind, frontal zones, currents, ice, etc. For its implementation, it is necessary, first of all, to develop space methods of observation, communication networks for transmitting information and electronic computers for its processing and analysis. It is also necessary to develop traditional methods of ocean research. The use of the entire array of information will make it possible to develop mathematical models of the structure of the ocean and its dynamics.

The increased scale of anthropogenic impact, the increase in the extraction of natural resources of the World Ocean, the development of maritime transport and recreation require a detailed study of its nature. The main task of these studies should be the development of particular mathematical models that describe individual natural processes and phenomena occurring in the World Ocean, and the creation of its integrated model. The solution of this problem will make it possible to reveal many secrets of the World Ocean, will make it possible to more effectively use its huge and absolutely necessary natural resources for man.

Deep sea research of the oceans. Man from time immemorial sought to get acquainted with the underwater world of the ocean. Information about the simplest diving devices is found in many literary monuments of the Ancient World. According to legend, the first diver was Alexander the Great, who descended into a cart in a small chamber resembling a barrel. The creation of the first diving bell should be attributed to XV? century. The first descent into the water took place in 1538 in the city of Toledo on the Tajo River. In 1660, the diving bell was built by the German physicist Sturm. This bell was about 4 meters high. Fresh air was added from bottles, which they took with them and broke as needed. The first primitive submarine was built at the beginning of the 15th century?? century in London, the Dutchman K. Van Drebbel. In Russia, the first autonomous diving equipment was proposed by Efim Nikonov in 1719. He also proposed the design of the first submarine. But only at the end of the 20th century did real submarines appear. Invented in 1798, the Klingert diving apparatus already had the qualities inherent in modern space suits. Two flexible tubes were connected to it for supplying fresh air and exhaling exhaled air. In 1868, the French engineers Ruqueirol and Denairuz developed a hard suit. The modern scuba gear was invented in 1943 by the French Jacques Yves Cousteau and E. Gagnan.

In parallel with the space suits, underwater vehicles were developed, being in which the researcher could safely work at great depths, study the environment from the porthole, collect soil samples using manipulators, etc. The first sufficiently successful bathysphere was created by the American scientist O. Barton. It was a sealed steel sphere with a quartz glass porthole, capable of withstanding great pressure. Inside the sphere were cylinders with fresh air and special absorbers that removed carbon dioxide and water vapor exhaled by people inside the chamber. A telephone wire ran parallel to the steel cable, connecting the participants of the underwater expedition with the surface ship. In 1930, Barton and Beebe made 31 dives in the Bermuda region, reaching a depth of 435 meters. In 1934 they descended to a depth of 923 meters, and in 1949 Barton brought the dive record to 1375 meters.

This ended the bathysphere dives. The baton passed to a more advanced autonomous submarine - the bathyscaphe. It was invented in 1905 by the Swiss professor Auguste Picard. In 1953, he and his son Jacques reached a depth of 3150 meters on the Trieste bathyscaphe. In 1960, Jacques Picard sank to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. Developing the ideas of his father, he invented and built a mesoscaphe. It was an improved bathyscaphe that could make autonomous voyages using ocean currents. In 1969, Jacques Picard on his mesoscaphe with a crew of six people made a multi-day voyage along the Gulf Stream at a depth of about 400 meters. Many interesting observations have been made on the geophysical and biological processes occurring in the ocean.

Since the 1970s, interest in the natural resources of the World Ocean has sharply increased, which led to the rapid development of technology for studying its depths. All deep-sea vehicles are divided into two large groups: uninhabited underwater vehicles (UUVs) and manned underwater vehicles (UUVs). NPAs are divided into two classes - observational and power. The first is simpler and easier. They weigh from several tens to several hundred kilograms. Their task is a detailed optical survey of the bottom, inspection of technical installations at the bottom, especially pipelines, troubleshooting, finding sunken objects, etc. For this purpose, UUVs have television and photo cameras transmitting images to the ship, sonars, orientation systems (gyrocompasses) and navigation, ultrasonic flaw detectors that allow to detect cracks in metal structures. Power UUVs are more powerful, their weight reaches several tons. They have a developed system of manipulators for self-fixing in the required areas of metal structures and carrying out repair work - cutting, welding, etc. The working depths of most UUVs are currently from several hundred meters to 7 km. The UUV is controlled by cable, hydroacoustic or radio channel. But no matter how wide the range of tasks performed by uninhabited vehicles is, one cannot do without lowering a person into the depths. Currently, there are several hundred manned underwater vehicles of various designs in the world. Among them are the Pisis submersibles (maximum immersion depth 2000 m), on which Soviet scientists explored the bottom of Lake Baikal, the Red Sea and North Atlantic rift zones. The French apparatus "Siana" (depth up to 3000 m), the American "Alvin" (depth up to 4000 m), with the help of which many discoveries were made in the depths of the ocean. In the 1980s, devices operating at depths of up to 6000 meters appeared. Two such bathyscaphes belong to Russia (“Mir-1” and “Mir-2”), one each to France, the USA and Japan (“Mitsubishi”, depth up to 6500 m).

Methods, instruments and equipment used in the study of the oceans. The ocean is studied with the help of a variety of means - from ships, aircraft, from space. Stand-alone tools are also used.

Recently, research ships have been built according to special projects. Their architecture is subject to a single goal - to make the most efficient use of instruments that are lowered to a depth, as well as those used in the study of the near-surface layer of the atmosphere. The ships are widely equipped with modern computer technology designed for planning experiments and prompt processing of the results.

To study the ocean on ships, probes for various purposes are used. The temperature, salinity and depth probe is a set of three miniature sensors that measure temperature (thermistor), salinity (electroconductivity sensor, based on which the salt content in water is calculated) and hydrostatic pressure (to determine depth). All three sensors are combined into a single device, mounted on the end of the cable-rope. When the device is lowered, the cable-rope is unwound from the winch installed on the deck of the ship. Data on temperature, salinity and depth are sent to the computer. There are similar probes designed to record the concentration of gases dissolved in water, the speed of sound and currents. In some cases, probes operate on the principle of free fall. Lost (disposable) probes are widely used. One of the varieties of the probe - "fish" - is a temperature, salinity and current velocity meter towed behind the ship. As a result of the development of the technique of sounding the depths of the ocean, older methods with lowering and raising thermometers, taking water samples from different depths are used less and less.

An important class of instruments are current meters capable of operating at maximum depths. Recently, electromagnetic and acoustic current meters are used more and more widely, instead of various “turntables”. In the first of them, the flow velocity is determined by the potential difference between the electrodes located in sea water. Secondly, the Doppler effect is used - a change in the frequency of a sound wave when it propagates in a moving medium.

In the study of the ocean floor, two traditional instruments are still widely used - a scoop and a geological pipe. A scoop takes a sample of soil from the surface layer of the bottom. A geological pipe can penetrate much deeper - up to 16-20 meters. To study the bottom topography and its internal structure, echo sounders of new designs are widely used - multibeam echo sounders, side-scan sonar, etc. Seismoprofilographs are used to study the internal structure of the seabed to depths of several kilometers.

The suite of autonomous ocean exploration tools is also significant. The most common of these is the buoy station. It is a buoy floating on the surface of the water, from which a steel or synthetic cable goes down to the bottom, ending with a heavy anchor lying on the bottom. At certain depths, autonomously operating instruments are fixed on the cable - temperature, salinity, and current velocity meters. Buoys of another kind are also used: an acoustic buoy of neutral buoyancy, buoys with an underwater or surface sail, laboratory buoys, etc. Autonomous bottom stations, research submarines and bathyscaphees are important autonomous means.

The use of airplanes and helicopters makes it possible to study currents and waves on the surface of the ocean. Aerial photography makes it possible to obtain interesting data on the bottom topography at shallow depths, to detect underwater rocks, reefs and shoals. Magnetic aerial photography of the ocean makes it possible to identify areas of distribution of certain minerals on the ocean floor. Sophisticated aerial photography, using a spectrum of light waves, can detect and control coastal water pollution. But airplanes and especially helicopters are tied to their bases on land, and aerial photography is based on the use of electromagnetic waves that cannot penetrate deep into the water. Therefore, space methods for studying the ocean are more promising.

Without exception, all space observation techniques are based on the use of one of the three ranges of electromagnetic waves - visible light, infrared rays and ultra-high frequencies of electromagnetic waves. The most important parameter characterizing the state of the ocean, its surface temperature, is measured from space by radiometers using the self-radiation of this surface with an accuracy of 1 ° C. The regime of the near-surface air layer can be determined with the same accuracy. For measurements, the process of scattering of electromagnetic waves on the surface of the ocean is used. A narrow beam of radio waves is directed to the surface of the ocean at a certain angle. By the strength of their scattering in the opposite direction, the intensity of the surface ripples, i.e., the strength of the wind, is judged. At present, an accuracy of near-surface wind measurements of up to 1 m/s is achievable. One of the most important instruments installed on oceanographic satellites is the altimeter. It operates in location mode, periodically sending down radio pulses. By distorting the shape of the radar pulse of the altimeter reflected from the sea wave, it is possible, with an accuracy of 10 cm, to determine the height of the sea waves. In addition, it is relatively easy to register waters with increased biological productivity from space, to observe large-scale changes in its geophysical characteristics, to monitor the pollution of the World Ocean, and so on.

How people discovered their land Tomilin Anatoly Nikolaevich

Stages of studying the oceans

With each voyage across the unknown seas, with each expedition, mankind learned more and more about the water expanses of the oceans. None of the navigators ignored the currents and winds, depths and islands. You can name many names of those who gave people the first information about the ocean: Columbus and Vasco da Gama, Magellan, the pirate Francis Drake, Cook, Bering, Dezhnev, La Perouse ... The list is long. How can one not recall the wonderful Russian round-the-world expeditions of Krusenstern and Lisyansky, Golovin and Kotzebue, Vasiliev and Shishmarev, Bellingshausen and Lazarev. On board the ship Kotzebue, the famous Russian physicist Lenz developed many instruments for studying the ocean. And how many new things gave people the voyage of Charles Darwin on the Beagle ship!

Not only professional sailors contributed to the study of the oceans. Suffice it to add as an example the work of Franklin on the creation of the first map of the Gulf Stream and Newton's work on the theory of tides ... Finally, at the end of the 40s of the last century, the American scientist Maury, a foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, summarized most of the information obtained by science and wrote the first " Physical geography of the oceans. The first for the completeness of the information that it contained.

All this time - from the most ancient times to the work of the first oceanographic expedition on board the special English vessel "Challenger" - is usually combined into the first stage of the study of the ocean.

Especially for those who may not have heard of this voyage, I inform you that in more than three years (from December 1872 to May 1876) the Challenger covered a distance of 68,890 miles across the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, as well as on the waters of the southern seas. Led by Charles Wyville Thomson and John Murray, the expedition mapped 140 million square miles of the ocean floor. Scientists have discovered 4417 new species of living organisms and established 715 new genera. How many stops were there during the flight? They measured the depths with the help of a lot, took samples of bottom rocks. But when they returned, the scientists were able to draw up the very first map of the distribution of bottom sediments.

From 1880 to 1895, 50 volumes of the report of the expedition with a description of the materials collected were published one after another. 70 scientists participated in the creation of this work. 40 volumes were devoted only to the description of the animal world of the ocean and 2 volumes - to the world of plants.

The results of this expedition formed the basis of all modern oceanological research and have not lost their significance to this day.

From the voyage of the Challenger to the beginning of the Second World War, the second stage of the study of the ocean is under way.

In 1921, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin signed a decree on the creation of a floating marine scientific institute - PlavmorNII, which was given a small wooden sailing and steam schooner "Perseus". 4 laboratories were equipped on board the Perseus, and at first only 16 people worked in them. Despite such modest opportunities for the firstborn of the Soviet research fleet, his expeditions became an excellent school for Soviet oceanologists.

During this period, the first underwater photograph was taken and the first underwater movie was made, telling about the life of coral reefs in the Bahamas. Specialists of the non-magnetic vessel "Carnegie" have developed new methods for studying the magnetic field. And the Dutch scientist Meines did the first experiments to measure the force of gravity from a submarine.

During the second stage, scientists broke up into several groups that united supporters of different views on the origin of the oceans. Indeed, did they form together with the land or later? These were very important questions, on the solution of which the further directions of the development of the theory of the entire planet depended. Some British scientists even defended such an assumption that once a very long time ago a piece came off the Earth and the waves of the Pacific Ocean splashed in place of the formed depression. And the torn off part went to the "production" of the moon ...

In 1912, the German scientist Alfred Lothar Wegener suggested that the continents, like huge ice floes, float on a layer of viscous mass underlying the earth's crust. That once all the continents together made up a single continent - Pangea, and the rest of the globe was covered with water. Then Pangea broke apart, its pieces spread out in different directions and formed modern continents, separated by modern oceans. Not everyone agreed with Wegener's opinion. Scientists from many countries took part in the disputes. But not a single hypothesis put forward at that time before the war could sufficiently convincingly explain the origin of oceanic depressions.

But on other issues related to the oceans, some progress has been made. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s, most scientists supported the hypothesis of the Soviet academician A.I. Oparin about the origin of life in the Earth's oceans.

The third stage in the development of oceanology began with the first major post-war voyage in 1947–1948. An oceanographic expedition aboard the Swedish vessel Albatros explored deep-sea trenches on the ocean floor. They came as a complete surprise to scientists. Until the 1940s, no one suspected such formations in the underwater relief. The entire scientific world followed the research with intense attention, how this unique phenomenon, hidden from human eyes, grew and individual gutters formed into a complex system. The new Soviet expeditionary ship Vityaz played an important role in the study of deep-sea trenches. She began her work in the Pacific Ocean in 1949 and was rightfully considered then one of the largest and most well-equipped oceanographic ships. Scientists working on board the Vityaz discovered the greatest depths on the globe, found not only new species of animals in the ocean, but also discovered a new type of them - pogonophores.

At about the same time, the Danish expedition on the Galatea ship was also engaged in the study of deep-sea trenches. Lowering their dredge into the eternal darkness of the depths, Danish scientists discovered there animals similar to those that were found on our planet millions of years ago.

Where does water come from on earth? This question, seemingly so simple and obvious, haunted scientists for many years. In ancient times, almost all peoples of the world had myths about floods.

But myths and fairy tales cannot serve as the basis for scientific knowledge. So where did the water come from, filling the depressions of the earth's relief? Many hypotheses have been put forward. In 1951, the American scientist W. Ruby put forward an assumption about the formation of the hydrosphere as a result of separation, stratification - differentiation of the Earth's mantle.

Water, which had previously been part of the substance from which our planet was formed, was now, as it were, “squeezed” out of it. The drops merged into puddles. Pools formed lakes and seas, oceans merged.

This idea was developed and substantiated by the Soviet scientist A.P. Vinogradov, and today it is shared by most geologists and ocean researchers.

Since 1957, when the programs of the International Geophysical Year and the International Geophysical Cooperation came into force, the fourth stage in the study of the ocean began. The most important event in international research was the discovery of a single planetary system of mid-ocean ridges - real mountain systems located at the bottom of the oceans and hidden under the surface of the waters. The famous Soviet scientist M.A. Lavrentiev established that terrible tsunami waves spread along these underwater ridges, bringing destruction and death to people living on the coasts.

In 1961, work began on the Moloch project. Geologists decided to drill through the thickness of the earth's crust on the seabed, where it is not as thick as on land, and reach the border of the upper mantle in order to finally find out what it is. In the United States, a special drilling vessel, the Glomar Challenger, was built. And the first well was laid off the island of Guadeloupe ...

To this day, it has not been possible to get to the mantle, but ultra-deep drilling has brought scientists a lot of interesting things. For example, for some reason, all the rocks traversed by the drill turned out to be relatively young. Where did the old sediment go? And such mysteries turned out to be more than enough ...

The third and fourth stages of the study of the World Ocean were the real era of the Great Oceanographic Discoveries. Today, the ocean, of course, is no longer the incomprehensibly mysterious world that it was only half a century ago. And yet it is full of secrets. In order to explore, to inhabit its expanses, it is no longer enough just research vessels-laboratories and ships-research institutes. Today, automatic and manned laboratory buoys, underwater vehicles, artificial Earth satellites and, as yet, not very numerous underwater research groups of aquanauts living and working in underwater laboratory houses, work in a single complex.

From the book of 100 great geographical discoveries author

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An important role in the study of the ocean is played by expedition ships equipped with special equipment, in particular for studying the ocean floor.

AT Arctic Ocean observations of salinity and water temperature, the direction and speed of currents, and the depth of the ocean are carried out by scientists from drifting stations.

The study of the depths of the World Ocean is carried out using a variety of underwater vehicles: bathyscaphes, submarines, etc. Ocean currents, waves and drifting ice are also observed from space.

Ocean pollution

Space photography of the Earth shows that 1/3 of the entire surface of the ocean is covered with an oily oil film. The Pacific Ocean is the most polluted, especially off the coast of Japan and the United States, where large cities and industrial areas are located.

Signs of pollution of waters and marine organisms by industrial waste have been found even off the coast of Antarctica. In the blood of penguins, a pesticide was found, taken out of the fields through rivers and seas into the ocean. There he got into the body of fish that penguins feed on.

International agreements on the protection of ocean waters call for the wise use of its wealth and the protection of its unique nature. First of all, it is necessary for the person himself.

Land waters

Land waters- continental waters - part of the water shell.

On land there are five types of water accumulations : groundwater, rivers, lakes, glaciers, swamps. Water is also present in the soil.

The volume of all surface waters of land, together with glaciers, is about 25 million km 3, i.e. 55 times smaller than the volume of the ocean. About 280 thousand km 3 of water are concentrated in the lakes, soil moisture reserves - 85 thousand km 3; in rivers - 1.2 thousand km 3.

By V. I. Vernadsky, the earth's crust contains 1.3 billion km 3 of water, but a significant part of it is chemically associated with minerals.

Fresh water hydrosphere is the source of life on earth. It is found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, springs, underground springs, glaciers.

The groundwater

The groundwater- these are waters located in pores, voids and cracks of rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust (up to a depth of 12-16 km). They are formed mainly by infiltration of precipitation and melt water, and their accumulation in pores, cracks and voids of rocks. Groundwater is characterized by different chemical composition. According to the degree of mineralization, they can be fresh, but brines containing more than 35 g / l of salts.

Groundwater is found in the soil and rocks of the upper part of the earth's crust.

Formation conditions: a sufficient amount of precipitation, the ability of rocks to pass water.

In relation to water, there are permeable(sand, gravel), waterproof(clay, permafrost) and soluble(limestone, table salt) breeds. Water easily seeps through the thickness of sand, gravel, pebbles. The layers composed of these rocks are called permeable . Rocks that are impervious to water are called waterproof ; they consist of clay, granite, sandstone, shale.

Since the upper part of the earth's crust has a layered structure and the layers can consist of both water-resistant and permeable rocks, groundwater occurs in layers. Layers of permeable rocks containing water are called aquifers .

According to the conditions of occurrence, they distinguish soil(located directly at the surface of the earth, in the soil), ground(they lie on the first water-resistant layer) and interstratal(enclosed between two waterproof layers) of water. Interstratal waters are fed in areas where there is no upper water-resistant layer; can be pressure, or artesian (if they fill the entire aquifer), and non-pressure.

If an aquifer is between two impermeable layers and these layers are bent in the form of a bowl, then the water in the lower part of the bend in the layers will be under pressure. From a well drilled in this place to the aquifer, water begins to gush. Such outlets of groundwater are called artesian wells .

The groundwater surface is called the groundwater level. The height of the groundwater level depends on many factors: 1) the amount of precipitation, 2) the dissection of the terrain, i.e. on the number and depth of ravines and rivers in a given area, 3) on the proximity and fullness of rivers and lakes.

If the reservoir has a slope in one direction or another, then the water begins to flow along it in the direction of the slope and usually somewhere, more often in a valley, ravine, at the foot of the slope, it comes to the surface. The place where groundwater comes to the surface is called source , key or spring .

Natural outlets of groundwater to the surface - sources , can be cold (up to +20 ºС), warm (+20-37 ºС) and hot (from +37 ºС).

In some areas of the globe, water comes to the surface of the earth, containing an increased amount of dissolved substances and gases. This water is called mineral .

If groundwater is replenished annually and its amount remains unchanged, then interstratal waters are replenished very slowly, since their accumulation has been going on for hundreds and even thousands of years.

Rivers

River- a natural stream of water flowing in the same place constantly or intermittently.

River - a constant stream of water flowing in the channel he developed and fed mainly by precipitation.

The place where the river starts source . The source is a lake, a swamp, a spring, a spring spouting from the ground, a glacier. In the high mountains, rivers start from glaciers.

If you swim along the river, then the right bank will be on the right, and the left bank on the left.

The place where the river ends, flowing into the ocean, sea, lake, is its mouth . Mouths are divided into delta (many branches and ducts) and estuaries (single sleeve). When the river flows into the sea, sand, clay, gravel brought by the river are deposited at the bottom, forming a delta. The river has the largest delta in our country. Lena. Large deltas also near rivers Nile, Volga, Mississippi.

river length is the distance from its source to its mouth. One of the longest rivers is considered to be the Nile (with Kagera) - 6671 km, followed by the Yangtze - 6300 km.

river slope- the ratio of the height difference of two points to the length of the section between them.

Every river flows in a depression that stretches from the source of the river to its mouth, - river valley . river valley , consists of a channel, floodplain and terraces. A depression in a river valley through which the waters of a river constantly flow is called riverbed.

During the flood, most often in the spring, when the snow melts, the river overflows its banks and floods the lower part of the river valley - understand .

floodplain- flat, flooded during the flood bottom of the river valley. Above the floodplain, the slopes of the valley usually rise, often in a stepped form. These steps are called terraces.

Terraces- elevated parts of the river valley, not flooded even at the highest water levels in the river. They arise as a result of the eroding activity of the river (erosion), caused by a decrease in the erosion base.

The river, together with all tributaries, including rivers flowing into tributaries, forms river system . The name of the system is given by the name of the river. All tributaries carry water to the main river.

The area from which a river and its tributaries collect water is called river drainage basin .

river basin- the area from which the river with all its tributaries collects water.

The largest basin area near the Amazon River in South America is over 7 million km2.

The border between the river basins - watershed .

Watershed- a line dividing the basins of two rivers or oceans. Usually some kind of elevated space serves as a watershed.

Territories of the mainland that do not have a drain into the ocean are called pools of internal flow . These include, for example, a large part East European Plain in Eurasia, through which the river flows Volga.

All the rivers of the globe are distributed among the basins of the four oceans.

The area from which water flows into a particular ocean is called this ocean basin.

The rivers of Africa belong to the basins Atlantic (Nile, Congo, Niger) and Indian (Zambezi, Limpopo) oceans. Stretching along the western coast of South America Andes serve as a watershed between basins Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. All major rivers in South America carry their waters into Atlantic Ocean. This is the most abundant river in the world - Amazon, as well as Paraná and Orinoco.

The relief of the area affects the direction and nature of the flow of the river. Depending on the relief, there are mountain (fast current, significant slopes, straightened deep valleys) and flat rivers (slow flow, slight slopes).

Mountain rivers, as a rule, have a swift, turbulent current. They flow in narrow rocky valleys with steep slopes. So, for example, a river Colorado, originating in rocky mountains North America, forms grand canyon- a deep and narrow valley with steep banks.

In lowland rivers such as Volga, Ob, Dnieper, the current is calm, rather slow, they strongly meander, their valleys are not deep, but wide, with a well-developed wide fertile floodplain.

Everyone has probably heard the statement that only a small percentage of the ocean depths have been explored so far. And many are waiting for the debunking of this myth, which would not be difficult to do if this information were not true. But it is true, the idea of ​​what is hidden at the bottom is very blurry, despite all the development of technology and the efforts made.

How did you explore the depths before?

Active study of this issue was taken up only in the 20th century, earlier, apparently, it was not before. The first attempts were made back in the 20-30s, but they looked comical.

Since the echo sounder had not yet been invented, in order to determine the depth and relief, it was necessary to lower a load tied to a rope. Given the time spent and low information content - special these studies did not yield any results..

The second half of the last century turned out to be more productive. Echo sounders, submersibles, submarines and entire stations whose only task was to explore the ocean depths.

Jacques Cousteau made a huge contribution to the popularization of this trend, thanks to his work, millions of teenagers and young people around the world set fire to the idea of ​​conquering unknown depths. But even this was not enough to obtain comprehensive data on the topography of the seabed and its contents.

What can knowledge about the day give us?

The study of this issue has great practical value:

• Search for oil fields and their further development;
• Fisheries development;
• Search for new species of animals;
• Determination of the climatic features of the planet;
• Study of the features of the tectonic structure of the Earth;
• Compilation of optimal routes for ships.

Since we live in a post-industrial society, carbon energy carriers - oil and gas - are of great importance for further economic development. Deposits on land, for the most part, have been studied, developed and partially even depleted. Humanity has only two options - the transition to alternative energy or the search for another source of oil. It is they who may be the ocean, fraught with many surprises. The only question that remains is the cost of production.

New species are of interest to marine biologists, but given the further development and fishing, every inhabitant of the planet may not have an idle interest.

The ocean is able to provide food for most of the population, however, mainly due to algae.

The climate around the world depends on sea and ocean currents, any change in them can have catastrophic consequences. Only researchers can warn about them in advance, sound the alarm or even fix something.

The same applies to tectonic plates, because it was thanks to the ocean that we understood exactly how our planet is arranged, what causes earthquakes and how quickly the appearance of modern continents can change.

Difficulties in studying the ocean

Each direction has its own problems and difficulties:

1. Low contribution to the study of the issue by most countries;
2. The complexity of the task, due to the area of ​​study;
3. The existence of such a concept as “territorial waters”;
4. Relatively short research period;
5. Little interest from the government, expressed in modest subsidies for private expeditions.

Although the question is important, it does not make any practical sense for many countries. The United States, for example, is interested in studying the problem, given the presence of two oceans "side by side". But the same Belarus does not understand why it should worry at all. For obvious reasons.

It took centuries to study the land on all continents, but the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe water surface is much larger. And you can’t drive a car along the bottom, a person is not intended for this environment at all. Therefore, the short time frame and the amount of necessary research confuses many scientists.

Each state seeks to protect its borders, including maritime ones. Therefore, any research group outside international waters may have problems gaining access to the territory and carrying out the entire range of work.

Who is now interested in studying the depths of the sea?

For decades, research has been carried out on sheer enthusiasm, but thanks to the popularization of this area and the interest of oil companies, the situation has changed somewhat. Basically, a group of scientists receives a grant from a corporation or government to perform tasks that are of interest to the employer, and try to get data along the way that will help advance science.

Separately, it is worth talking about those people who are looking for sunken ships, submarines and even entire cities. No, cities did not float in ancient times, but a change in the coastline could make its own adjustments to the life of the population and move everyone several tens of meters below sea level.

Due to bathyscaphes with manual or radio control during the second half of the 20th century, many sunken ships were found - both ancient and lost during the First and Second World Wars.

By and large, this is important for the development of culture, the establishment of historical justice and the reassurance of still living relatives or descendants of the crews.

Perspectives of the ocean depths in our time

A person can go to the sea and ocean depths if conditions on the surface so require. At the moment, this is completely unprofitable and makes no sense when there are huge undeveloped areas on land with minimal infrastructure. But given population growth and surface pollution, that day could come much sooner than it might seem at first glance.

The main problems to be overcome are the difficulty of carrying out construction work at depth and pressure. Given the fact that, due to the laws of physics, the sea water column is simply trying to crush everything that is deep enough in it, serious problems may arise for the population of future underwater stations or cities. The resource of materials used to build them will be very limited depending on the mark on the devices.

On the other hand, the resettlement of part of the population to the bottom will contribute to the development of oceanology and significantly replenish the stock of knowledge that a person has about what is happening somewhere there, under the waves.

All those romantics who suffer from the fact that there are no places left on Earth to explore and conquer can turn their attention to the blue expanse of the surf. It is not so fashionable, but it will give no less emotions and serve the benefit of mankind.

Video: what was found at the bottom of the ocean?

In this video, Ilya Potapov will talk about the 5 most strange and inexplicable finds at the bottom of the oceans:

Almost until the beginning of the 20th century, mankind had little idea of ​​the oceans. The focus was on continents and islands. It was they that were revealed to the gaze of travelers in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and at a later time. About the ocean during this time it became known basically only that it is almost three times larger than all land. A huge unknown world remained under the surface of the water, the life of which could only be guessed at and based on scattered observations, various assumptions could be made. There was no shortage of hypotheses, especially fantastic ones, but fantasy turned out to be poorer than reality.

An oceanographic expedition conducted by Great Britain on the Challenger corvette in 1872-1876 received so much new information that 70 scientists worked on their processing for 20 years. The published results of the study amounted to 50 large volumes.

This expedition discovered for the first time that the bottom of the ocean has a very complex relief, that life exists in the depths of the ocean, despite the darkness and cold that prevails here. Much of what we now know about the oceans was discovered for the first time, although the Challenger expedition only lifted the edge of the veil over the unknown world of the ocean depths.

During the First World War, the study of the great depths of the ocean became possible thanks to the use of an echo sounder. Its principle of operation is very simple. A device is installed at the bottom of the vessel, which sends signals to the depths of the ocean. They reach the bottom and are reflected from it. A special sound pickup picks up reflected signals. Knowing the speed of signal propagation in water, the time taken for the signal to travel to the bottom and back can be used to determine the depth of the ocean at a given point. With the invention of an ultrasonic echo sounder, the study of the ocean floor has advanced significantly. In the 40s of our century, scuba gear was invented (from Latin aqua - water and English lung - light). This is a device that helps a person breathe underwater. Two scuba cylinders contain an air supply that allows a person to stay in the ocean at a diving depth of no more than 100 meters for 1.5-2 hours. Scuba gear was invented by the French J.I. Cousteau and E. Gagnan.

In the study of great depths, such underwater vehicles as bathyscaphes and bathyspheres are used. Bathyscaphe (Greek bathus - deep and skaphos - ship) - a self-guided apparatus for exploring the depths of the sea. The displacement of the bathyscaphe is up to 220 tons, the crew consists of 1-3 people. It freely sinks to the bottom and rises to the surface. The bathyscaphe consists of a solid ball - a gondola for accommodating the crew and equipment, a life support system, and communications equipment. The lightweight load-bearing hull is filled with ballast and a liquid lighter than water. This liquid provides the bathyscaphe with good buoyancy. On the Trieste bathyscaphe in 1960, the Swiss scientist Jacques Picard with an assistant dived into the Mariana Trench (see. Deep-sea trenches) about 11,000 meters deep to explore the great depths of the ocean.

The bathysphere, unlike the bathyscaphe, is an apparatus consisting of a steel cabin, which is lowered from the side of the ship on a steel cable. In modern bathyscaphes and bathyspheres, special compartments with portholes equipped with searchlights are arranged. Through special chambers, scientists can exit the apparatus and travel along the ocean floor. At the end of 1965, the apparatus of the French oceanographer J.I. Cousteau was successfully tested. This apparatus contains devices with the help of which, in the event of an accident, it can emerge on its own.

In recent years, to study the oceans at the bottom, at a depth of 10-20 meters, underwater laboratories have been established, and submarines have been equipped with scientific equipment. Special ships, aircraft, Earth satellites participate in the research of the World Ocean, photographing and filming are carried out. When studying vast areas of the ocean, scientists from different countries join their efforts.

The results of the study of the expanses of the seas and oceans are of great importance for fishing, shipping, prospecting and mining.