RED PLANET MARS

Mars is the first planet in the solar system after the Earth, in which people have begun to show special interest for some time, caused by the hope that developed extraterrestrial life exists there.

The planet is named Mars in honor of the ancient Roman god of war (the same as Ares in ancient Greek mythology) forits blood-red color, due to the presence of iron oxide in the soil of Mars.

Main characteristics

Mars is the fourth largest planet from the Sun and the seventh largest planet in the solar system.It can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It is second in brightness only to Venus, the Moon and the Sun.

Mars is almost half the size of Earth - its equatorial radius is3,396.9 kilometers (53.2% of the earth). The surface area of ​​Mars is roughly equal to the land area of ​​Earth.

The average distance from Mars to the Sun is 228 million kilometers, the period of revolution around the Sun is 687 Earth days.

The minimum distance from Mars to Earth is 55.75 million kilometers, the maximum is about 401 million kilometers.

Mars is closest to Earth during opposition, when the planet is in the opposite direction from the Sun.The distances between the Earth and Mars at the moments of confrontation vary from 55 to 102 million kilometers. A great opposition is called when the distance between two planets becomes less than 60 million kilometers. The great opposition of Earth and Mars is repeated every 15-17 years (the last was in August 2003).And the usual ones - every 26 months at different points in the orbit of Mars and the Earth.

Mars has a rotation period and seasons similar to Earth's, but its climate is much colder and drier than Earth's.

The planet's rotation period is 24 hours 37 minutes 22.7 seconds.

On Mars, as on Earth, there are two poles, North and South. Mars rotates fast enough that it has a slightly flattened shape at both poles. At the same time, the polar radius of the planet is about 21 kilometers less than the equatorial one.

The Martian year consists of 668.6 Martian solar days, called sols.

The mass of the planet Mars is 6.418 × 1023 kilograms (11% of the mass of the Earth).

Mars has two natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos, and three artificial satellites.

As of February 2009, there are three operational spacecraft orbiting Mars: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, more than any other planet except Earth.

There are several inactive landers and rovers on the surface of Mars that have completed their missions.

Climate of Mars

The climate on Mars, like on Earth, is seasonal. The change of seasons on Mars occurs in much the same way as on Earth, but the climate there is colder and drier than ours. In the cold season, even outside the polar caps, light frost can form on the surface. A picture of frost was once taken by the Viking 2 aircraft..

Mars rover "Phoenix" at some point succeededto fix falling snow on Mars during"Martian winter". Snowfall on Mars was recorded using a laser, which is equipped with a rover. The rover managed to fix the snow with the help of a special laser with which it was equipped. Snow fell from a height of about 4000 meters, but it did not reach the surface of the planet, dissolving in the air.

The change of seasons on Mars is provided bytilt of its axis of rotation. In this case, the elongation of the orbit leads to large differences in the duration of the seasons. Unlike earthly ones, which have the same duration of 3 months. Mars has northern spring and summer, which fall on the part of the orbit that is farthest from the Sun. These seasons together last 371 sols, that is, noticeably more than half of the Martian year. Therefore, on Mars, northern summers are long and cool, while southern summers are short and hot.

Mars is characterized by a sharp temperature drop. Temperatures at the planet's equator range from +30°C at noon to -80°C at midnight. Near the poles, the temperature sometimes drops to −143°C, at which temperature carbon dioxide condenses. Mars is a very cold world, but the climate there is not much harsher than in Antarctica.

There is currently no liquid water on Mars. However, most likely, the white polar caps, discovered in 1704, consist of water ice mixed with solid carbon dioxide. In winter, they extend a third (the south polar cap - half) of the distance to the equator. In the spring, this ice partially melts, and a wave of darkening spreads from the poles to the equator, which was previously mistaken for Martian plants.

The appearance of Mars varies greatly depending on the time of year. First of all, changes in the polar caps are striking. They grow and shrink, creating seasonal phenomena in the atmosphere and on the surface of Mars.The polar caps consist of two components: seasonal - carbon dioxide and secular - water ice. The thickness of the caps can range from 1 meter to 3.7 kilometers.

Previously, many researchers seriously believed that there is still water in a liquid state on the surface of Mars. This opinion was based on observations of periodic changes in light and dark areas, especially in polar latitudes, which were similar to continents and seas.

Dark grooves on the surface of Mars have been explained by some observers as channels for liquid water.

Later it was proved that these furrows did not actually exist, but were just an optical illusion.

Research conducted by the Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1965 showed that there is currently no liquid water on Mars.

Due to the low pressure, water cannot exist in a liquid state on the surface of Mars. With such a small pressure that is currently acting on the planet, it boils at very low temperatures, but it is likely that conditions were different in the past, and therefore the presence of primitive life on the planet cannot be ruled out.

On July 31, 2008, water in the state of ice was discovered on Mars at the landing site of NASA's Phoenix spacecraft. The device found ice deposits directly in the ground.

Data from NASA's Spirit and Opportunity rovers also provide evidence for the presence of water in the past (minerals found that could only form as a result of prolonged exposure to water).

The glacier hundreds of meters thick covers an area of ​​thousands of square kilometers, and its further study can provide information about the history of the Martian climate.

According to modern concepts, the total volume of ice enclosed in the polar cap of the northern hemisphere is approximately 1.5 million kilometers, therefore, in the melted form, this ice could not form a giant ocean, which, according to many researchers, once covered almost the entire northern hemisphere. hemisphere of Mars. Thus, it remains a mystery where the water that once abounded on the now arid planet has gone.

Presumablyin the past, the climate of Mars may have been warmer and wetter, and liquid water was present on the surface, and it even rained.

Magnetic field and atmosphere of Mars

Mars has a magnetic field, but it is weak and extremely unstable. In different parts of the planet, it can differ from 1.5 to 2 times. At the same time, the magnetic poles of the planet do not coincide with the physical ones. This suggests that the iron core of Mars is more or less motionless relative to its crust, that is, the mechanism responsible for the Earth's magnetic field does not work on Mars.

Modern models of the internal structure of Mars suggest that Mars consists of a crust with an average thickness of 50 kilometers (and a maximum thickness of up to 130 kilometers), a silicate mantle (mantle enriched in iron) with a thickness of 1800 kilometers and a core with a radius of 1480 kilometers.

According to calculations, the core of Mars has a mass of up to 9% of the mass of the planet. It consists of iron and its alloys, while the core is in a liquid state.

Perhaps, in the distant past, as a result of a collision with a large celestial body, the rotation of the core stopped, as well as the loss of the main volume of the atmosphere.It is believed that the loss of the magnetic field occurred about 4 billion years ago.

Because the magnetic field of Mars is so weak, the solar wind freely penetrates its atmosphere. Because of this, many reactions under the influence of solar radiation on Mars occur almost at its very surface.On Earth, a strong magnetic field does not transmit solar radiation, so all these reactions occur in the ionosphere and above.

The Martian ionosphere extends over the surface of the planet from 110 to 130 kilometers.

The atmosphere of Mars is 95% carbon dioxide. The atmosphere also contains 2.5-2.7% nitrogen, 1.5-2% argon, 0.13% oxygen, 0.1% water vapor, 0.07% carbon monoxide.

In addition, the atmosphere of Mars is very rarefied. The pressure at the surface of Mars is 160 times less than the Earth's at the average surface level. Due to the large elevation difference on Mars, the surface pressure varies greatly.

Unlike Earth, the mass of the Martian atmosphere varies greatly during the year due to the melting and freezing of the polar caps containing carbon dioxide.

There is evidence that the atmosphere may have been denser in the past.

Topography of Mars

Studies have shown that two-thirds of the surface of Mars is occupied by light areas, called continents, and the remaining third is dark areas, called seas. The nature of the dark areas is still a matter of controversy.But in fact, no water has been found in the Martian seas.

The seas are concentrated mainly in the southern hemisphere of the planet. There are only two large seas in the northern hemisphere - the Acidalian and the Great Syrt.

Large-scale images show that the dark areas are actually made up of groups of dark streaks and patches associated with craters, hills, and other obstructions in the path of the winds. Seasonal and long-term changes in their size and shape are apparently associated with a change in the ratio of surface areas covered with light and dark matter.

The hemispheres of Mars are quite different in the nature of the surface. The surface of Mars has a reddish color due to large impurities of iron oxides.

Everywhere on the surface of Mars lie boulders - pieces of volcanic rocks that have broken off during marsquakes or meteorite falls.

From time to time come across craters - the remains of meteorite impacts.

In some places, the surface is covered with multi-layered rocks, similar to terrestrial sedimentary rocks left after the retreat of the sea.

In the southern hemisphere, the surface is 1-2 kilometers above the mean level and is densely dotted with craters. This part of Mars resembles the lunar continents.

A large number of craters in the southern hemisphere may indicate that the surface here is ancient - 3-4 billion years.

The rovers exploring the planet left their marks on the untouched surface.

In the north, the surface is mostly below average, with few craters and mostly relatively smooth plains, probably formed by lava flooding and soil erosion.

In the northern hemisphere there are two areas of large volcanoes - Tarsis and Elysium.

Tharsis is a vast volcanic plain 2000 kilometers long, reaching a height of 10 kilometers above the average level. It has three large volcanoes.

On the edge of Tarsis is the highest mountain on Mars and on the planets in the solar system - the Martian extinct volcano Olympus.

Olympus reaches 27 kilometers in height and 550 kilometers in diameter. The cliffs that surround the volcano, in some places reach a height of 7 kilometers.

Currently, all Martian volcanoes are not active. Traces of volcanic ash found on the slopes of other mountains suggest that Mars was once volcanically active.

A typical landscape of Mars is the Martian desert.

Sand dunes, giant canyons and fissures, as well as meteorite craters have been photographed on Mars. The most grandiose canyon system - the Mariner Valley - stretches for almost 4,500 kilometers (a quarter of the planet's circumference), reaching a width of 600 kilometers in width and 7-10 kilometers in depth.

Soil of Mars

The composition of the surface layer of the Martian soil, according to the data of the landers, is different in different places.

The soil mainly consists of silica (20-25%), containing an admixture of iron oxide hydrates (up to 15%), giving the soil a reddish color. The soil contains significant impurities of sulfur, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, and sodium compounds. The ratio of acidity and some other parameters of Martian soils are close to those of the Earth, and it would theoretically be possible to grow plants on them.

From reports by lead research chemist Sam Kunaves:

“In fact, we found that the soil on Mars meets the requirements, and also contains the necessary elements for the emergence and maintenance of life, both in the past, in the present, and in the future ... .. Such soil is quite suitable for growing various plants, such as asparagus. There is nothing here to make life impossible. On the contrary, with each new study, we find additional evidence in favor of the possibility of its existence.”

Interesting phenomena on Mars

The Mars Odyssey spacecraft has detected active geysers at the south polar cap of Mars. Jets of carbon dioxide with spring warming break up to a great height, carrying dust and sand with them. The spring melting of the polar caps leads to a sharp increase in atmospheric pressure and the movement of large masses of gas to the opposite hemisphere.

The speed of the winds blowing at the same time is 10-40 m/s, sometimes up to 100 m/s. The wind raises a large amount of dust from the surface, which leads to dust storms. Strong dust storms almost completely hide the surface of the planet. Dust storms have a noticeable effect on the temperature distribution in the Martian atmosphere.

After the landings of automatic vehicles on the surface of Mars, it became possible to conduct astronomical observations directly from the surface of the planet.

The picture of the night sky of Mars (and astronomical phenomena observed from the planet) differs from the earth's and in many ways seems unusual and interesting.

For example, at noon the sky of Mars is yellow-orange. The reason for such differences from the color scheme of the earth's sky is the properties of the thin, rarefied atmosphere of Mars containing suspended dust.

Presumably, the yellow-orange coloration of the sky is caused by the presence of 1% magnetite in dust particles constantly suspended in the Martian atmosphere and raised by seasonal dust storms. Duration of storms can reach 50-100 days.

Evening dawn on Mars turns the sky a fiery red or deep orange.

Despite many scientific discoveries, the red planet is still very interesting for both scientists and ordinary people. And this collection, called 10 interesting facts about Mars, confirms this.

Of course, it is impossible to fit all the facts about Mars in one article, so we will divide the article into: planet Mars interesting facts for children and interesting facts about Mars for a more sophisticated reader.

Interesting Mars Facts for Kids

1. The size of the red planet is very small

You might think that it is the twin of the Earth, but its diameter is only about half the diameter of the Earth, - 6800 km across.

2. Mass of the planet

The total mass is about 10% of the mass of the Earth. Gravity on the surface - 37% of the Earth.

3. Volume and density

Scientific facts about Mars say that its average density is 3.94 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). For comparison, the density of the Earth is 5.52 g/cm3. One of the reasons for the low density, compared to the Earth, is that it has only 10% of the mass of the Earth.

4. The structure of the planet

Mars is similar in structure to Earth, it also has a core that is mostly iron and sulfur, a mantle made of silicates, and a crust made of basalt with iron oxide impurities, which gives the planet its characteristic reddish hue.

Its core, like the Earth's, consists of the main component - iron. This is where the similarity ends. The Earth's core is molten and is in constant motion. The inner core rotates in the opposite direction to the outer one. This interaction creates a magnetic field that shields our surface from solar radiation.

martian core

It is solid and does not rotate. It is believed that it has a size of about 2960 km in diameter. The planet does not have a magnetic field, which is why it is constantly exposed to solar radiation.

Mantle

The mantle covers the core. The planet does not have tectonic plate movement, so the surface does not change and carbon is not removed from the atmosphere. The mantle is considered quite soft.

The earth's crust was formed as a result of volcanic activity billions of years ago. Its size varies between 50 and 125 km. Much of the surface of Mars is covered in iron oxide powder. Given the lightness of dust and the high wind speeds on Mars, its surface is constantly undergoing change in a relatively short time.

5. Orbit

Mars' orbit is the second most eccentric in the solar system. Only the orbit of Mercury has a greater eccentricity. At perihelion, it is at a distance of 206.6 million km from the Sun, and at aphelion, 249.2 million km. The average distance from it to the Sun (the so-called semi-major axis) is 228 million km. It takes 687 Earth days for Mars to orbit. The distance to the Sun changes depending on the gravitational influence of other planets, and the eccentricity can change over time. More recently, approximately 1.350 million years ago, it had an almost circular orbit.

6. Axis of rotation and seasons

Mars, like all planets in the solar system, has an axial tilt of about 25.19 degrees. This slope is similar to Earth's, so it has seasons. Martian seasons are longer than Earth's, because the year on it is almost twice as long as the Earth's year. The drastically changing distance between Mars at aphelion and perihelion means that its seasons are out of balance.

7. Orbiting

The easiest way to observe Mars is when it is in opposition - the closest point in its orbit to us. The distance, during the approach, ranges from 54 to 103 million km due to their position of the planets in their orbits. The last opposition was on 3 March 2012.

The air on Mars is deadly to humans. The size of its atmosphere is only 1% of the Earth's. It is composed of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and trace amounts of oxygen, water vapor and other gases.

Mars is a world of extreme weather. In general, it is very cold there, with an average surface temperature of around -47 °C. During the summer, near the equator, temperatures can reach 20°C during the day but drop to -90°C at night. This 110° temperature difference creates winds that reach tornado speeds. Once these winds begin, iron oxide dust rises into the air and covers the entire planet.

10. Your weight

The force of gravity on Mars is only 38% of the Earth standard, so if you weigh 100 kg on Earth, then on Mars the scales will show 38 kg!

Briefly about Mars

As you can see, the planet Mars for children is a whole treasure trove of mysteries and interesting discoveries!

Other interesting facts

Interesting facts about Mars are based on the rather amazing phenomena and events that surround this planet.

1. People used to think that there are channels on Mars

So, in our nomination for the most interesting facts about Mars, we give first place to a fairly common misconception about channels. Until the arrival of the first spacecraft, in 1965, no one had ever seen this planet from close range. The dark spots on its surface have been interpreted as lakes and oceans, and some people even thought they could see dark lines crossing the planet's surface. It seemed to them that these were irrigation canals of a dying civilization. It turned out that it was just an optical illusion, and it is a dry dusty desert.

2. There really is water on the planet

Mars has no oceans, rivers, or lakes, but NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft has discovered vast reserves of water below the surface, all over the planet, in the form of ice. The Phoenix mission arrived to search for ice under the soil near the north polar cap.

Water distribution according to Mars Oddysey

Why is the search for water on Mars so important? Geologists, along with biologists, say this is a key step in the search for life on the red planet.

Signs of life

On Earth, scientists have discovered that life can adapt to almost any environment - as long as there is water. Life exists at the bottom of the ocean, inside nuclear reactors, and deep inside the Earth at enormous temperatures. Wherever there is water on Earth, scientists have discovered life.

If there is liquid water, then there may be life there or signs that this life existed before, which would also be a grand discovery.

There are many examples that water used to be on the surface many billions of years ago. Orbiting spaceships have taken pictures of ancient riverbeds, and perhaps even the coastlines of long-dead oceans. Most recently, NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft discovered massive amounts of water, in the form of ice, below the planet's surface.

Conducted research

In the past few years, rovers have found examples of liquid water on the surface for extended periods of time. And if liquid water existed there before, then probably life too.

NASA's Phoenix Lander spacecraft has landed at the North Pole, where ice lies beneath the surface. He examined soil and ice samples. The Curiosity rover is currently also exploring the planet in great detail.

The search for water is the search for life in the ancient past of the planet, and maybe life on Mars exists today.

3. The highest mountain in the solar system

Continuing our incredible facts, it is worth mentioning the highest mountain in the solar system - Mount Olympus.

It rises to a height of 27 kilometers above the surrounding plains. Mount Olympus is a shield volcano, like Maun Kea in Hawaii. It was formed gradually over millions of years.

Some of the lava flows on the volcano are so young that planetary scientists believe it may still be active.

4. The longest and deepest canyon in the solar system

It is worth mentioning the Mariner Valley, which stretches for 4000 km along the equator, its depth in some places reaches 7 km.

5 Mars Debris On Earth

The oldest meteorite from Mars - NWA7533

Earth and Mars have been hit by asteroids in the past. Although most of the material in an asteroid impact falls back down onto the planet, some of it flies away. These meteorites can orbit the solar system for millions of years before finally falling to other planets.

6. Phobos will crash into the planet in the future

It has two tiny satellites called . Phobos orbits the planet at such a low altitude that it will eventually fall on it. Its fragments, in the form of a ring, will exist for many more years, and then fall like a meteor shower on Mars. Scholars disagree on when this will happen. This may happen as early as 10 million years, but no later than 50 million years.

Animation of Phobos' rotation, obtained from images transmitted by the European spacecraft Mars Express, during its approach to this moon.

7. Very weak atmosphere

Air pressure at the surface is only 1% of the pressure above the Earth's surface. The atmosphere consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and trace amounts of water and oxygen.

Compound

On Earth, oxygen makes up 21% of the air we breathe. Humans can survive at lower oxygen concentrations as well. Oxygen is distributed throughout our body by the red blood cells of our body. The high concentration of carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere can replace the oxygen in red blood cells and the body will die in less than 3 minutes. Of course, we do not take into account the cold and other factors.

General information

Today it is believed that Mars is a dry and dead planet. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. It changes daily and depends on temperature: warm air can contain more water vapor than cold air. Humidity is measured as a percentage of the maximum amount of water the air can hold at a given temperature. The greater the difference between temperatures, the greater the evaporation. On Mars, the air is 100% humid at night but dry during the day. This is due to the huge temperature difference between day and night.

Atmospheric evolution

The atmosphere on the planet was very different at the very beginning of the existence of the solar system. Many scientists believe that the planet was warm and had a thicker atmosphere. Unfortunately, the planet was missing two important components: plate tectonics and a magnetic field. If they were, then Mars could store enough oxygen to support life.

The most interesting facts about the planet Mars do not end there, now we come to the most interesting.

8. There are two rovers and three orbiters on the planet.

12 months of the rover in a two-minute video clip

On the surface of the planet there are two working rovers (Opportunity and Curiosity) and three orbiters: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Odyssey and Mars Express.

The video was taken by the navigation cameras of the European spacecraft Mars Express during its approach to the planet.

9. New spaceships are planned to be launched to the planet

The MAVEN probe is already on its way to the red planet!

Every two years, Mars and Earth line up so that the launch of a spacecraft towards the red planet can be carried out with minimal fuel consumption. NASA, the European Space Agency and Roscosmos, in the next few years, plan to launch several interesting spacecraft to it, including the return of soil samples from the Phobos satellite.

This animation first shows the work of the Curiosity rover, and later, the MAVEN probe arriving to the red planet, which will study the upper atmosphere.

10. Face on Mars

Let's talk in more detail about the region in which it is located. If you were fond of studying the red planet, then you probably came across the mention of this “Face”.

sidonia

This is the name of a region on Mars with very interesting landforms. The region was first described by astronomers using terrestrial telescopes, and then in more detail by Viking spacecraft.

The area called Cydonia lies in the northern hemisphere, between a large number of craters in the south and smooth plains in the north. It is possible that Cydonia was once in the coastal plains when the planet was covered in water, billions of years ago.

How it was

Face - detailed shot

Cydonia is the most famous region on the planet because of the unusual images sent back to Earth by the Viking spacecraft. In those distant years, thanks to the PR inflated by journalists, new facts were given out with such subtext, as if we had discovered brothers in mind. The Vikings transmitted a picture of a hill that looked like a face. And in the photo they found something similar to the pyramids. It's hard to deny, looking at the original image, that it didn't look like a face, but the most recent images transmitted by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show that it is nothing more than a hill.

face on google mars

In fact, the hill looks like a face due to an optical illusion known as pareidolia. In this case, the shadows on the hill were positioned to look like eyes and a mouth. But in shots without a shadow, the hill no longer looks like a face.

pyramids

It is also worth mentioning the "pyramids", which are also located in the Cydonia region. In low resolution from the Viking orbiter, they really look like pyramids. But from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, it is clear that this is a bizarre natural terrain. So, those who are looking for any hidden facts will surely be disappointed.

11. Bonus

A bonus point worth noting is the sandstorms of the red planet.

Storms on Mars are very different from the dust devils that many have seen in photographs from the surface of the planet. On Mars, a dust storm can develop within a few hours, and take over the entire planet within a few days. A dust storm can last for several weeks. Scientists are still trying to figure out why storms get so big and last so long.

emergence

Tornadoes arise due to the influence of the Sun. The heat from the sun warms the atmosphere and causes the air to move, picking up dust from the surface. The chance of a storm is increased when there are large fluctuations in temperature, such as those seen at the equator in summer. Due to the fact that the atmosphere of the planet is very thin, only microscopic dust particles hang in the air.

Their location

It turns out that many dust storms on the planet occur near the same impact basin. The Hellas Basin is the deepest crater in the solar system. It was formed over three billion years ago when a very large asteroid hit the surface of Mars. The temperature at the bottom of the crater can be up to 10 degrees warmer than on the surface, and the crater is well filled with dust. The difference in temperature creates a wind that kicks up dust.

Impact on space missions

Dust storms are a major concern when probes are sent to Mars. The Viking mission in 1976 easily weathered two large dust storms without damage. In 1971, Mariner 9 arrived at the planet during the largest dust storm in history. Scientists waited several weeks for the storm to subside to start studying the planet. The biggest problem is that rovers on the surface receive less sunlight. Without light, there isn't enough heat for the rover to function properly.

infographics

Long ago, when it was warmer, there was a lot of water on its surface. Since that time, traces of rivers, lakes and even entire seas have remained on the planet. However, all this water froze billions of years ago. Since then, the surface of Mars has been tormented - at least for the last hundred million years. Volcanoes, the tops of which were knocked out above the dusty atmosphere of the planet, have long disappeared ... Or maybe they still exist? In some places on Mars, there are quite fresh lava flows.

Nevertheless, living beings and their traces on Mars have not yet been found. But there is still where to look. The main ones on Mars: the southern zone, densely covered with craters, the northern plains, the network of canyons of the Mariner Valley, two volcanic hills, two southern depressions and huge ice caps at the poles of the planet.

Questions and answers:

How big is the surface of Mars?- Its size is equal to the area of ​​all the continents of the Earth, taken together.

Mars is the rocky planet farthest from the Sun. It is very cold there - so why is there no ice on the planet then? There is ice on Mars. But this is not water, but "dry ice" - carbon dioxide that we exhale. But there is very little water, H 2 O, on the surface. All of it is hidden underground at the poles of Mars. In addition, fragments of ice rocks “travel” through the valleys and craters of the planet.

What is the youngest thing on Mars?- Every year the wind creates new patterns on the dusty surface of the planet. The seasonal cycle of freezes and thaws leaves much more unusual traces in itself: round depressions, pyramids and even polygons of cracks, reminiscent of the outlines of a city block map. Landslides often occur on the steep slopes of canyons and craters. In the same place, ravines and hollows are often found, which seem to be washed out by water. During the time you can also find placers of small mounds. These are either the remains of stones thrown out by volcanoes, or bumps of ice and mud. They are too small to draw on a map.

Pyramids and "face" on Mars

Where do lava flows come from?- They flow from the tops (vents) of volcanoes or from deep fissures.

What is "sol"? Sol is the name of a solar day on Mars. They last a little more than a day on Earth - 24 hours 39 minutes 35.2 seconds. The year on the planet is long - it takes 669 and a half sols to complete a revolution around the Sun.

Where do the black dots on the Martian dunes come from? - The dunes on the planet consist of black volcanic sand, which is covered with white frost in winter. In the spring, when the white cover evaporates, black sand gradually shows up from under it. And since the melting occurs unevenly, the sand that appears through the hoarfrost looks like a scattering of black dots from above.

Where do winding valleys come from on Mars?- Most likely, they were washed away by rivers or by spring streams of melt water.

Where on Mars?“These are cracks in the planet's crust from which lava erupted. Channels could also be formed due to the movement of lithospheric plates. Here on Earth, this movement causes earthquakes.

What is a ridge?- It's a winding stone ridge on the surface of the planet. Ridges form when processes within a planet push plates of the planet's crust against each other, causing their rocks to pile on top of each other. Often the ridges are associated with volcanic flows.

What is a "dust devil"?- This is a small vortex that moves along the surface of the planet, collecting light dust from it.

What do the flower-shaped icons on the map represent? - This is a meteorite crater with sediment left over from the formation of the crater. On Mars, fragments flying from a meteorite impact may contain water. Dirt from the water spreads around the crater, forming structures that look like flowers from a bird's eye view.

Why Mars? - Red places on the planet are covered with the smallest dust that settles from the air. The color of the dust is due to rust - it contains many rusted iron particles. Dark places on the planet are covered with fresh volcanic sand, which is also red - but not as bright as in dusty areas. Bright places on Mars appear in winter - then the surface is shrouded in fog and hoarfrost. The polar caps of the planet, consisting of eternal ice, always remain white.

Is there air on Mars? - Yes, the planet has - but it is very rarefied compared to the atmosphere of our Earth. Nevertheless, the wind blows there - its strength is enough to carry sand and destroy rocks. Sometimes real sandstorms rage on Mars! Small clouds sometimes break from dust and water vapor.

What kind of black things are visible in some of the craters?- These are dunes made of sand that was poured into the crater.

Do aliens live on Mars?- So far, no living creatures or traces of any life at all have been found on Mars.

Solar panels on Phoenix probe broken by Martians? - The solar arrays were still operational when the probe last contacted Earth. They broke down after the first winter - we managed to find out with the help of satellite images. Most likely, during the cold weather, so much frost settled on the solar panels that they could not bear the entire weight and collapsed.

Why are the northern and southern parts of Mars colored differently on the map? - The color on the map indicates the uneven surface of the planet. To the north are low plains, and to the south are densely cratered uplands.

Where did spiders come from at the South Pole of Mars?- "Spiders" are systems of dark cracks on the surface of the planet, which diverge from one common center. They occur in the spring, during the melting of "dry ice" at the poles. Then the black bedrock of Mars is exposed. Since the ice at the pole is still heated from the inside by the heat of the planet's core, it can melt in winter, breaking out from under the crust on the surface with columns of steam.

And what does cheese do at the South Pole?- The icy surface of the pole is constantly evaporating, which causes it to shrink very strongly. In some places, this left round depressions, similar to holes in cheese. Therefore, these areas are called Swiss Cheese Plots.

How did polygonal patterns appear on the northern plains of Mars? - The patterns are a network of broken cracks. They are formed during the freezing and thawing of the soil of Mars, when it cracks due to temperature changes.

Why are Martians green?- About 100 years ago, science fiction writers imagined that people with green skin lived on Mars, as opposed to the red surface of the planet. Although we now know that Martians do not exist, artists and filmmakers still depict aliens as green.

Where does sand and dust come from on Mars? - They emerge from shattered rocks that are eroded by wind, temperature changes, ice, and water currents. The wind will play with the resulting sand for millions of years - collect it in heaps and dunes, and then scatter it back.

One of the Martian dunes

What are these white zones above and below Mars?- These are the polar ice caps. In their structure, they look like a cake - under a white cover, their ice and dust alternate. The center of the ice cap will never melt, although entire valleys cut through it.

Why are there camels on Mars?- There are two types of camels: one-humped and two-humped. One-hump are found in the hot deserts of Africa, and two-humps are found in the cold Asian deserts. It is the two-humped camels that walk around the map: only they would be found on cold and dry Mars. But now there are no real camels on the planet.

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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is named after the famous god of war from Roman mythology. In the night sky, Mars is easy to find, because it glows with an unblinking red light. That is why very often description of the planet Mars includes the phrase "red planet". Mars also has two small and irregularly shaped natural satellites: Deimos and Phobos. It is believed that they can be intercepted due to the effect of the planet's gravity.

What do Mars and Earth have in common?

Mars is a terrestrial planet, as it has a thin atmosphere and a surface that resembles both the craters of the Moon and the deserts, valleys, volcanoes and polar ice of the Earth. The highest volcano in the solar system has been discovered on the planet Mars. They have the name Olympus and reach a height of 27 km. Mars has not only similar geographic features with Earth, but also similar seasonal cycles and rotation period. That is why on this planet there is the highest probability of finding water and life.

The area of ​​Mars is almost the same as the total area of ​​all the earth's continents, but the mass of the planet is 10 times less than the Earth. The length of a day is 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35,244 seconds. The Martian year has 687 days. It has been established that the change of seasons can be observed on Mars.

Mars has an extremely rare atmosphere. The pressure on the surface of the planet is 750 Pa, which is 133 times less than at sea level on Earth. The atmosphere is composed of carbon dioxide (95%), nitrogen (3%), argon (1.6%), methane, and traces of water and oxygen. It is also quite characteristic of Mars that the circulation of water vapor occurs from one pole to another (it depends on the season).

According to some data, it was found that the surface of the planet consists mainly of one substance - basalt. In some places, the thickness of the crust of Mars reaches 125 km, but on average it does not exceed 50 km. The Earth's crust is 40 km thick.

The northern and southern hemispheres of Mars are significantly different. The northern hemisphere of the planet is dominated by plains, which were formed at one time by the lava of erupting volcanoes, while in the southern hemisphere, as can be seen from the pictures, there are high plateaus covered with asteroid craters. The planet's polar caps contain ice and carbon dioxide. Mars also has the largest canyon in the entire solar system called the Mariner Valley, which is 4,000 km long and 7 km deep.

Detailed characteristics in the description of the planet Mars

The diameter of the planet is 6785 km, the mass is 0.64 x 10 ^ 24 kg. Distance from the sun: minimum - 205 million km, maximum - 249 million km. The period of rotation of Mars around its axis is 24.6 hours. Temperature from -129° C to 0° C. Surface temperature of the planet: average - 218 K. Two satellites: Phobos and Deimos.

Planet characteristics:

• Distance from the Sun: 227.9 million km
• Planet Diameter: 6786 km*
• Days on the planet: 24h 37 min 23s**
• Year on the planet: 687 days***
• t° on the surface: -50°C
• Atmosphere: 96% carbon dioxide; 2.7% nitrogen; 1.6% argon; 0.13% oxygen; possible presence of water vapor (0.03%)
• Satellites: Phobos and Deimos

* diameter at the equator of the planet
** period of rotation around its own axis (in Earth days)
*** orbital period around the Sun (in Earth days)

The planet Mars is the fourth planet of the solar system, 227.9 million kilometers away from the sun, or 1.5 times farther than the earth. The planet has a more melted orbit than the earth. The eccentric rotation of Mars around the sun is more than 40 million kilometers. 206.7 million kilometers at perihelion and 249.2 at aphelion.

Presentation: planet Mars

Mars is accompanied by two small natural satellites, Phobos and Demos, in its orbit around the sun. Their sizes are 26 and 13 km, respectively.

The average radius of the planet is 3390 kilometers - about half of the earth's. The mass of the planet is almost 10 times less than that of the earth. And the surface area of ​​the entire Mars is only 28% of the Earth's. This is slightly more than the area of ​​all terrestrial continents without oceans. Due to the small mass, the free fall acceleration is 3.7 m / s² or 38% of the earth's. That is, an astronaut weighing 80 kg on earth will weigh a little more than 30 kg on Mars.

The Martian year is almost twice as long as the Earth's and is 780 days long. But a day on the red planet, in duration, is almost the same as on earth and is 24 hours 37 minutes.

The average density of mars is also lower than that of the earth and is 3.93 kg / m³. The internal structure of Mars resembles the structure of the terrestrial planets. The crust of the planet averages 50 kilometers, which is much more than on earth. The 1,800-kilometer-thick mantle is predominantly silicon, while the planet's liquid core, 1,400 kilometers in diameter, is 85 percent iron.

No geological activity has been found on Mars. However, Mars has been very active in the past. On Mars, geological events took place on a scale not seen on earth. On the red planet is the largest mountain in the solar system, Olympus, with a height of 26.2 kilometers. As well as the deepest canyon (Mariner Valley) up to 11 kilometers deep.

Cold world

Temperatures on the surface of Mars range from -155°C to +20°C at the equator at noon. Due to the very rarefied atmosphere and weak magnetic field, solar radiation freely irradiates the surface of the planet. Therefore, the existence of even the simplest forms of life on the surface of Mars is unlikely. The density of the atmosphere at the planet's surface is 160 times lower than at the Earth's surface. The atmosphere consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen and 1.6% argon. The share of other gases, including oxygen, is not significant.

The only phenomenon that is observed on Mars is dust storms, sometimes taking on a global Martian scale. Until recently, the origin of these phenomena was unclear. However, the latest rovers sent to the planet managed to fix dust whirlwinds that constantly appear on Mars and can reach a wide variety of sizes. Apparently, when there are too many such eddies, they develop into a dust storm.

(The surface of Mars before the start of a dust storm, the dust is only gathering into a fog in the distance, as depicted by artist Kees Veenenbos)

Dust covers almost the entire surface of Mars. The red color of the planet is due to iron oxide. In addition, there can be quite a large amount of water on Mars. Dry riverbeds and glaciers have been discovered on the surface of the planet.

Moons of Mars

Mars has 2 natural satellites orbiting the planet. These are Phobos and Deimos. Interestingly, in Greek, their names are translated as "fear" and "horror". And this is not surprising, because outwardly both satellites really inspire fear and horror. Their shapes are so irregular that they are more like asteroids, while the diameters are quite small - Phobos 27 km, Deimos 15 km. The satellites consist of stony rocks, the surface is in many small craters, only Phobos has a huge crater with a diameter of 10 km, almost 1/3 of the size of the satellite itself. Apparently in the distant past, some asteroid almost destroyed it. The satellites of the red planet are so reminiscent of asteroids in shape and structure that, according to one version, Mars itself once captured, subjugated and turned into its eternal servants.

The biggest mystery for humanity remains everything that is outside our planet. How much unknown and undiscovered is fraught with dark space. I am glad that today we know the information, albeit not all, about the nearby planets. Let's talk about Mars today.

Mars is the fourth planet farthest from the Sun and closest to Earth. This planet is approximately 4.6 billion years old, like the Earth, Venus and the rest of the planets in the solar system.

The name of the planet comes from the name of the ancient Roman and Greek god of war - ARES. The Romans and Greeks associated the planet with war because of its resemblance to blood. When viewed from Earth, Mars is a red-orange planet. The color of the planet is due to the abundant content of iron minerals in the soil.

In the recent past, scientists have discovered channels, valleys and moats on the surface of Mars, and deposits of a thick layer of ice at the north and south poles have also been found, which proves that water once existed on Mars. If this is true, then water may still be in the cracks and wells of the planet's underground rocks. In addition, a group of researchers claim that living beings once lived on Mars. In evidence, they cite certain kinds of materials found in a meteorite that fell to Earth. True, the claims of this group did not convince most scientists.

The surface of Mars is very diverse. Some of the impressive features include a canyon system that is much deeper and longer than the Grand Canyon in the United States, and a mountain system whose highest point is much higher than Mount Everest. The density of the atmosphere of Mars is 100 times less than that of the Earth. However, this does not prevent the formation of such phenomena as clouds and wind. Huge dust storms sometimes rage all over the planet.

Mars is much colder than Earth. Surface temperatures range from the lowest -125° Celsius recorded at the poles in winter to the highest +20° Celsius recorded at noon at the equator. The average temperature is approximately -60° Celsius.

This planet does not look like Earth in many ways, mainly due to the fact that it is much further from the Sun and much smaller than Earth. The average distance from Mars to the Sun is about 227,920,000 km, which is 1.5 times greater than the distance from the Earth to the Sun. The average value of the radius of Mars is 3390 km - this is about half the radius of the Earth.

Physical characteristics of Mars

Orbit and rotation of the planet

Like the rest of the planets in the solar system, Mars revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. But its orbit is more elongated than the orbit of the Earth and other planets. The greatest distance from the Sun to Mars is 249,230,000 km, the smallest is 206,620,000 km. The length of a year is 687 Earth days. The length of a day is 24 hours 39 minutes and 35 seconds.

The distance between Earth and Mars depends on the position of these planets in their orbits. It can vary from 54,500,000 km to 401,300,000 km. Mars is closest to Earth during opposition, when the planet is in the opposite direction from the Sun. Oppositions are repeated every 26 months at different points in the orbit of Mars and the Earth.

Like the Earth, the axis of Mars is inclined relative to the plane of the orbit by 25.19° compared to 23.45° of the Earth. This is reflected in the amount of sunlight falling on some parts of the planet, which in turn affects the occurrence of seasons, similar to the seasons on Earth.

Mass and Density

The mass of Mars is 6.42 * 1020 tons, which is 10 times less than the mass of the Earth. The density is about 3.933 grams per cubic centimeter, which is about 70% of the density of the Earth.

Gravitational forces

Due to the planet's smaller size and density, gravity on Mars is 38% of Earth's. Therefore, if a person stands on Mars, he will feel as if his weight has been reduced by 62%. Or, if he drops a stone, then this stone will fall much more slowly than the same stone on Earth.

The internal structure of Mars

All information received about the internal structure of the planet is based on: calculations related to the mass, rotation, density of the planet; on knowledge of the properties of other planets; on the analysis of Martian meteorites that fell to Earth, as well as on data collected from research vehicles in orbit around the planet. All this makes it possible to assume that Mars, like the Earth, may consist of three main layers:

1. martian crust;
2. mantle;
3. nucleus.

Bark. Scientists suggest that the thickness of the Martian crust is approximately 50 km. The thinnest part of the crust is in the northern hemisphere. Most of the rest of the crust is composed of volcanic rocks.

Mantle. The mantle is close in composition to the Earth's mantle. As on Earth, the planet's main source of heat is radioactive decay - the decay of the nuclei of atoms of elements such as uranium, potassium and thorium. Due to radioactive radiation, the average temperature of the Martian mantle can be approximately 1500 degrees Celsius.

Nucleus. The main constituents of the core of Mars are probably: iron, nickel and sulfur. Information about the density of the planet gives some idea of ​​the size of the core, which is supposed to be smaller than the core of the Earth. Perhaps the radius of the core of Mars is approximately 1500-2000 km.

Unlike the core of the Earth, which is partially molten, the core of Mars must be solid, since this planet does not have a sufficient magnetic field. However, data from the space station shows that some of the oldest Martian rocks were formed as a result of the influence of a large magnetic field - this suggests that Mars had a molten core in the distant past.

Description of the surface of Mars

The surface of Mars is very diverse. In addition to mountains, plains, polar ice, almost the entire surface is densely dotted with craters. In addition, the entire planet is shrouded in fine-grained reddish dust.

Plains

Most of the surface consists of flat, low-lying plains, which are mostly located in the northern hemisphere of the planet. One of these plains is the lowest and relatively smooth of all the plains of the solar system. This smoothness was probably achieved by sediment deposits (tiny particles that settle at the bottom of the liquid) formed as a result of the presence of water in this place - which is one of the evidence that there was once water on Mars.

Canyons

Along the planet's equator lies one of the most striking places, a canyon system known as the Marinera Valley, named after the Marinera 9 space research station that first discovered the valley in 1971. The Mariner Valley stretches from east to west and is approximately 4000 km long, which is equal to the width of the continent of Australia. Scientists believe that these canyons were formed as a result of a split and stretching of the planet's crust, the depth in some places reaches 8-10 km.

Mariner Valley on Mars. Photo from astronet.ru

Channels emerge from the eastern part of the valley, and in some places layered deposits have been found. Based on these data, it can be assumed that the canyons were partially filled with water.

Volcanoes on Mars

The largest volcano in the solar system is located on Mars - the volcano Olympus Mons (translated from Latin. Mount Olympus) with a height of 27 km. The diameter of the mountain is 600 km. Three other large volcanoes, the mountains of Arsia, Ascreus and Povonis, are located on a huge volcanic highland called Tarsis.

All the slopes of volcanoes on Mars gradually rise, similar to the volcanoes in Hawaii. Hawaiian and Martian volcanoes are enclosing, formed from lava eruptions. Currently, no active volcano has been found on Mars. Traces of volcanic ash on the slopes of other mountains suggest that Mars was once volcanically active.

Craters and river basins of Mars

A large number of meteorites caused damage to the planet, forming craters on the surface of Mars. On Earth, the phenomenon of impact craters is rare for two reasons: 1) those craters that formed at the beginning of the planet's history are already eroded; 2) Earth has a very dense atmosphere that prevents meteorites from falling.

Martian craters are similar to craters on the moon and other solar system objects, which have deep, bowl-shaped bottoms with raised, wheel-shaped edges. Large craters may have central peaks formed as a result of the shock wave.

Smiling crater. Photo from astrolab.ru

The number of craters on Mars varies from place to place. Almost the entire southern hemisphere is strewn with craters of various sizes. The largest crater on Mars is the Hellas Basin (lat. Hellas Planitia) in the southern hemisphere, with a diameter of approximately 2300 km. The depth of the depression is about 9 km.

Channels and river valleys have been found on the surface of Mars, many of which were spilled over low-lying plains. Scientists suggest that the Martian climate was warm enough, since water existed in liquid form.

Polar deposits

The most interesting feature of Mars is the thick accumulation of finely stratified sediments located at both poles of Mars. Scientists believe that the layers are composed of a mixture of water ice and dust. The atmosphere of Mars probably retained these layers for a long period. They can serve as evidence of seasonal weather activity and long-term climate change. The ice caps of both hemispheres of Mars remain frozen throughout the year.

Climate and Atmosphere of Mars

Atmosphere

The atmosphere of Mars is rarefied, the oxygen content in the atmosphere is only 0.13%, while in the Earth's atmosphere it is 21%. Carbon dioxide content - 95.3%. Other gases contained in the atmosphere include nitrogen - 2.7%; argon - 1.6%; carbon monoxide - 0.07% and water - 0.03%.

Atmosphere pressure

Atmospheric pressure on the planet's surface is only 0.7 kPa, which is 0.7% of the atmospheric pressure on the Earth's surface. As the seasons change, atmospheric pressure fluctuates.

Mars temperature

At high altitudes in the region of 65-125 km from the surface of the planet, the temperature of the atmosphere is -130 degrees Celsius. Closer to the surface, the average daily temperature of Mars ranges from -30 to -40 degrees. Right near the surface, the temperature of the atmosphere can vary greatly throughout the day. Even around the equator late at night, it can reach -100 degrees.

The temperature of the atmosphere can rise when dust storms rage on the planet. Dust absorbs sunlight and then transfers most of the heat to atmospheric gases.

Clouds

Clouds on Mars form only at high altitudes, in the form of frozen particles of carbon dioxide. Frost and fog appear especially early in the morning. Fog, frost and clouds on Mars are very similar to each other.

Dust cloud. Photo from astrolab.ru

Wind

On Mars, as on Earth, there is a general circulation of the atmosphere, expressed in the form of wind, which is characteristic of the entire planet. The main reason for the occurrence of winds is solar energy and the uneven distribution of it on the surface of the planet. The average speed of surface winds is approximately 3 m/s. Scientists have recorded wind gusts up to 25 m/s. However, gusts of wind on Mars have much less power than similar gusts on Earth - this is due to the low density of the planet's atmosphere.

dust storms

Dust storms are the most impressive weather phenomenon on Mars. This is a swirling wind that can pick up dust from the surface in a short time. The wind looks like a tornado.

The formation of large dust storms on Mars occurs as follows: when a strong wind begins to lift dust into the atmosphere, this dust absorbs sunlight and thereby warms the air around it. As warm air rises, even more wind is created, which raises even more dust. As a result, the storm becomes even stronger.

At large scales, dust storms can envelop a surface area of ​​more than 320 km. During the largest storms, dust can cover the entire surface of Mars. Storms of this size can last for months, obscuring the entire planet from view. Such storms were recorded in 1987 and 2001. Dust storms are more likely to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, since at such times solar energy heats up the planet's atmosphere more.

Moons of Mars

Mars is accompanied by two small satellites - Phobos and Deimos (sons of the god Ares), which were named and discovered in 1877 by the American astronomer Asaph Hall. Both satellites are irregularly shaped. The largest diameter of Phobos is approximately 27 km, Deimos - 15 km.

The satellites have a large number of craters, most of which were formed as a result of meteorite impacts. In addition, Phobos has many grooves - cracks that could be formed during the collision of a satellite with a large asteroid.

Scientists still do not know how and where these satellites were formed. It is believed that they were formed during the formation of the planet Mars. According to another version, the satellites used to be asteroids flying near Mars, and the gravitational force of the planet pulled them into its orbit. Evidence for the latter is that both moons are dark gray in color, which is similar to the color of certain types of asteroids.

Astronomical observations from Mars

After the landings of automatic vehicles on the surface of Mars, it became possible to conduct astronomical observations directly from the surface of the planet. Due to the astronomical position of Mars in the solar system, the characteristics of the atmosphere, the period of revolution of Mars and its satellites, the picture of the night sky of Mars (and astronomical phenomena observed from the planet) differs from the earth's and in many ways seems unusual and interesting.

During sunrise and sunset, the Martian sky at the zenith has a reddish-pink color, and in close proximity to the disk of the Sun - from blue to purple, which is completely opposite to the picture of earthly dawns.

At noon, the sky of Mars is yellow-orange. The reason for such differences from the color scheme of the earth's sky is the properties of the thin, rarefied atmosphere of Mars containing suspended dust. Presumably, the yellow-orange coloration of the sky is also caused by the presence of 1% magnetite in dust particles that are constantly present in the Martian atmosphere and raised by seasonal dust storms. Twilight begins long before sunrise and lasts long after sunset. Sometimes the color of the Martian sky acquires a purple hue as a result of light scattering on microparticles of water ice in clouds (the latter is a rather rare phenomenon). Earth on Mars is observed as a morning or evening star, rising before dawn or visible in the evening sky after sunset. Mercury from Mars is practically inaccessible to observation with the naked eye due to its extreme proximity to the Sun. The brightest planet in the sky of Mars is Venus, in second place is Jupiter (its four largest satellites can be seen with the naked eye), in third is Earth.

The satellite Phobos, when observed from the surface of Mars, has an apparent diameter of about 1/3 of the disk of the Moon in the earth's sky. Phobos rises in the west and sets in the east and crosses the sky of Mars twice a day. The movement of Phobos across the sky is easily seen during the night, as is the change of phases. With the naked eye, you can see the largest detail of the relief of Phobos - the Stickney crater.

The second satellite Deimos rises in the east and sets in the west, looks like a bright star without a noticeable visible disk, slowly crossing the sky for 2.7 Martian days. Both satellites can be observed in the night sky at the same time, in which case Phobos will move towards Deimos. The brightness of both Phobos and Deimos is sufficient for objects on the surface of Mars to cast sharp shadows at night.

Mars evolution

By studying the surface of Mars, scientists have learned how Mars has evolved since its formation. They compared the stages of the planet's evolution with the age of various regions of the surface. The greater the number of craters in a region, the older the surface there.

Scientists conditionally divided the life expectancy of the planet into three stages: the Noachian era, the Hesperian and Amazonian era.

Noachian era. The Noachian era is named after the vast mountainous region in the planet's southern hemisphere. During this period, a huge number of objects, from small meteorites to large asteroids, collided with Mars, leaving behind many craters of various sizes.
The Noachian period was also characterized by great volcanic activity. In addition, during this period, river valleys may have been formed, which left an imprint on the surface of the planet. The existence of these valleys suggests that during the Noachian era the climate on the planet was warmer than it is now.

Hesperian era. The Hesperian era is named after a plain located in the low latitudes of the southern hemisphere. During this period, the intense impact of the planet by meteorites and asteroids gradually subsided. However, volcanic activity still continued. Volcanic eruptions covered most of the craters.

Amazonian era. The era is named after a plain located in the northern hemisphere of the planet. At this time, the collision with meteorites is observed to a lesser extent. Volcanic activity is also characteristic, and the eruptions of the largest volcanoes occurred during this period. Also during this period, new geological materials were formed, including layered ice deposits.

Is there life on Mars?

Scientists believe that Mars has three main components necessary for life:

1. chemical elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, with the help of which organic elements are formed;
2. a source of energy that living organisms can use;
3. water in liquid form.

The researchers suggest: if once there was life on Mars, then living organisms can exist today. As evidence, they cite the following arguments: the main chemical elements necessary for life were probably present on the planet throughout its history. The source of energy could be the sun, as well as the internal energy of the planet itself. Water in liquid form could also exist, since channels, ditches and a huge amount of ice, more than 1 m high, were found on the surface of Mars. Therefore, water can now exist in liquid form under the surface of the planet. And this proves the possibility of the existence of life on the planet.

In 1996, scientists led by David S. McCain reported that they had found evidence of microscopic life on Mars. Their evidence was confirmed by a meteorite that fell to Earth from Mars. The team's evidence included complex organic molecules, grains of the mineral magnetite that can form within certain types of bacteria, and tiny compounds that resemble petrified microbes. However, the conclusions of scientists are very contradictory. But there is still no general scientific agreement that there has never been life on Mars.

Why can't humans go to Mars?

The main reason for the impossibility of flying to Mars is the radiation exposure of astronauts. Outer space is filled with protons from solar flares, gamma rays from newly formed black holes, and cosmic rays from exploding stars. All these radiations can cause enormous damage to the human body. Scientists have calculated that the likelihood of cancer in humans after a flight to Mars will increase by 20%. Whereas in a healthy person who has not gone into space, the probability of developing cancer is 20%. It turns out that having flown to Mars, the probability that a person will die of cancer is 40%.

The greatest threat to astronauts is galactic cosmic rays, which can accelerate to the speed of light. One of the varieties of such rays are the heavy rays of ionized nuclei such as Fe26. These rays are much more energetic than typical solar flare protons. They can penetrate the surface of the ship, the skin of people, and after penetration, like small guns tearing the strands of DNA molecules, killing cells and damaging genes.

The astronauts of the Apollo spacecraft, during a flight to the Moon that lasted only a few days, reported seeing flashes of cosmic rays. After some time, almost most of them developed cataracts of the eye. This flight took only a few days, while a flight to Mars may take a year or more.

In order to find out all the risks of flying to Mars, a new space radiation laboratory was opened in New York in 2003. Scientists model particles that mimic cosmic rays and investigate their effects on living cells in the body. Having found out all the risks, it will be possible to find out from what material it is necessary to build a spaceship. Perhaps there will be enough aluminum, from which most spacecraft are now built. But there is another material - polyethylene, capable of absorbing cosmic rays by 20% more than aluminum. Who knows, maybe someday plastic ships will be built ...