Every year the need for a unified system of units for all countries increased.

The concept of a system of units in the modern sense was first introduced by the German scientist Carl Gauss in 1832. He proposed a system of magnetic units, the main units of which were the millimeter, milligram and second. Another German scientist, Weber, supplemented this system with electrical units. According to the proposal of Gauss, systems whose basic units are units of mass, length and time began to be called absolute.

By the 60s of the 19th century. Based on this principle, the absolute system of GHS units was developed. The basic units in it are: centimeter, gram-mass, second.

In 1901, the Italian scientist Giorgi proposed the ISS system of mechanical units (meter, kilogram-mass, second).

Subsequently, it was found that the most convenient for practical use in various branches of measurement are systems built on the basis of the ISS system, with the addition of a fourth basic unit, reflecting the specifics of a particular branch of measurement. In particular, for thermal measurements the unit of temperature (degree) can be taken as the fourth basic unit, for electromagnetic measurements - the unit of current (ampere), for light measurements - the unit of light (candle).

Starting from the second half of the 19th century. and to this day the MKGS system (meter, kilogram-force, second) has become widespread.

In the 20s - 30s of the 20th century. standards for mechanical, thermal, light and other units were approved.

Developing trade and cultural ties urgently required the establishment of a uniform measure of length and weight. Historically, one physical quantity – time – was measured in the same units among all peoples. The standard unit of time was given by nature itself, the period of rotation of the Earth is a day. By analogy with this, an attempt arose to take a standard unit of length from nature.

It was decided to take one forty-millionth part of the earth's meridian as such a standard. The decree introducing the meter as a unit of length was adopted in France in 1795. In 1799, a prototype of the meter in the form of a platinum ruler with distances between the ends equal to the new unit of length was made and approved as a standard. This is the so-called archive meter.

The first system of related measures for measuring length, area, volume and mass was the metric system of measures, which arose in France at the end of the 18th century. during the Great French Revolution. This system has the meter and the kilogram as its basic units and is built on the principle of decimal multiplicity.

Another important event in the field of metrology occurred on May 20, 1875, when at the International Diplomatic Conference, 17 states signed the Meter Convention, which was an important step in international cooperation.

By 1972, 41 states had signed the Meter Convention.

According to this convention:

international prototypes of the meter and kilogram were installed;

a scientific institution was created - the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (in the city of Sèvres near Paris). It is a scientific institution that stores international standards of basic units and carries out international metrological work related to the development and storage of international standards and the comparison of national standards with international ones and among themselves.

a governing body was established - the International Committee of Weights and Measures - consisting of scientists from different countries;

the convening of general conferences on weights and measures was established once every six years.

In Russia, despite the active participation of Russian scientists in international meetings on the metric system and the signing of the Metric Convention, the metric system of measures by the law of June 4, 1899 was allowed only as an optional system on a par with national measures. But this turned out to be possible only as a result of the energetic work of the great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev, who headed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Main Chamber of Weights and Measures. Before the October Revolution, metric reform in Russia was actually not implemented.

The abolition of old Russian measures and the transition to the metric system were accomplished only under Soviet rule.

a) base all measurements on the international metric system of weights and measures with decimal divisions and derivatives;

b) for samples of the basic units of the metric system, accept a copy of the international meter bearing sign No. 28 and a copy of the international kilogram bearing sign No. 12, made of iridescent platinum, transferred to Russia by the First International Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris in 1889 and stored in the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures;

c) oblige all Soviet institutions and organizations to begin introducing the international metric system from January 1, 1919;

The same decree established a number of other practical measures for the implementation of the metric system.

However, due to the enormous amount of preparatory work, the five-year period established by the decree turned out to be clearly insufficient. Therefore, two years before its end, by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of May 29, 1922, the period for complete transition to the metric system was extended until January 1, 1927.

On time, i.e. in 1927, metric reform in the country was completely completed.

Soon after the end of the Second World War, the International Committee of Weights and Measures, with the active participation of representatives of the Soviet Union, made a proposal to develop an international system of units. At the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948, this proposal was accepted.

The resolution of this conference directed the International Committee to develop a recommendation for a uniform practical system of units of measurement based on a survey of all countries that had signed the Meter Convention.

In 1954, the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures decided to establish six basic units for a practical system of units for international relations.

In 1956, the International System of Units was fully developed by the International Committee. The name of this system was adopted - “International System of Units”. For the abbreviated designation of the system, it was decided to use a symbol of two letters SI (initial letters Internationalsystem - International System), the Russian spelling of this symbol is SI.

At its sessions in 1956 and 1958, the International Committee on Weights and Measures approved the work of the Commission on Systems of Units and adopted a resolution proposed by the Commission on a list of additional and derived units and on the name of the system. This resolution was supported by the meeting of the International Committee of Legal Metrology, which adopted the following resolution: “The International Committee of Legal Metrology, having met in plenary session on October 7, 1958 in Paris, announces its adherence to the resolution of the International Committee of Weights and Measures establishing the International System of Units of Measurement ( SI). The basic units of this system are meter, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin, candle (candela). The committee recommends. The Committee recommends that Member States adopt this system in their legislation on units of measurement.

By the decision of the 14th General Conference on Weights and Measures (1971), the mole, a unit of quantity of a substance, was introduced as the 7th basic unit.

The final decision to introduce the International System of Units was taken at the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures, held from 11 to 20 October 1960 in Paris. The resolution adopted there approved the decision of the International Committee of Weights and Measures to establish the International System of Units. That resolution indicated the name of the system, its abbreviated designation, a list of basic additional and derived units, as well as prefixes for the formation of multiples and submultiples. In addition, at this conference new definitions of the two main initial units (meter and second) were given on the basis of more advanced standards using the latest achievements of modern science, and the edition of the Regulations and the International Practical Temperature Scale was clarified.

The adoption of the International System of Units completed a lot of preparatory work carried out by a number of international and national metrological organizations and institutions with the aim of further unification and clarification of units of physical quantities.

The International System of Units is a unified system for all areas of science, technology, production and trade, since it covers all areas of measurement and establishes a clear connection between units of measurement of mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and other quantities.

An important advantage of the International System of Units is that it selects practically convenient basic and derived units.

Already at the present time, despite the relatively short period of time that has passed since the adoption of the International System of Units, it has been adopted in a number of international recommendations, legislation on units of measurement in various countries and national standards for units of measurement.

Metric system is the general name for the international decimal system of units based on the use of the meter and kilogram. Over the past two centuries, there have been various versions of the metric system, differing in the choice of base units.

The metric system grew out of regulations adopted by the French National Assembly in 1791 and 1795 defining the meter as one ten-millionth of one quarter of the earth's meridian from the North Pole to the equator (Paris meridian).

The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optional) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as mandatory by decree of the Provisional Government of April 30, 1917, and for the USSR - by decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 21, 1925. Until this moment, the so-called Russian system of measures existed in the country.

Russian system of measures - a system of measures traditionally used in Rus' and the Russian Empire. The Russian system was replaced by the metric system of measures, which was approved for use in Russia (optional) according to the law of June 4, 1899. Below are the measures and their meanings according to the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” (1899), unless indicated other. Earlier values ​​of these units may have differed from those given; so, for example, the code of 1649 established a verst of 1 thousand fathoms, while in the 19th century the verst was 500 fathoms; versts of 656 and 875 fathoms were also used.

Sa?zhen, or sazhen (sazhen, sazhenka, straight sazhen) - old Russian unit of distance measurement. In the 17th century the main measure was the official fathom (approved in 1649 by the “Cathedral Code”), equal to 2.16 m and containing three arshins (72 cm) of 16 vershok each. Even in the time of Peter I, Russian measures of length were equalized with English ones. One arshin took the value of 28 English inches, and a fathom - 213.36 cm. Later, on October 11, 1835, according to the instructions of Nicholas I “On the system of Russian weights and measures”, the length of a fathom was confirmed: 1 government fathom was equal to the length of 7 English feet , that is, to the same 2.1336 meters.

Machaya fathom- an old Russian unit of measurement equal to the distance in the span of both hands, at the ends of the middle fingers. 1 fly fathom = 2.5 arshins = 10 spans = 1.76 meters.

Oblique fathom- in different regions it ranged from 213 to 248 cm and was determined by the distance from the toes to the end of the fingers of the hand extended diagonally upward. This is where the popular hyperbole “slant fathoms in the shoulders” comes from, which emphasizes heroic strength and stature. For convenience, we equated Sazhen and Oblique Sazhen when used in construction and land work.

Span- Old Russian unit of measurement of length. Since 1835 it has been equal to 7 English inches (17.78 cm). Initially, the span (or small span) was equal to the distance between the ends of the outstretched fingers of the hand - the thumb and index. The “big span” is also known - the distance between the tip of the thumb and middle finger. In addition, the so-called “span with a somersault” (“span with a somersault”) was used - a span with the addition of two or three joints of the index finger, i.e. 5-6 vershoks. At the end of the 19th century it was excluded from the official system of measures, but continued to be used as a folk measure.

Arshin- was legalized in Russia as the main measure of length on June 4, 1899 by the “Regulations on Weights and Measures.”

The height of humans and large animals was indicated in vershok over two arshins, for small animals - over one arshin. For example, the expression “a man is 12 inches tall” meant that his height is 2 arshins 12 inches, that is, approximately 196 cm.

Bottle- there were two types of bottles - wine and vodka. Wine bottle (measuring bottle) = 1/2 t. octagonal damask. 1 vodka bottle (beer bottle, commercial bottle, half bottle) = 1/2 t. ten damask.

Shtof, half-shtof, shtof - used, among other things, when measuring the amount of alcoholic beverages in taverns and taverns. In addition, any bottle with a volume of ½ damask could be called a half-damask. A shkalik was also a vessel of the appropriate volume in which vodka was served in taverns.

Russian measures of length

1 mile= 7 versts = 7.468 km.
1 mile= 500 fathoms = 1066.8 m.
1 fathom= 3 arshins = 7 feet = 100 acres = 2.133 600 m.
1 arshin= 4 quarters = 28 inches = 16 vershok = 0.711 200 m.
1 quarter (span)= 1/12 fathoms = ¼ arshin = 4 vershok = 7 inches = 177.8 mm.
1 foot= 12 inches = 304.8 mm.
1 inch= 1.75 inches = 44.38 mm.
1 inch= 10 lines = 25.4 mm.
1 weave= 1/100 fathoms = 21.336 mm.
1 line= 10 points = 2.54 mm.
1 point= 1/100 inch = 1/10 line = 0.254 mm.

Russian measures of area

1 sq. verst= 250,000 sq. fathoms = 1.1381 km².
1 tithe= 2400 sq. fathoms = 10,925.4 m² = 1.0925 hectares.
1 year= ½ tithe = 1200 sq. fathoms = 5462.7 m² = 0.54627 hectares.
1 octopus= 1/8 tithe = 300 sq. fathoms = 1365.675 m² ≈ 0.137 hectares.
1 sq. fathom= 9 sq. arshins = 49 sq. feet = 4.5522 m².
1 sq. arshin= 256 sq. vershoks = 784 sq. inches = 0.5058 m².
1 sq. foot= 144 sq. inches = 0.0929 m².
1 sq. inch= 19.6958 cm².
1 sq. inch= 100 sq. lines = 6.4516 cm².
1 sq. line= 1/100 sq. inches = 6.4516 mm².

Russian measures of volume

1 cu. fathom= 27 cu. arshins = 343 cubic meters feet = 9.7127 m³
1 cu. arshin= 4096 cu. vershoks = 21,952 cubic meters. inches = 359.7278 dm³
1 cu. inch= 5.3594 cu. inches = 87.8244 cm³
1 cu. foot= 1728 cu. inches = 2.3168 dm³
1 cu. inch= 1000 cu. lines = 16.3871 cm³
1 cu. line= 1/1000 cc inches = 16.3871 mm³

Russian measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”)

1 cebr= 26-30 quarters.
1 tub (tub, fetters) = 2 ladles = 4 quarters = 8 octopuses = 839.69 l (= 14 pounds of rye = 229.32 kg).
1 sack (rye= 9 pounds + 10 pounds = 151.52 kg) (oats = 6 pounds + 5 pounds = 100.33 kg)
1 polokova, ladle = 419.84 l (= 7 pounds of rye = 114.66 kg).
1 quarter, quarter (for bulk solids) = 2 octagons (half-quarters) = 4 half-octagons = 8 quadrangles = 64 garnets. (= 209.912 l (dm³) 1902). (= 209.66 l 1835).
1 octopus= 4 fours = 104.95 liters (= 1¾ pounds of rye = 28.665 kg).
1 half-half= 52.48 l.
1 quadruple= 1 measure = 1⁄8 quarters = 8 garnets = 26.2387 l. (= 26.239 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 64 lbs of water = 26.208 L (1835 g)).
1 semi-quadruple= 13.12 l.
1 four= 6.56 l.
1 garnets, small quadrangle = ¼ bucket = 1⁄8 quadrangle = 12 glasses = 3.2798 l. (= 3.28 dm³ (l) (1902)). (=3.276 l (1835)).
1 half-garnets (half-small quadrangle) = 1 shtof = 6 glasses = 1.64 l. (Half-half-small quadrangle = 0.82 l, Half-half-half-small quadrangle = 0.41 l).
1 glass= 0.273 l.

Russian measures of liquid bodies ("wine measures")

1 barrel= 40 buckets = 491.976 l (491.96 l).
1 pot= 1 ½ - 1 ¾ buckets (holding 30 pounds of clean water).
1 bucket= 4 quarters of a bucket = 10 damasks = 1/40 of a barrel = 12.29941 liters (as of 1902).
1 quarter (buckets) = 1 garnets = 2.5 shtofas ​​= 4 wine bottles = 5 vodka bottles = 3.0748 l.
1 garnets= ¼ bucket = 12 glasses.
1 shtof (mug)= 3 pounds of clean water = 1/10 of a bucket = 2 vodka bottles = 10 glasses = 20 scales = 1.2299 l (1.2285 l).
1 wine bottle (Bottle (volume unit)) = 1/16 bucket = ¼ garnets = 3 glasses = 0.68; 0.77 l; 0.7687 l.
1 vodka or beer bottle = 1/20 bucket = 5 cups = 0.615; 0.60 l.
1 bottle= 3/40 of a bucket (Decree of September 16, 1744).
1 braid= 1/40 bucket = ¼ mug = ¼ damask = ½ half-damask = ½ vodka bottle = 5 scales = 0.307475 l.
1 quarter= 0.25 l (currently).
1 glass= 0.273 l.
1 glass= 1/100 bucket = 2 scales = 122.99 ml.
1 scale= 1/200 bucket = 61.5 ml.

Russian weight measures

1 fin= 6 quarters = 72 pounds = 1179.36 kg.
1 quarter waxed = 12 pounds = 196.56 kg.
1 Berkovets= 10 pudam = 400 hryvnia (large hryvnia, pounds) = 800 hryvnia = 163.8 kg.
1 congar= 40.95 kg.
1 pood= 40 large hryvnias or 40 pounds = 80 small hryvnias = 16 steelyards = 1280 lots = 16.380496 kg.
1 half pood= 8.19 kg.
1 Batman= 10 pounds = 4.095 kg.
1 steelyard= 5 small hryvnias = 1/16 pood = 1.022 kg.
1 half-money= 0.511 kg.
1 large hryvnia, hryvnia, (later - pound) = 1/40 pood = 2 small hryvnias = 4 half-hryvnias = 32 lots = 96 spools = 9216 shares = 409.5 g (11th-15th centuries).
1 pound= 0.4095124 kg (exactly, since 1899).
1 hryvnia small= 2 half-kopecks = 48 zolotniks = 1200 kidneys = 4800 pirogues = 204.8 g.
1 half hryvnia= 102.4 g.
Also used:1 libra = ¾ lb = 307.1 g; 1 ansyr = 546 g, has not received widespread use.
1 lot= 3 spools = 288 shares = 12.79726 g.
1 spool= 96 shares = 4.265754 g.
1 spool= 25 buds (until the 18th century).
1 share= 1/96 spools = 44.43494 mg.
From the 13th to the 18th centuries, such weight measures were used asbud And pie:
1 kidney= 1/25 spool = 171 mg.
1 pie= ¼ kidney = 43 mg.

Russian measures of weight (mass) are apothecary and troy.
Pharmacist's weight is a system of mass measures used when weighing medicines until 1927.

1 pound= 12 ounces = 358.323 g.
1 oz= 8 drachmas = 29.860 g.
1 drachma= 1/8 ounce = 3 scruples = 3.732 g.
1 scruple= 1/3 drachm = 20 grains = 1.244 g.
1 grain= 62.209 mg.

Other Russian measures

Quire- units of counting, equal to 24 sheets of paper.

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• International unit

Creation and development of the metric system of measures

The metric system of measures was created at the end of the 18th century. in France, when the development of trade and industry urgently required the replacement of many units of length and mass, chosen arbitrarily, with single, unified units, which became the meter and kilogram.

Initially, the meter was defined as 1/40,000,000 of the Paris meridian, and the kilogram as the mass of 1 cubic decimeter of water at a temperature of 4 C, i.e. the units were based on natural standards. This was one of the most important features of the metric system, which determined its progressive meaning. The second important advantage was the decimal division of units, corresponding to the accepted number system, and a unified way of forming their names (by including in the name the corresponding prefix: kilo, hecto, deca, centi and milli), which eliminated complex transformations of one unit into another and eliminated confusion in names.

The metric system of measures has become the basis for the unification of units throughout the world.

However, in subsequent years, the metric system of measures in its original form (m, kg, m, m. l. ar and six decimal prefixes) could not satisfy the demands of developing science and technology. Therefore, each branch of knowledge chose units and systems of units that were convenient for itself. Thus, in physics they adhered to the centimeter - gram - second (CGS) system; in technology, a system with basic units has become widespread: meter - kilogram-force - second (MKGSS); in theoretical electrical engineering, several systems of units derived from the GHS system began to be used one after another; in heat engineering, systems were adopted based, on the one hand, on the centimeter, gram and second, on the other hand, on the meter, kilogram and second with the addition of a temperature unit - degrees Celsius and non-system units of the amount of heat - calories, kilocalories, etc. . In addition, many other non-systemic units have found use: for example, units of work and energy - kilowatt-hour and liter-atmosphere, units of pressure - millimeter of mercury, millimeter of water, bar, etc. As a result, a significant number of metric systems of units were formed, some of them covered certain relatively narrow branches of technology, and many non-systemic units, the definitions of which were based on metric units.

Their simultaneous use in certain areas led to the clogging of many calculation formulas with numerical coefficients not equal to unity, which greatly complicated the calculations. For example, in technology it has become common to use the kilogram to measure the mass of the ISS system unit, and the kilogram-force to measure the force of the MKGSS system unit. This seemed convenient from the point of view that the numerical values ​​of mass (in kilograms) and its weight, i.e. the forces of attraction to the Earth (in kilogram-forces) turned out to be equal (with an accuracy sufficient for most practical cases). However, the consequence of equating the values ​​of essentially different quantities was the appearance in many formulas of the numerical coefficient 9.806 65 (rounded 9.81) and the confusion of the concepts of mass and weight, which gave rise to many misunderstandings and errors.

Such a variety of units and the associated inconveniences gave rise to the idea of ​​​​creating a universal system of units of physical quantities for all branches of science and technology, which could replace all existing systems and individual non-systemic units. As a result of the work of international metrological organizations, such a system was developed and received the name of the International System of Units with the abbreviated designation SI (System International). The SI was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCPM) in 1960 as the modern form of the metric system.

Characteristics of the International System of Units

The universality of the SI is ensured by the fact that the seven basic units on which it is based are units of physical quantities that reflect the basic properties of the material world and make it possible to form derivative units for any physical quantities in all branches of science and technology. The same purpose is served by additional units necessary for the formation of derivative units depending on the plane and solid angles. The advantage of SI over other systems of units is the principle of construction of the system itself: SI is built for a certain system of physical quantities that allows one to represent physical phenomena in the form of mathematical equations; Some of the physical quantities are accepted as fundamental and all the others - derivative physical quantities - are expressed through them. For basic quantities, units are established, the size of which is agreed upon at the international level, and for other quantities, derived units are formed. The system of units constructed in this way and the units included in it are called coherent, since the condition is met that the relationships between the numerical values ​​of quantities expressed in SI units do not contain coefficients different from those included in the initially selected equations connecting the quantities. The coherence of SI units when used makes it possible to simplify calculation formulas to a minimum by freeing them from conversion factors.

The SI eliminates the plurality of units for expressing quantities of the same kind. So, for example, instead of the large number of units of pressure used in practice, the SI unit of pressure is only one unit - the pascal.

Establishing its own unit for each physical quantity made it possible to distinguish between the concepts of mass (SI unit - kilogram) and force (SI unit - newton). The concept of mass should be used in all cases when we mean a property of a body or substance that characterizes its inertia and ability to create a gravitational field, the concept of weight - in cases where we mean a force arising as a result of interaction with a gravitational field.

Definition of basic units. And it is possible with a high degree of accuracy, which ultimately not only improves the accuracy of measurements, but also ensures their uniformity. This is achieved by “materializing” units in the form of standards and transferring from their sizes to working measuring instruments using a set of standard measuring instruments.

The International System of Units, due to its advantages, has become widespread throughout the world. Currently, it is difficult to name a country that has not implemented the SI, is at the implementation stage, or has not made a decision to implement the SI. Thus, countries that previously used the English system of measures (England, Australia, Canada, USA, etc.) also adopted the SI.

Let's consider the structure of the International System of Units. Table 1.1 shows the main and additional SI units.

Derived SI units are formed from basic and supplementary units. Derived SI units that have special names (Table 1.2) can also be used to form other derived SI units.

Due to the fact that the range of values ​​of most measured physical quantities can currently be quite significant and it is inconvenient to use only SI units, since the measurement results in too large or small numerical values, the SI provides for the use of decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units , which are formed using the multipliers and prefixes given in Table 1.3.

International unit

On October 6, 1956, the International Committee of Weights and Measures considered the recommendation of the commission on a system of units and made the following important decision, completing the work of establishing the International System of Units of Measurement:

"The International Committee of Weights and Measures, Having regard to the mandate received from the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures in its Resolution 6, regarding the establishment of a practical system of units of measurement which could be adopted by all countries signatory to the Metric Convention; Having regard to all documents received from the 21 countries that responded to the survey proposed by the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures; taking into account Resolution 6 of the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures, establishing the choice of basic units of the future system, recommends:

1) that the system based on the basic units adopted by the Tenth General Conference, which are as follows, be called the “International System of Units”;

2) that the units of this system listed in the following table be used, without predefining other units that may be added subsequently."

At a session in 1958, the International Committee of Weights and Measures discussed and decided on a symbol for the abbreviation of the name "International System of Units". A symbol consisting of two letters SI (the initial letters of the words System International) was adopted.

In October 1958, the International Committee of Legal Metrology adopted the following resolution on the issue of the International System of Units:

metric system measure weight

“The International Committee of Legal Metrology, meeting in plenary session on October 7, 1958 in Paris, announces its adherence to the resolution of the International Committee of Weights and Measures establishing an international system of units of measurement (SI).

The main units of this system are:

meter - kilogram-second-ampere-degree Kelvin-candle.

In October 1960, the issue of the International System of Units was considered at the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures.

On this issue, the conference adopted the following resolution:

"The Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, Having regard to Resolution 6 of the Tenth General Conference on Weights and Measures, in which it adopted six units as a basis for the establishment of a practical system of measurement for international relations, Having regard to Resolution 3 adopted by the International Committee of Measures and scales in 1956, and having regard to the recommendations adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures in 1958 relating to the abbreviated name of the system and to the prefixes for the formation of multiples and submultiples, decides:

1. Give the system based on six basic units the name “International System of Units”;

2. Set the international abbreviated name for this system “SI”;

3. Form the names of multiples and submultiples using the following prefixes:

4. Use the following units in this system, without prejudging what other units may be added in the future:

The adoption of the International System of Units was an important progressive act, summing up many years of preparatory work in this direction and summarizing the experience of scientific and technical circles in different countries and international organizations in metrology, standardization, physics and electrical engineering.

The decisions of the General Conference and the International Committee of Weights and Measures on the International System of Units are taken into account in the recommendations of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) on units of measurement and are already reflected in the legal provisions on units and in the standards for units of some countries.

In 1958, a new Regulation on units of measurement was approved in the GDR, based on the International System of Units.

In 1960, the government regulations on units of measurement of the People's Republic of Hungary adopted the International System of Units as a basis.

State standards of the USSR for units 1955-1958. were built on the basis of the system of units adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures as the International System of Units.

In 1961, the Committee of Standards, Measures and Measuring Instruments under the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved GOST 9867 - 61 "International System of Units", which establishes the preferred use of this system in all fields of science and technology and in teaching.

In 1961, the International System of Units was legalized by government decree in France and in 1962 in Czechoslovakia.

The International System of Units is reflected in the recommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission and a number of other international organizations.

In 1964, the International System of Units formed the basis of the "Table of Legal Measurement Units" of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

During the period 1962 to 1965. A number of countries have enacted laws adopting the International System of Units as mandatory or preferable and standards for SI units.

In 1965, in accordance with the instructions of the XII General Conference on Weights and Measures, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures conducted a survey regarding the situation with the adoption of SI in countries that had joined the Metric Convention.

13 countries have accepted the SI as mandatory or preferable.

In 10 countries, the use of the International System of Units has been approved and preparations are underway to revise laws in order to make this system legal, mandatory in a given country.

In 7 countries, SI is accepted as optional.

At the end of 1962, a new recommendation of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU) was published, devoted to quantities and units in the field of ionizing radiation. Unlike previous recommendations of this commission, which were mainly devoted to special (non-systemic) units for measuring ionizing radiation, the new recommendation includes a table in which the units of the International System are placed first for all quantities.

At the seventh session of the International Committee of Legal Metrology, which took place on October 14-16, 1964, which included representatives of 34 countries that signed the intergovernmental convention establishing the International Organization of Legal Metrology, the following resolution was adopted on the implementation of SI:

“The International Committee of Legal Metrology, taking into account the need for the rapid dissemination of the International System of SI Units, recommends the preferred use of these SI units in all measurements and in all measurement laboratories.

In particular, in temporary international recommendations. adopted and disseminated by the International Conference of Legal Metrology, these units should be used preferably for the calibration of measuring instruments and instruments to which these recommendations apply.

Other units permitted by these guidelines are permitted only temporarily and should be avoided as soon as possible."

The International Committee of Legal Metrology has established a rapporteur secretariat on the topic "Units of Measurement", whose task is to develop a model draft legislation on units of measurement based on the International System of Units. Austria took over as the rapporteur secretariat for this topic.

Advantages of the International System

The international system is universal. It covers all areas of physical phenomena, all branches of technology and the national economy. The international system of units organically includes such private systems that have long been widespread and deeply rooted in technology, such as the metric system of measures and the system of practical electrical and magnetic units (ampere, volt, weber, etc.). Only the system that included these units could claim recognition as universal and international.

The units of the International System are for the most part quite convenient in size, and the most important of them have practical names that are convenient in practice.

The construction of the International System corresponds to the modern level of metrology. This includes the optimal choice of basic units, and in particular their number and size; consistency (coherence) of derived units; rationalized form of electromagnetism equations; formation of multiples and submultiples using decimal prefixes.

As a result, various physical quantities in the International System, as a rule, have different dimensions. This makes a complete dimensional analysis possible, preventing misunderstandings, for example, when checking layouts. Dimension indicators in SI are integer, not fractional, which simplifies the expression of derived units through basic ones and, in general, operating with dimension. The coefficients 4n and 2n are present in those and only those equations of electromagnetism that relate to fields with spherical or cylindrical symmetry. The decimal prefix method, inherited from the metric system, allows us to cover huge ranges of changes in physical quantities and ensures that the SI corresponds to the decimal system.

The international system is characterized by sufficient flexibility. It allows the use of a certain number of non-systemic units.

SI is a living and developing system. The number of basic units can be further increased if this is necessary to cover any additional area of ​​phenomena. In the future, it is also possible that some of the regulatory rules in force in the SI will be relaxed.

The International System, as its name itself suggests, is intended to become a universally applicable single system of units of physical quantities. The unification of units is a long overdue need. Already, SI has made numerous systems of units unnecessary.

The International System of Units is adopted in more than 130 countries around the world.

The International System of Units is recognized by many influential international organizations, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Among those who recognize the SI are the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, etc.

Bibliography

1. Burdun, Vlasov A.D., Murin B.P. Units of physical quantities in science and technology, 1990

2. Ershov V.S. Implementation of the International System of Units, 1986.

3. Kamke D, Kremer K. Physical foundations of units of measurement, 1980.

4. Novosiltsev. On the history of SI basic units, 1975.

5. Chertov A.G. Physical quantities (Terminology, definitions, notations, dimensions), 1990.

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History of the creation of the metric system

As you know, the metric system originated in France at the end of the 18th century. The variety of weights and measures, the standards of which sometimes differed significantly in different regions of the country, often led to confusion and conflict. Thus, there is an urgent need to reform the current measurement system or develop a new one, taking as a basis a simple and universal standard. In 1790, a project by the well-known Prince Talleyrand, who later became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, was submitted for discussion to the National Assembly. As a standard of length, the activist proposed to take the length of the second pendulum at a latitude of 45°.

By the way, the idea of ​​a pendulum was no longer new at that time. Back in the 17th century, scientists made attempts to determine universal meters based on real objects that maintained a constant value. One of these studies belonged to the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, who conducted experiments with a second pendulum and proved that its length depends on the latitude of the place where the experiment was carried out. A century before Talleyrand, based on his own experiments, Huygens proposed using 1/3 the length of a pendulum with a period of oscillation of 1 second, which was approximately 8 cm, as a global standard of length.

And yet, the proposal to calculate the standard of length using the readings of a second pendulum did not find support in the Academy of Sciences, and the future reform was based on the ideas of the astronomer Mouton, who calculated the unit of length from the arc of the earth's meridian. He also came up with a proposal to create a new measurement system on a decimal basis.

In his project, Talleyrand outlined in detail the procedure for determining and introducing a single standard of length. Firstly, it was supposed to collect all possible measures from all over the country and bring them to Paris. Secondly, the National Assembly was to contact the British Parliament with a proposal to create an international commission of leading scientists from both countries. After the experiment, the French Academy of Sciences had to establish the exact relationship between the new unit of length and the measures that had previously been used in various parts of the country. Copies of the standards and comparative tables with the old measures had to be sent to all regions of France. This regulation was approved by the National Assembly, and on August 22, 1790, it was approved by King Louis XVI.

Work on determining the meter began in 1792. The leaders of the expedition, which was tasked with measuring the meridian arc between Barcelona and Dunkirk, were the French scientists Mechain and Delambre. The work of French scientists was planned for several years. However, in 1793, the Academy of Sciences, which carried out the reform, was abolished, which caused a serious delay in the already difficult, labor-intensive research. It was decided not to wait for the final results of measuring the meridian arc and to calculate the length of the meter based on existing data. So in 1795, the temporary meter was defined as 1/10000000 of the Parisian meridian between the equator and the north pole. Work to clarify the meter was completed by the fall of 1798. The new meter was shorter by 0.486 lines or 0.04 French inches. It was this value that formed the basis of the new standard, legalized on December 10, 1799.

One of the main provisions of the metric system is the dependence of all measures on a single linear standard (meter). So, for example, when determining the basic unit of weight - - it was decided to take a cubic centimeter of pure water as a basis.

By the end of the 19th century, almost all of Europe, with the exception of Greece and England, had adopted the metric system. The rapid spread of this unique system of measures, which we still use today, was facilitated by simplicity, unity and accuracy. Despite all the advantages of the metric system, Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries did not dare to join the majority of European countries, even then breaking the centuries-old habits of the people and abandoning the use of the traditional Russian system of measures. However, the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” dated June 4, 1899 officially allowed the use of the kilogram along with the Russian pound. The final measurements were completed only by the beginning of the 1930s.

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On September 14, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted a decree “On the introduction of the international metric decimal system of weights and measures.” The decree, in particular, determined “to take the meter as the basis for the unit of length, and the unit of weight (mass) as the basis. As samples of the basic units of the metric system, take a copy of the international meter bearing sign No. 28 and a copy of the international kilogram bearing sign No. 12.”

On January 1, 1919, all institutions of the RSFSR were ordered to introduce the metric system. If, due to technical difficulties, the use of the new system was impossible, it was allowed to use the old system with the condition that “the final transition to the metric system must be completed by January 1, 1922.” The People's Commissariat for Education was ordered to take measures to familiarize school students with the metric system, as well as to popularize the new system among the population. From January 1, 1922, it was planned to stop the production of weights, and from January 1923 to withdraw them from sale. Thus, by January 1, 1924, it was planned to completely complete the transition to the metric system of measurements.

To promptly resolve all issues related to the introduction and application of the metric system, it was prescribed to create a special Interdepartmental Metric Commission, which included representatives of the Supreme Council of the National Economy and various commissariats (finance, communications, military affairs, agriculture, education, food, post and telegraphs ). However, the commission, subordinate to the People's Commissariat of Trade and Industry, did not demonstrate its competence in matters of reform, so on October 19, 1920 it was transferred to the Scientific and Technical Department of the Supreme Economic Council.

The widespread introduction of the metric system complicated the difficult economic situation of the country caused by the civil war. The reform involved significant monetary and material costs. It was only with the end of the civil war that there was a real opportunity for change.

By the beginning of 1922, it became obvious that the Interdepartmental Metric Commission was not able to cope with all the tasks assigned. In April 1922, the State Office for the Procurement and Sale of Metric Measures and Weights (“Gosmer”) was created, dealing with the production and supply of metric instruments to the country.

Thus, in 1922, the responsibilities of all metrological institutions were strictly delineated. The Interdepartmental Metric Commission becomes the governing body for the introduction of the metric system, Gosmer is engaged in production activities, and provides scientific support and verification of measures and instruments.

On May 29, 1922, the decree “On delaying the introduction of the metric system” established a new deadline - January 1, 1927. During this period, the main activities were indeed successfully implemented. In everyday practice, it was customary to use both old and new measures, indicating them in parallel. By order of April 16, 1927, such double designation was prohibited, and all measures were ordered to be indicated exclusively in accordance with the metric system.