The structure of modern scientific knowledge is formed by two types of sciences: 1) natural, or sciences about nature; 2) social and humanitarian, or sciences about the spirit, the object of study of which is a person and society.

At the heart of this division of sciences, proposed by the German philosopher V. Diltheem(1833-1911), lies the difference between the objects of natural science and social and humanitarian types of knowledge. Subsequently, German philosophers W. Windelband(1848-1915) and G. Rickert(1863-1936) distinguished between natural science and social-humanitarian types of knowledge on the basis of the methods they used. According to V. Windelband, natural science uses the nomothetic method (Greek nomos - law; tetio - I establish), i.e., law-establishing; social and humanitarian knowledge is characterized by an idiographic method (Greek idios - special, unusual; grapho - I write), that is, describing a single, individual. Natural science, W. Windelband believed, aims to identify and formulate general laws expressing stable and recurring connections between phenomena; humanitarian knowledge (primarily history) sees its goal in fixing and explaining specific, single facts. According to G. Rickert, natural sciences a generalizing (generalizing) method is inherent, with the help of which the researcher selects only repeating facts from the diversity of nature, indicating the presence of permanent, stable links between phenomena. Accordingly, in the sciences of the spirit an individualizing method is used, which consists in fixing and explaining single phenomena. Considering these methods as complementary, German philosophers, however, believed that the nomothetic, or generalizing, method in the European cultural tradition is perceived as a universal method of scientific knowledge, and its use is a criterion for the scientific nature of cognitive activity in general.

The authority of the sciences of nature and the sciences of the spirit, as well as the interpretation of their specific features, varies in the classical, non-classical and post-non-classical type of scientific rationality. Classical European Science historically formed as an experimental-mathematical natural science; she is absolutized the generalizing method, considering it as the only method of scientific knowledge. Classical natural science was characterized by an attitude towards the search for a single, universal law of being, embracing particular patterns and expressing the presumption (assumption) of the universal harmony of nature. The law of universal gravitation discovered by I. Newton, which formed the basis of the classical mechanistic picture of nature, acted as such a universal law of the universe. The very idea of ​​a single, individual, inimitable, which does not fit into the framework of rigid laws, was rejected by classical natural science, declaring it the prerogative of the humanities, which, precisely because of this circumstance, were practically denied scientific status. Thus, the differences between the natural-science and socio-humanitarian types of knowledge are considered in the classical type of scientific rationality as the differences between scientific and non-scientific knowledge, respectively.

The absolutization of the natural-scientific ideal of rationality, characteristic of classical science, with its desire to reduce (reduce) the diversity of real being to a finite number of the most general laws that fix repetitive connections between phenomena, found its expression in the expansion of natural scientific methods into social sciences and the formation of a nomothetic tradition in them. The mechanistic methodology of classical natural science was considered as a universal scientific methodology suitable for explaining not only nature, but also man and society. The emergence and disciplinary organization in the XIX century. such social and humanitarian sciences as sociology and psychology were associated with an orientation towards the natural-science ideal of rationality, i.e. with the desire to explain the social and humanitarian reality by analogy with the natural one, by seeing in it causal relationships fixed in laws. An example of this, in particular, is the Marxist interpretation of history, which tried to see the action of universal laws in the historical process and consider history in the form of a rigidly determined, invariant causal relationship of events.

The features of humanitarian knowledge can be most clearly demonstrated by comparing it with the classical type of natural science knowledge. Differences between the natural-science and social-humanitarian types of knowledge are due, firstly, to the specifics of the object of scientific research; secondly, the relationship of the cognizing subject to the cognized object; thirdly, research methodology.

1. Nature as an object of natural science knowledge is not created by man, does not need him for his existence and exists independently of his will and consciousness. In this sense, we can say that nature as an object of study is an objective, that is, existing without a person, reality. In the world of nature, the laws of being operate, the laws of being, which a person has no power to change, but can only know.

Society, the social world, which is the object of social and humanitarian knowledge, is created by the person himself in the process of intersubjective interaction, i.e. communications, and exists due to the constant reproduction of acts of communication. At the same time, in the process of intersubjective interaction, socially significant acts of communication give rise to social institutions (an example of such an institution is the rule of law), which, being the result of human activity, begin to be perceived by a person as possessing the property of objectivity, i.e. independence from him. The social, as it were, “envelops” a person, including him in the sphere of his energy impact.

Thus, the object of classical natural science knowledge is nature as objective, non-human reality; the object of knowledge of the social sciences and the humanities is society as subjective-objective reality, i.e., on the one hand, as a reality created and maintained by a person in the process of intersubjective interaction, on the other hand, as an objective reality perceived by a person as opposed to him.

2. Features of the objects of natural science and humanitarian knowledge determine the second difference between them: the relation of the cognizing subject to the cognized object. In classical natural science, the relationship between the scientist and the object of study is characterized by a certain distance between them. Here the scientist opposes the world of observed objects as an external reality for him, on which he influences, using various tools and determining the conditions of the experiment. A natural scientist is never an immanent (integral) part of the object under study, but observes it from the outside.

In the social sciences and humanities, the scientist (observer) is not distant from the object of his research. This is due to the fact that the researcher of social relations is himself a participant in them, that is, he is included directly or indirectly in the objects and processes that he studies. Consequently, scientific observation in the social and humanitarian sciences is carried out from within a cognizable object, the role of which is society, state, nation, etc. Accordingly, the socio-political, national, confessional and other attachments of the researcher largely determine the choice of scientific problems, strategy and even the results of their research. research. Therefore, social and humanitarian knowledge, in contrast to natural science, is very often influenced by one or another ideology shared by the researcher.

Thus, natural science is characterized by distance cognizing subject from the cognized object, and social and humanitarian knowledge, on the contrary, - involvement knowing subject into a known object.

In addition, in classical natural science, nature is seen as an object that passively yields to the boundless cognitive activity of the subject. In social and humanitarian cognition, the object of cognition directly or indirectly reveals itself as an active subject. Consequently, the cognitive activity of the subject in the social sciences is fundamentally limited and is associated with the self-revealing activity of the "object".

Thus, the cognitive relation in natural science, being subject-object, has monologic character; cognitive attitude in the social sciences and humanities, being a subject-subject, has dialogic character.

3. For the classical natural-science method of cognition, as a research method, it is characteristic reductionism, i.e., the reduction of the variety of observed phenomena to a finite set of the most general laws that would make it possible to predict the regular course of any processes in the future. Classical natural science sought to catalog the world, while everything individual, situational, that did not fit into the cataloging principles adopted by the researcher, was considered as non-existent, as an error that could be neglected. In natural science knowledge, the main role is played by a monologic explanation of reality in its cause-and-effect conditionality. The humanities, on the contrary, as already noted, are characterized by an appeal to reality in its entirety and inexhaustibility of individual manifestations. Here, the main significance belongs not to a monologue explanation, but to understanding, “grasping” in the process of research the individual features of the phenomenon under study.

Thus, if for natural science the most important is the generalizing explanation repeated facts, then for society-knowledge - distinguishing understanding social phenomena.

An important feature of understanding, which distinguishes it from explanation, lies in the inherent ability of a person to reincarnation, imagination and intuition, with the help of which the interpreter (the subject of understanding) achieves an understanding of the spiritual world of the Other. To interpret the goals, intentions, motivations of the authors of the texts, as well as any actions of people as conscious beings, it is necessary to understand them (to take the place of the Other). The situation is quite different in nature, where blind, unconscious forces are at work and where there is therefore no intentional activity as such. It is for this reason that in natural science knowledge the main attention was paid to questions of explanation, because they are not related to the analysis of goal setting and motivation. Explanatory knowledge should not be opposed to understanding. They complement each other. Knowledge is always textual and has a general character, understanding is contextual and therefore has an individual character. But scientific communication includes both the general and the individual.

In non-classical and especially in modern post-non-classical science, a critical review of the features of classical natural science knowledge was carried out, which led to the emergence of a tendency to remove the rigid separation between natural science and humanitarian types of knowledge. Within the framework of synergetics as the leading direction of post-non-classical science, a program is substantiated for the convergence of natural science and humanitarian types of knowledge, which creates broad opportunities for interdisciplinary dialogue.

Thinking about the specifics social and humanitarian knowledge, we note the following (cf. Table No. 1).

Table No. 1. Specificity of social and humanitarian knowledge

social knowledge	humanitarian knowledge
Peculiarities: elucidation of patterns that determine stability and changes in socio-cultural life, analysis of factors influencing people's behavior	Peculiarities: the allocation of proper scientific humanitarian knowledge and esoteric knowledge based on feeling, intuition, faith
An object: society	An object: Human
Thing: social connections and interactions, features of the functioning of social groups	Thing: unique, unrepeatable, in connection with the concept of personality; problems of the inner world of man, the life of his spirit.
Sciences: sociology, political science, law, political economy, economics	Sciences: philology, art history, history, cultural anthropology, psychology, etc.
- is built on an empirical and rational methodological foundation, social facts are considered as "things" (E. Durkheim); - acquires the character of applied research; - includes the development of models, projects, programs of regional socio-cultural development.	Leading cognitive orientation: - reflects on the socio-cultural meaning of this fact; - considers as a text any sign-symbolic system that has a socio-cultural meaning; - suggests dialogue.

The subject of humanitarian studies is the unique, the inimitable, which is most often associated with the concept of personality, when it (personality) stands out from the environment, is able to make a choice. These are the problems of the inner world of man, the life of his spirit. Part of this knowledge is within the competence of science, meeting all the criteria for the subject of scientific knowledge. There is, however, another part, which is connected with the concepts of feeling, intuition, faith, or, for example, esoteric knowledge. Therefore, the concept of humanitarian knowledge is broader than that of the humanities, since it can include areas that are not scientific knowledge in the strict sense. Appeal to such concepts as “being”, “love”, “life”, “death”, “truth”, “beauty”, etc. implies ambiguity, since such categories do not have and cannot have “by definition” the only correct meaning.

For social science, the main thing is to elucidate the patterns that determine stability and changes in sociocultural life, the analysis of deep structures that influence people's behavior when the motivation for this behavior is not obvious to them.

From this point of view sociology, economy, political science, right, political Economy- social sciences, but not the humanities, but philology, art history, history - classic examples of humanitarian knowledge (although they now use precise research methods). If this statement is unlikely to be disputed by anyone, then disputes of this kind regarding cultural studies are quite frequent in the professional community. There are at least two reasons for this: firstly, a new field of knowledge is emerging in Russian society, the boundaries of which have not yet been clearly delineated, and, secondly, this is due to the ambiguity of the concept of culture: the choice of one or another basic position dictates appropriate research procedure. In our opinion, culturology belongs to the interdisciplinary sciences and has both of these layers.

The originality of humanitarian knowledge, however, is derived not only from the subject of research and, perhaps, not so much from it, but from the leading cognitive orientation.

For the humanitarian type of cognition, the text is important as the basis for reflections about the sociocultural meaning of this fact, the researcher is trying to find out not only what history says about itself, but also what it is silent about, encrypting in its texts. The humanities and the social are related in the same way as nature and natural science.

In particular, social science must be built on an empirical and rational methodological foundation. In addition, for the current state of the social sciences, the tendency of transition to their new quality becomes pronounced, when they increasingly acquire the character of applied research, including in their methodological arsenal procedures not only analytical, but also the development of models, projects, programs of regional socio-cultural development.

Of course, the areas of interest to us interact with each other and complement each other. At one time, the separation of sociology into an independent discipline was preceded by the department psychology from philosophy and physiology.

In the second half of the 20th century, a trend began to appear for a comprehensive study of man and social systems, cultural objects and processes in the course of joint life and activity. The term "socio-humanitarian knowledge" appears. Let's compare natural science and socio-humanitarian knowledge (see. Table number 2).

Table No. 2. Specificity of natural science and socio-humanitarian knowledge

natural science knowledge	Socio-humanitarian knowledge
Object of knowledge: nature	Object of knowledge: Human
Subject of knowledge: Human	Subject of knowledge: Human
"Objective" character	Estimated nature
Knowledge methods: quantitative and experimental	Knowledge methods: historical-descriptive, historical-comparative, functional, etc., suggest the interpretation of the author
Installation in methodology: analysis	Installation in methodology: synthesis

In the field of social and humanitarian knowledge, a special place belongs to philosophical methods.

Phenomenological method directs the scientist to identify the meanings and meanings that are attached to social phenomena by participants in social actions.

General scientific methods Keywords: observations, social experiment, methods of description and comparison, historical and comparative method, methods of idealization, modeling, thought experiment.

3) Private scientific methods- these are special methods that operate either only within a single or in several industries social and humanitarian knowledge. Among the specific methods of social sciences and humanities, the most significant can be distinguished:

Survey - a method of collecting primary information by asking questions to a specific group of people; Distinguish between written surveys (questionnaires) and oral surveys (interviewing);

Monographic method - a method of studying an individual case; a comprehensive long-term analysis of a single object considered as typical for a given class of phenomena;

Biographical method - a method of studying the subjective side of the social life of an individual, based on personal documents, which, in addition to describing a particular social situation, also contains the personal view of the writer;

The idiographic method is a method that consists in describing an object in its uniqueness, interpreting social facts on the basis of their attribution to a particular value.

Social and humanitarian knowledge is the possession of the features of the structure of society. Let's try to understand the specificity of such knowledge.

Nuances of social sciences and humanities

Currently, there is such a problem as the classification of the social sciences and the humanities. Some authors recommend subdividing them into humanitarian and social disciplines. Others believe that such a division is inappropriate. Such a disagreement in views was an excellent reason for the institution of social and humanitarian knowledge to work.

Feature of social sciences

They represent a detailed study of society, as well as all its existing areas: legal, political, economic. In order to get acquainted with the features of this humanitarian direction, researchers analyze the change in the composition of the administration. Among the social sciences, jurisprudence, political science, history, philosophy, and economics are distinguished.

Humanitarian sciences

They include religious studies, cultural studies, psychology, and pedagogy. There are many similarities between the humanities and social disciplines, so this direction is a special region of knowledge.

signs

Since social and humanitarian knowledge is a separate knowledge, it must have certain features. Among the features of the social sciences and humanities, we highlight the importance of taking into account the phenomenon of freedom. If (chemistry, biology, physics) are aimed at studying the natural processes associated with wildlife, then social and humanitarian knowledge is primarily the study of human activity in artistic, legal, economic activities. Man's work does not happen, it is done. If natural processes have no freedom, then human activity is completely independent. That is why social and humanitarian knowledge is a minimum of certainty, a maximum of hypotheticality.

Features of social sciences and humanities

The specificity of this direction is that it is important to study subjective reality. If the object of study of the natural sciences are material objects, then the humanities are engaged in the study of material systems, hence the analysis of objective reality. The social and humanitarian profile is associated with Since it is sovereign, that is, inherent in some particular subject, it is rather difficult to conduct research in this direction. For many people, the consciousness of a particular subject is not available. They can only see external manifestations in the form of speech and actions that are controlled by consciousness. It is by them that others evaluate the interlocutor. But the problem is that under external decency, either a real criminal or a very vulnerable person may well be hiding.

Problems

The Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge also faces such a problem as the ideality of consciousness. It does not have certain chemical and physical properties, such as oxidation state, valence, nuclear charge. Its peculiarity is that it is ethereal, incorporeal. In fact, information is provided in an ideal form, regardless of the immediate carrier - the brain. It is for these reasons that it is impossible to fix consciousness by objective methods. A person's feelings cannot be measured with a ruler, determined with a dynamometer. A variety of medical and physical devices make it possible to fix only the physiological brain processes that are carriers of consciousness. For example, you can set the frequency of excitation of nerve cells, their spatial structure. Consciousness is given to man as internal, subjective experiences. It cannot be determined by instruments, it can only be felt. Despite all the difficulties that exist in the study of human spirituality, they cannot be considered insurmountable. The social and humanitarian profile involves a detailed study of the speech and activities of people, obtaining knowledge about the structure, composition, and functions of human consciousness.

Methods

The structure of social and humanitarian knowledge is impossible without the most important methods: empathy, and translated from Latin means self-observation, the study of a person’s personal spiritual life, and analysis of one’s own experiences. It allows you to get an idea of ​​your own consciousness. Without the existence of this method, a person could not study it, manage it.

Empathy (translated from English sounds like empathy) is the penetration of one person into the inner world of another, the perception of other people's thoughts and feelings as their personal qualities. The Institute for Social and Humanitarian Knowledge pays special attention in its research to identifying similar emotions in a group of like-minded people who have endured some dangers and difficulties together. This method is based on sympathy, that is, an internal disposition (empathy) for some person.

Sympathy

We can consider an emotionally colored unconscious positive assessment of a person's actions, based on the experience of communication. With its help, a commonality between different people is manifested. The specificity of social and humanitarian knowledge lies in the fact that only it involves the use of empathy and introspection. When studying natural processes, such methods are not used.

The uniqueness of the studied objects

Knowledge has a high degree of uniqueness of the objects under consideration. They have a unique set of certain properties, which adds to the problems in creating a unified research system in the humanities. If a physicist is faced with only a few terms, a biologist with two pines, then a teacher or a lawyer must work with two completely different people. Comparing the chemical reaction with birch growth and with economic reform, we note that different methods will be required to study them in detail. For the technical and natural areas, the use of an individual approach is not necessary, because the objects considered in these sciences are of the same type. The differences are mostly minor, so they can be overlooked. But the teacher, psychologist, lawyer does not have the opportunity to abstract from the characteristics of a person. The classification of social sciences and humanities is multifaceted, as there are many varieties in each science.

Explanation of social and humanitarian objects

To do this, it is necessary to establish the features of the manifestation of a certain law in a particular object. Otherwise, it will not be possible to fully explain the object, to carry out practical actions with it. To identify an individual or a social group, the category of mentality is currently used. Such a study is much more difficult than the study of the individual spiritual world of a person. To reveal the mentality means to determine the unique from the singular, that is, to select socio-psychological features.

Learning algorithm

The Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge (Kazan) has been developing a sequence of actions aimed at studying the unique features of a living subject for a long period of time. As a result, two main stages were identified:

• identification of signs of various subjects, as well as the degree of their severity;
• comparing their different subjects, determining on the basis of this specific characteristics, identifying for each mentality.

If such a comparison is not made, we will talk about the study of personality, consciousness, but not about mentality. Psychologists and sociologists understand the importance of taking into account the laws of functioning of the objects under study. In the social and humanitarian sphere, static laws are applied. They have a probabilistic causality, the generation of a cause of one of the different actions is allowed. That is why all predictions in the social sciences and humanities are approximate, and in technology and nature - clear and precise.

Among the features of the considered direction, we single out the limited use of a full-fledged experiment in them. For example, when studying the history of a particular country, it is inappropriate to talk about an experiment, because the events have already happened. You can not use research in sociology to analyze interethnic relations. The experiment is also inappropriate in the study of population migration. It is incorrect to deliberately relocate people, change their living conditions, wages, family composition in order to get some result. In addition, there are ethical restrictions for conducting research in the social sciences and humanities. Experiments that can harm people's health, humiliate human dignity, and infringe on authority are prohibited. Due to limited experience, the empirical base in this area will be less reliable than in technical disciplines. The social direction uses certain criteria of scientific character:

• rationality;
• evidence;
• experimental and practical verifiability;
• the ability to reproduce empirical material;
• essentiality.

The evidence base in the social and humanitarian cycle is less serious and strict than in the exact sciences. The reason is the insufficient number of theoretical provisions and established facts. Often, instead of laws, psychologists and educators act intuitively to study certain objects.

Conclusion

In the humanities, empirical verifiability involves the use of observations, interviews, questionnaires, and testing. Reproduction of facts is possible only if there are results of statistical studies on the defined topic. If the experiment fails, evidence from multiple sources is considered an alternative. For example, in jurisprudence, pedagogy, the testimony of the participants in the event is used. All are complex multi-level hierarchically built systems. In order to fully study the systems, a significant time period is required.

The German philosopher W. Dilthey said that the main criterion for distinguishing sciences of various types is the method used. It was the German scientist who proposed to subdivide all sciences into those that study the spirit and those that study the laws of nature. Not only the analysis of the person himself, but also acquaintance with texts, old manuscripts are widely used in the social and humanitarian cycle. Understanding and interpreting certain information helps psychologists, teachers, lawyers to cope with the tasks assigned to them, first of all, to study the individual characteristics of each individual.

Seminar No. 1

Topic: Humanities: features, development and significance of humanitarian knowledge.

Question number 1. The content and development of humanitarian knowledge. The process and causes of the expansion of humanitarian knowledge.

Humanitarian knowledge- this is the world of direct human life, both past and present, and in some respects future. Humanitarian knowledge is an opportunity to navigate the world, in the sense of what is happening, it is an opportunity to understand what is happening to us and why we need certain reforms, why we need certain innovations.

Humanitarian knowledge changes the consciousness of a person, as it forms his attitude to the world, allows you to take a fresh look at it. The problem of self-determination is the most important humanitarian problem for a person, because the way of self-determination organizes all life, and self-determination is a condition for a person to take place.

A feature of humanitarian knowledge is that it does not exist independently of a person, since a person himself develops it, rethinking what exists in the outside world, in culture (that is, in all human experience). For example, he passes ideas or cultural values ​​through his "I" - his individual, and then they become his own, his individual concepts. Individuality here serves as a criterion. Humanitarian knowledge speaks about what has been created by man throughout his history, and not about what has arisen naturally.

The object of the humanities is the individual, more precisely, his spiritual, inner world and the world of human relationships connected with it and the world of the spiritual culture of society.

The humanities include psychology (psychology of personality, psychology of emotions, social psychology), civil history (here humanitarian knowledge is combined with social science), sociology, literary criticism, linguistics, etc. They study the spiritual world of a person through text. A person always expresses himself (says), that is, creates a text (even if it is potential). Where a person is studied outside the text and independently of it, these are no longer the humanities (human anatomy and physiology, etc.).

Humanitarian knowledge, like natural scientific knowledge, strives to achieve the truth, that is, to ensure that information about social phenomena is not simply accumulated, various ideas and views on the nature of man and society are not simply summed up so that these ideas are not erroneous. , were not delusions. It has always been important for humanity to understand itself, to understand a person, his actions and thoughts, the nature of his life and the changes that take place in it. Therefore, the problem of truth in the humanities is of fundamental importance. The achievement of truth in the humanities is carried out in many ways in specific, complex ways. The correlation of truth and error takes place in difficult conditions for a person to choose his life position. But the search for truth is concentrated primarily in the humanities. And therefore, the level of humanitarian education of a person has a huge influence on the formation of a worldview. All humanitarian knowledge is permeated with worldview ideas. Knowledge about society- history, jurisprudence, social psychology, sociology, etc. - is not just a collection of information obtained about the development of society, peoples, but at the same time their understanding from one position or another. The same applies to the human sciences, for example, psychology, pedagogy. In society, a person always faces the problem of choice, and then humanitarian education, the level of this education create the prerequisites for this choice to be made in the most civilized form, since humanitarian education allows a person not to start from scratch, but to use a conscious universal experience.

Question number 2. Science as a form of knowledge, its features and significance.

The science- a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, which has the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws.

Science classifications:

on the subject and method of knowledge : natural, social and humanitarian, about cognition and thinking, technical and mathematical;

by distance from practice : fundamental and applied.

Science functions:

cultural and ideological,

informative and explanatory,

predictive,

social (social forecasting, management and development).

scientific knowledge- a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society.

The main features of scientific knowledge are the following:

1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective laws of reality - natural, social, laws of knowledge itself, etc.

2. Science carries out the study of not only the objects used in today's practice, but also those that may become the subject of practical development in the future. Science deals, among other things, with the prediction of the future;

3. Science is characterized by objectivity, since the main goal of scientific knowledge is objective truth.

4. An essential feature of cognition is its consistency. Knowledge is transformed into scientific knowledge when the description and generalization of facts is brought to the point of their inclusion in the theory;

5. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions;

6. Verification of knowledge through experience, practice.

7. Use of scientific equipment.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life objects. At this level of research, we are dealing with the direct interaction of a person with the studied natural or social objects, the process of accumulating information about the objects under study is carried out through observations, measurements, and experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the received actual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". There is no practical interaction with objects here. The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Question number 3. Humanities: concept, types, specifics, meaning.

Humanitarian sciences- disciplines that study a person in the sphere of his spiritual, mental, moral, cultural and social activities.

So far, the problem of classifying the social sciences and humanities has not been solved. Some authors do not divide the sciences into social and humanitarian ones, while others do. The difference lies in the subject of study. For the social sciences, this is society as a whole or its spheres (political, legal, economic, etc.). For the humanities, the subject of study is a person and the spiritual products of his activity. . In this regard, the social sciences include social philosophy, history, sociology, economics, jurisprudence, and political science. The composition of the humanities can include cultural studies, religious studies, art history, psychology, linguistics, pedagogy, philosophical anthropology. The similarity between the social sciences and the humanities is very large, so we can talk about the social sciences and the humanities as a single science.

Social and humanitarian sciences have their own specifics.

1) the need to take into account the phenomenon freedom. Natural sciences study natural processes. These processes just happen. The social sciences and humanities study human activity in the economic, legal, political, and artistic fields. Human activity does not take place, but takes place. The processes of nature do not have freedom. Human activity is free (not absolutely, of course, but relatively). Therefore, it is less predictable than natural processes. In this regard, in the social sciences and humanities there is less certainty and more unpredictability.

2) a high degree of uniqueness of the studied objects. Uniqueness is a unique set of properties inherent in a given object. Each object is unique. 3) limited application of the experiment. In many cases, it is simply impossible to conduct an experiment, for example, in the study of the history of a country where events have already taken place. It is impossible to conduct experiments in sociology when studying interethnic relations, in demography when studying, say, population migration. We cannot resettle peoples and other social groups for experimental purposes, change their wages, living conditions, family composition, etc.

Significance of the Humanities very large. They not only expand their horizons, but also accumulate experience and skills. Studying the social -human. science, a person joins society, recognizes it, forms his attitude towards others. Delving into the study of at least one of the humanities, a person reveals himself, his potential. Humanitarian education helps a person to find himself, defend his right to self-realization, self-determination, creates his cultural field, that is, takes on the burden of problems of worldview, general cultural, spiritual and intellectual development of the individual.

Question number 4. General characteristics of the social worldview. The role of scientific study of society, its functioning and development.

Man is a rational social being. His work is worthwhile. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to. To be able to choose goals, to be able to make this or that decision. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world. - outlook.

outlook – it is a system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations that have developed on the basis of these views.

The classification of worldviews considers three main types of worldview in terms of its socio-historical features:

Mythological type of worldview formed during the time of primitive people. Then people did not realize themselves as individuals, did not distinguish themselves from the surrounding world, and saw the will of the gods in everything. Paganism is the main element of the mythological type of worldview.

Religious type of worldview just like the mythological one, it is based on the belief in supernatural forces. A huge number of moral norms (commandments) and examples of correct behavior keeps society within certain limits and unites people of the same faith. Disadvantages: misunderstanding of people of other faiths, hence the division along religious lines, religious conflicts and wars.

Philosophical type of outlook It has social and intellectual character. Reason (intelligence, wisdom) and society (society) are important here. The main element is the desire for knowledge.

Worldview plays a significant role in a person's life: it gives a person guidelines and goals for his activities; allows people to understand how best to achieve the intended goals, equips them with methods of cognition and activity; makes it possible to determine the true values ​​of life and culture.

Today, society in its past and present studies whole complex of social sciences: history, sociology, philosophy, anthropology, political science, economics, cultural studies, etc. Each of these sciences examines certain aspects of social life. Social philosophy and sociology seek to embrace society as a whole, therefore it is they who play the most important role in the study of society. Sociology is a generalizing science in relation to other sciences that study society and man. On the other hand, sociology depends on discoveries in other sciences, such as, for example, history, economics, political science. All social sciences are interconnected and constitute one total science of society, they complement each other, although they highlight different aspects of the study.

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In modern scientific knowledge, the following main types (forms) can be distinguished:

1) Knowledge of nature and the corresponding class of sciences (natural science).

2) Knowledge of man and science - Human science or Humanities.

3) Cognition of society - Social science (social sciences).

4) Knowledge of knowledge itself - epistemology and epistemology (studies the sources, methods and forms of scientific knowledge).

5) Cognition of thinking - logic.

In the structure of modern scientific knowledge, the following classes of sciences are distinguished:

1) Logical and mathematical sciences;

2) Natural sciences;

3) Engineering and technical (technological);

4) Social sciences and humanities

Social and humanitarian sciences.

Two opposite approaches:

1) There are no social and human sciences - only humanitarian ones, because man is an object.

2) There is no humanitarian science, only social and humanitarian ones. Because man in society

The main goal of the block of social sciences and humanities is the knowledge of a person, the knowledge of society, culture, which serves this process.

Correlation of SGN with natural scientific knowledge.

1) By nature, natural science and humanitarian knowledge are identical, only the object is different (positivism). There is the concept of science and the structure of scientific knowledge, respectively, if SSS is a discipline, then there are no special differences between SGS and natural science.

2) These are generally incomparable things:

Naturalistics: these sciences are different, but the methods and methods themselves are identical. The toolkit is the same.

Humanities: completely different, specific methods, etc. What works in the natural sciences does not work in the social and humanitarian.

The specificity of any block of sciences is determined by the subject and object of study, but there is something common to all sciences: the process of a common methodology. General - general scientific methods, means and techniques (deduction, induction, analysis, synthesis). But each science has a specific picture of the world and specific means and methods of cognition.

Within the framework of the social sciences and the humanities, one can conditionally distinguish a subspecies of the humanities (philosophy, history, psychology, cultural studies, philology, etc.) and social sciences (economics, sociology, political science, jurisprudence, demography, ethnography, etc.)

In the social and humanities, fundamental and applied scientific disciplines can be distinguished.

Fundamental:

Philosophy:

History of Philosophy;

Epistemology;

social philosophy;

Aesthetics, etc.

recent history;

National history…

Economic:

Political economy;

History of economic thought;

Labor Economics.

Applied:

Sociology - micro- and macrosociology.

Features of social sciences and humanities:

Society, unlike natural science, is an abstract object that cannot be singled out as in natural science. To select an object, some theory is used to outline a person or society, because, for example, a person of the 17th and 19th centuries are different phenomena.

1) The problem of identifying the object and subject of science

Object - reality (fragment of reality) or theory has a hand

The subject is a transformed object, which is transformed based on the goals and means of research. A shrunken object to the level of an object, what the nature of the object was transformed into, and not a cut piece, a mental construction.

2) Orientation of scientific research in the social sciences and humanities. Orientation says: the principle of historicism is an integral element of the social sciences and the humanities, everything is considered only in motion, in dynamics!

3) When studying a person and society, the researcher must focus on the nature of these phenomena, on the appropriate language, lifestyle, forms of behavior, historical period of development, etc.

4) In the social sciences and humanities, the role of understanding is great as a comprehension of reality and as a study of the meaning embedded in reality. Hermeneutics studies the problem of understanding.

5) In the social sciences and the humanities, there is a specific set of methods, techniques, means, ways, approaches to the study of reality, which is combined by the term methodology of the social sciences and the humanities. At the same time, general scientific methods undergo purification and appropriate interpretation before their application in social and humanitarian knowledge.