One of the mental functions and types of mental activity, designed to store, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store information about the events of the external world and the reactions of the body for a long time and repeatedly use it in the sphere of consciousness to organize subsequent activities.
There are different types of memory:
- by sensory modality - visual (visual) memory, motor (kinesthetic) memory, sound (auditory) memory, taste memory, pain memory;
- by content - figurative memory, motor memory, emotional memory;
- on the organization of memorization - episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory;
- according to temporal characteristics - , ultra-short-term memory;
- by the presence of a goal - arbitrary and involuntary;
- by availability of funds - indirect and non-mediated;
- according to the level of development - motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical.
Features of the functioning of memory
Memory Properties
- Accuracy
- Volume
- The speed of memorization processes
- The speed of forgetting processes
Patterns of memory
Memory is limited. The success of reproducing a large amount of material depends on the nature of the distribution of repetitions in time. There is such a pattern as the forgetting curve.
Memory laws:
Law of Interest- Interesting things are easier to remember.
Law of comprehension- The deeper you become aware of the memorized information, the better it will be remembered.
Installation law- If a person gave himself the installation to remember information, then memorization will happen easier.
Law of Action– Information involved in activities (i.e. if knowledge is put into practice) is remembered better.
Law of context- With the associative linking of information with already familiar concepts, the new is absorbed better.
Law of inhibition– When studying similar concepts, the effect of “overlapping” the old information with the new one is observed.
The Law of Optimal Row Length- The length of the memorized row for better memorization should not greatly exceed the volume.
edge law- The information presented at the beginning and at the end is best remembered.
Law of repetition- Information that is repeated several times is best remembered.
Law of incompleteness– Incomplete actions, tasks, unsaid phrases, etc. are best remembered.
Mnemotechnical methods of memorization
- The formation of semantic phrases from the initial letters of the memorized information.
- Rhyming.
- Memorization of long terms or foreign words with the help of consonants.
- Finding bright unusual associations (pictures, phrases) that are connected with memorized information.
- Cicero's method on spatial imagination.
- Aivazovsky's method is based on the training of visual memory.
- Methods for memorizing numbers:
- patterns;
- familiar numbers.
Memory processes
- Memorization is a memory process through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensations, perception, thinking or experience are introduced into the system of associative links. The basis of memorization is the connection of material with meaning into one whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.
- Storage - the process of accumulation of material in the structure of memory, including its processing and assimilation. Preservation makes it possible for a person to learn, develop his perceptual (internal assessments, perception of the world) processes, thinking and speech.
- Reproduction and recognition is the process of updating the elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A simple form of reproduction is recognition - the recognition of a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience, the establishment of similarities between the object and its image in memory. Reproduction is voluntary and involuntary. With an involuntary image pops up in the head without the efforts of a person.
If there are difficulties in the process of reproducing, then the process is in progress. Selection of elements necessary from the point of view of the required task. The reproduced information is not an exact copy of what is imprinted in memory. Information is always being transformed, rearranged.
- Forgetting is the loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even in recognizing what was previously memorized. Most often we forget what is not significant. Forgetting can be partial (reproduction is not complete or with) and complete (impossibility of reproduction and recognition). Distinguish between temporary and long-term forgetting.
neurological memory
Memory is a set of activities that include both biological-physiological and mental processes, the implementation of which at the moment is due to the fact that some previous events, close or distant in time, have significantly modified the state of the organism. (C. Flores).
Memory means the use and participation of previous experience in the present. From this point of view, memory, both at the moment of consolidation and at the moment of its reproduction, is an activity in the full sense of the word. (Zinchenko).
- Visual (visual) memory is responsible for the preservation and reproduction of visual images.
- Motor memory is responsible for storing information about motor functions. For example, a first-class baseball player throws the ball superbly, in part due to the memory of motor activity during past throws.
- Episodic memory is the memory of events that we participated in or witnessed (Tulving, 1972). Examples of it might be remembering how you celebrated your seventeenth birthday, remembering your engagement day, remembering the plot of a movie you saw last week. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that the memorization of information occurs without visible effort on our part.
- Semantic memory is the memory of facts such as the multiplication table or the meaning of words. You probably won't be able to remember where and when you learned that 6547 x 8791 = 57554677, or from whom you learned what the word "stock" means, but nevertheless this knowledge is part of your memory. Perhaps you will be able to remember all the torment that the study of the multiplication table brought you. Both episodic and semantic memory contain knowledge that can be easily told and declared. Therefore, these two subsystems form part of a larger category called declarative memory.
- Procedural memory, or remembering how to do something, has some similarities with motor memory. The difference is that the description of the procedure does not necessarily imply the possession of any motor skills. For example, in your school years, you were supposed to be taught how to work with a slide rule. This is a kind of "knowing how", which is often contrasted with descriptive tasks that involve "knowing what".
- Topographic memory - the ability to navigate in space, recognize the path and follow the route, recognize familiar places. Topographic cretinism can be caused by numerous disorders, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.
Classification of types of memory according to criteria
- figurative memory
- verbal-logical memory
- sensory memory
- emotional memory
Time
- operational
- intermediate
Organization of memorization
- episodic memory
- semantic memory
- procedural memory
Properties of human memory
The pioneer in the study of human memory is Herman Ebbinghaus, who experimented on himself (the main technique was to memorize meaningless lists of words or syllables).
Long-term and short-term memory
Physiological studies reveal 2 main types of memory: short-term and long-term. One of the most important discoveries of Ebbinghaus was that if the list is not very large (usually 7), then it can be remembered after the first reading (usually the list of elements that can be remembered immediately is called the size of short-term memory).
Another law established by Ebbinghaus is that the amount of material retained depends on the time interval from the moment of memorization to verification (the so-called "Ebbinghaus curve"). The positional effect was discovered (occurring if the stored information exceeds short-term memory in volume). It lies in the fact that the ease of remembering a given element depends on the place it occupies in a row (the first and last elements are easier to remember).
It is believed that short-term memory is based on electrophysiological mechanisms that support connected neuronal systems. Long-term memory is fixed by structural changes in individual cells that are part of neuronal systems, and is associated with chemical transformation, the formation of new substances.
short term memory
Short-term memory exists due to temporal patterns of neural connections emanating from areas of the frontal (especially dorsolateral, prefrontal) and parietal cortex. This is where sensory information comes in. Short-term memory allows you to remember something after a period of time from a few seconds to a minute without repetition. Its capacity is very limited. George Miller, while working at Bell Laboratories, performed experiments showing that the capacity of short-term memory is 7 ± 2 objects (the title of his famous work is "The Magic Number 7 ± 2"). Modern estimates of short-term memory capacity are somewhat lower, typically 4-5 objects, and it is known that short-term memory capacity increases through a process called "chunking" (grouping of objects). For example, if you present the string
FSBKMSMCHSEGE
a person will be able to remember only a few letters. However, if the same information is presented differently:
FSB CMS Ministry of Emergency Situations Unified State Examination
a person will be able to remember much more letters because he is able to group (combine into chains) information about the semantic groups of letters (in the English original: FBIPHDTWAIBM and FBI PHD TWA IBM). Herbert Simon also showed that the ideal size for chunks of letters and numbers, whether meaningful or not, is three units. Perhaps in some countries this is reflected in the tendency to present a telephone number as several groups of 3 digits and a final group of 4 digits divided into 2 groups of two.
There are hypotheses that short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic (verbal) code for storing information and, to a lesser extent, on a visual code. Conrad (1964) showed that subjects have more difficulty remembering sets of words that are acoustically similar.
Modern studies of ant communication have proven that ants are able to memorize and transmit information up to 7 bits. Moreover, the influence of possible grouping of objects on the message length and transmission efficiency is demonstrated. In this sense, the law "Magic number 7 ± 2" is also fulfilled for ants.
long term memory
Storage in sensory and short-term memory usually has a hard limited capacity and duration, that is, information remains available for some time, but not indefinitely. In contrast, long-term memory can store much more information for a potentially infinite amount of time (throughout a lifetime). For example, some 7-digit phone number can be stored in short-term memory and forgotten after a few seconds. On the other hand, a person can remember by repeating a phone number for years to come. In long-term memory, information is encoded semantically: Baddeley (1960) showed that after a 20-minute pause, subjects had significant difficulty recalling a list of words with similar meanings (eg, large, huge, large, massive).
Long-term memory is supported by more stable and unchanging changes in neural connections widely distributed throughout the brain. is important in consolidating information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not appear to store information itself. Rather, the hippocampus is involved in changing neural connections after 3 months of initial training.
One of the primary functions is the consolidation of information. It is possible to show that memory depends on a sufficient period between training and testing. Moreover, the hippocampus reproduces the activity of the current day during sleep.
Memory disorders
A large amount of knowledge about the structure and operation of memory, which is now available, was obtained by studying the phenomena of its violation. Memory disorders - amnesia - can be caused by various reasons. In 1887, the Russian psychiatrist S. S. Korsakov, in his publication On Alcoholic Paralysis, first described the picture of severe memory disorders that occur with severe alcohol poisoning. The discovery called "Korsakov's syndrome" is firmly established in the scientific literature. Currently, all memory disorders are divided into:
- Hypomnesia - weakening of memory. Memory impairment may occur with age and / and as a result of any brain disease (sclerosis of cerebral vessels, epilepsy, etc.).
- Hypermnesia - an abnormal sharpening of memory compared to normal indicators, is observed much less frequently. People with this feature forget events with great difficulty (Shereshevsky)
- Paramnesias, which involve false or distorted memories, as well as the displacement of the present and the past, the real and the imagined.
Particularly stands out childhood amnesia - loss of memory for the events of early childhood. Apparently, this type of amnesia is associated with the immaturity of the hippocampal connections, or with the use of other methods of encoding "keys" to memory at this age.
Mythology, religion, philosophy about memory
- In ancient Greek mythology, there is a myth about the river Lethe. Lethe means "forgetfulness" and is an integral part of the realm of death. The dead are those who have lost their memory. On the other hand, some who were favored, among them Tiresias or Amphiaraus, retained their memory even after their death.
- The opposite of the Lethe River is the Goddess Mnemosyne, the personified Memory, the sister of Kronos and Okeanos - the mother of all muses. She has Omniscience: according to Hesiod (Theogony, 32 38), she knows "everything that was, everything that is, and everything that will be." When the Muses take possession of the poet, he drinks from the source of knowledge of Mnemosyne, which means, first of all, that he touches the knowledge of the “origins”, “beginnings”.
- According to the philosophy of Anamnesis - recollection, recollection - a concept that describes the basic procedure of the process of cognition.
Definition
Memory is the ability to reproduce past experience, one of the main properties of the nervous system, expressed in the ability to store information for a long time and repeatedly enter it into the sphere of consciousness and behavior. Allocate the processes of memorization, preservation and reproduction, including recognition, recollection, actual recollection. Distinguish memory arbitrary and involuntary, immediate and mediated, short-term and long-term. Special types of memory: motor (memory-habit), emotional or affective (memory of "feelings"), figurative and verbal-logical.The impressions that a person receives about the world around them leave a certain trace, are preserved, consolidated, and, if necessary and possible, are reproduced. These processes are called memory.
Process essence
Memory can be defined as the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience. Diverse instincts, innate and acquired mechanisms of behavior are nothing but imprinted, inherited or acquired in the process of individual life experience. Thanks to his memory and its improvement, man has stood out from the animal kingdom and has reached the heights at which he is now. And the further progress of mankind without the constant improvement of this function is unthinkable.Classification
According to the storage time, memory is divided into:| Instant | 0.1 - 0.5 s | - retention of an accurate and complete picture of the information that has just been perceived by the senses. (memory - image). |
| short-term | up to 20 s | - is a way of storing information for a short period of time. It retains the most essential elements of the image. From instant memory, only the information that attracts increased attention gets into it. |
| Operational | up to several days | - storage of information within a certain, for a predetermined period. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person. |
| long-term | Unlimited | - storage of information in an unlimited period of time. This information can be reproduced any number of times (temporarily) without loss. |
| genetic | - information that is stored in the genotype is transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. | |
| visual | - preservation and reproduction of visual images. | |
| auditory | - memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds. | |
| Motor | - memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. | |
| emotional | - memory for experiences. What causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period. | |
| Tactile, olfactory, gustatory… | - satisfaction of biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the body. |
Process Development
The development of memory as a whole depends on the person, on the sphere of his activity.And it directly depends on the normal functioning and development of other "cognitive" processes. Working on this or that process, a person without hesitation develops and trains memory.
What is memory
What we feel and perceive does not disappear without a trace, everything is remembered to one degree or another. Excitations going to the brain from external and internal stimuli leave “traces” in it that can persist for many years. These "traces" (combinations of nerve cells) create the possibility of excitation even when the stimulus that caused it is absent. Based on this, a person can remember and save, and subsequently reproduce his feelings, perceptions of any objects, thought, speech, actions.
Just like sensation and perception, memory is a process of reflection, and not only that which acts directly on the senses is reflected, but also that which took place in the past.
Memory- this is the memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction of what we previously perceived, experienced or did. In other words, memory is a reflection of a person's experience by remembering, preserving and reproducing it.
Memory is an amazing property of human consciousness, it is the renewal in our minds of the past, images of what once impressed us.
In my old age I live again, The past passes before me. How long has it been rushing full of events, Waving like a sea-ocean?
Now it is silent and calm, Not many faces have been preserved by my memory, Few words reach me, And the rest has perished irrevocably...
A.S. Pushkin."Boris Godunov"
No other mental function can be carried out without the participation of memory. And memory itself is unthinkable outside of other mental processes. THEM. Sechenov noted that without memory, our sensations and perceptions, "disappearing without a trace as they arise, would leave a person forever in the position of a newborn."
Imagine a person who has lost his memory. The student was awakened in the morning, told to have breakfast and go to class. Most likely, he would not have come to the institute, and if he had, he would not have known what to do there, would have forgotten who he is, what his name is, where he lives, etc., he would have forgotten his native language and could not say a word . The past would no longer exist for him, the present would be unpromising, since he can remember nothing, cannot learn anything.
Remembering any images, thoughts, words, feelings, movements, we always remember them in a certain connection with each other. Without the establishment of certain connections, neither memorization, nor recognition, nor reproduction is possible. What does it mean to memorize a poem? This means memorizing a series of words in a certain connection, sequence. What does it mean to memorize some foreign word, such as the French "la table"? It means to establish a connection between this word and the subject that it denotes, or the Russian word "table". The connections that underlie the activity of memory are called associations. Association is a relationship between separate views in which one of these views calls another.
Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. To remember something means to connect what is remembered with something, to weave what needs to be remembered into a network of already existing connections, to form associations.
There are several types of associations:
- by adjacency: the perception or thought of one object or phenomenon entails the recall of other objects and phenomena adjacent to the first in space or time (this is how a sequence of actions is remembered, for example);
- similarity: images of objects, phenomena or their thoughts evoke a memory of something similar to them. These associations underlie poetic metaphors, for example, the sound of the waves is likened to the speech of people;
- by contrast: sharply different phenomena are associated - noise and silence, high and low, good and evil, white and black, etc.
Various associations are involved in the process of memorization and reproduction. For example, we recall the surname of a familiar person, a) passing near the house in which he lives, b) meeting someone who looks like him, c) naming another surname derived from a word that is opposite in meaning to that from which the surname comes an acquaintance, for example, Belov - Chernov.
In the process of memorization and reproduction, semantic connections play an exceptionally important role: cause - effect, the whole - its part, the general - the particular.
Memory connects a person's past with his present, ensures the unity of the individual. A person needs to know a lot and remember a lot, more and more every year of life. Books, records, tape recorders, cards in libraries, computers help a person to remember, but the main thing is his own memory.
In Greek mythology, there is the goddess of memory, Mnemosyne (or Mnemosyne, from the Greek word for "remembrance"). By the name of its goddess, memory in psychology is often called mnemonic activity.
In scientific psychology, the problem of memory is “the same age as psychology as a science” (P.P. Blonsky). Memory is the most complex mental process, therefore, despite its numerous studies, a unified theory of memory mechanisms has not yet been created. New scientific evidence shows that memory processes are associated with complex electrical and chemical changes in the nerve cells of the brain.
Types of memory
The forms of manifestation of memory are very diverse, since it is associated with various spheres of human life, with its characteristics.
All types of memory can be divided into three groups:
1) what a person remembers (objects and phenomena, thoughts, movements, feelings).
Accordingly, they distinguish: motor, emotional, verbal-logical and aboutdifferent memory;
2) as a person remembers (accidentally or intentionally). Here allocate arbitrary and involuntary memory;
3) how long memorized is preserved.
This is short term, long term and operational memory.
Motor (or motor) memory allows you to memorize skills, skills, various movements and actions. If this type of memory did not exist, then every time a person would have to re-learn how to walk, write, and perform various activities.
emotional memory helps to remember the feelings, emotions, experiences that we experienced in certain situations. Here is how A.S. Pushkin:
I thought my heart had forgotten The ability to suffer easily, I said: what was, Can't be! Not to be! Gone are raptures and sorrows, And gullible dreams...
But here again they trembled Before the powerful power of beauty.
K.S. Stanislavsky wrote about emotional memory: “Since you are able to turn pale, blush at the mere recollection of what you have experienced, since you are afraid to think about a long-experienced misfortune, you have a memory for feelings, or emotional memory.”
Emotional memory is of great importance in the formation of a person's personality, being the most important condition for his spiritual development.
Semantic, or verbal-logical memory is expressed in the memorization, preservation and reproduction of thoughts, concepts, reflections, verbal formulations. The form of thought reproduction depends on the level of speech development of a person. The less developed speech, the more difficult it is to express the meaning in your own words.
Image memory.
This type of memory is associated with our sense organs, thanks to which a person perceives the world around us. According to our senses, there are 5 types of figurative memory: auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, tactile. These types of figurative memory are unevenly developed in humans, one of them is always predominant.
Arbitrary memory presupposes the presence of a special goal to remember, which a person sets and applies appropriate techniques for this, makes strong-willed efforts.
involuntary memory does not imply a special goal to remember or recall this or that material, event, phenomenon, they are remembered as if by themselves, without the use of special techniques, without willpower efforts. Involuntary memory is an inexhaustible source of knowledge. In the development of memory, involuntary memorization precedes voluntary. It is very important to understand that a person involuntarily remembers not everything, but what is connected with his personality and activities. First of all, we involuntarily remember what we like, what we accidentally paid attention to, what we actively and enthusiastically work on.
Therefore, involuntary memory also has an active character. Animals already have involuntary memory. However, “the animal remembers, but the animal does not remember. In man, we clearly distinguish both these phenomena of memory” (K. Ushinsky). The best way to remember and keep in memory for a long time is to put knowledge into practice. In addition, memory does not want to keep in mind that which is contrary to the attitudes of the individual.
Short-term and long-term memory.
These two types of memory differ in the duration of the preservation of what a person remembers. Short-term memory has a relatively short duration - a few seconds or minutes. It is sufficient for the exact reproduction of the events that have just occurred, the objects and phenomena that have just been perceived. After a short time, the impressions disappear, and the person usually finds himself unable to remember anything from what he has perceived. Long-term memory provides long-term storage of material. What is important here is the setting to remember for a long time, the need for this information for the future, their personal significance for a person.
Allocate more operational memory, which refers to the memorization of some information for the time required to perform an operation, a separate act of activity. For example, in the process of solving any problem, it is necessary to keep in memory the initial data and intermediate operations, which can be forgotten in the future, until the result is obtained.
In the process of human development, the relative sequence of the formation of types of memory looks something like this:
All types of memory are necessary and valuable in themselves; in the process of life and maturation of a person, they do not disappear, but enrich, interact with each other.
Memory processes
The main processes of memory are memorization, reproduction, preservation, recognition, forgetting. By the nature of reproduction, the quality of the entire memory apparatus is judged.
Memory begins with remembering. memorization- this is a memory process that ensures the preservation of material in memory as the most important condition for its subsequent reproduction.
Memorization can be unintentional or intentional. At unintentional memorization a person does not set a goal to remember and does not make any efforts for this. Memorization happens by itself. This is how one remembers mainly that which is of vital interest to a person or evokes a strong and deep feeling in him: “I will never forget this!” But any activity requires a person to remember many things that cannot be remembered by themselves. Then comes into effect intentional, conscious memorization, i.e. the goal is to remember the material.
Memorization can be mechanical and semantic. Rote is based mainly on the consolidation of individual connections, associations. Semantic memorization associated with thought processes. In order to memorize new material, a person must understand it, comprehend it, i.e. find deep and meaningful relationships between this new material and the knowledge he already has.
If the main condition for mechanical memorization is repetition, then the condition for semantic memorization is understanding.
Both mechanical and semantic memorization are of great importance in the mental life of a person. When memorizing the proofs of a geometric theorem or analyzing historical events, a literary work, semantic memorization comes to the fore. In other cases, remember the number of the house, telephone, etc. - the main role belongs to mechanical memorization. In most cases, memory must rely on both comprehension and repetition. This is especially evident in educational work. For example, when memorizing a poem or any rule, understanding alone cannot be enough, just as mechanical repetition cannot be enough.
If memorization has the character of a specially organized work associated with the use of certain techniques for the best assimilation of knowledge, it is called memorization.
memorization depends:
a) on the nature of the activity, on the processes of goal-setting: arbitrary memorization, based on a consciously set goal - to remember, is more effective than involuntary;
b) from the installation - remember for a long time or remember for a short time.
We often start to memorize some material, knowing that in all probability we will use it only on a certain day or until a certain date, and that then it will not matter. Indeed, after this period, we forget what we have learned by heart.
It is better to memorize emotionally colored material, to which a person treats with an interest that is personally significant for him. Such a memory is motivated.
This is very convincingly shown in the story of K. Paustovsky "Glory to Boatswain Mironov":
“... And then an unusual story happened to the boatswain Mironov in the editorial office of Mayak ...
I don't remember who - the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs or Vneshtorg - asked the editors to provide all the information about Russian ships taken abroad. You need to know that the entire merchant fleet was taken away in order to understand how difficult it was.
And when we sat through the hot Odessa days over the ship's lists, when the editorial office was sweating from stress and recalling the old captains, when exhaustion from the confusion of new shipping names, flags, tons and deadweights reached its highest tension, Mironov appeared in the editorial office.
Drop it, he said. - So you won't get a damn thing.
I will speak and you write. Write! The Jerusalem steamer is now sailing under the French flag from Marseille to Madagascar, chartered by the French company Paquet, French crew, captain Borisov, all our boatswains, the underwater part has not been cleaned since 1917. Keep writing. Steamship "Muravyov-Apostol", now renamed "Anatole". Sailing under the English flag, hauling bread from Montreal to Liverpool and London, chartered by Royal Mail Canada. I last saw him last autumn in New Port New.
This went on for three days. For three days from morning to evening, smoking cigarettes, he dictated a list of all the ships of the Russian merchant fleet, called their new names, the names of the captains, voyages, the state of the boilers, the composition of the crew, the cargo. The captains just shook their heads. Marine Odessa was agitated. The rumor about the monstrous memory of the boatswain Mironov spread with lightning speed ... "
An active attitude to the process of memorization is very important, which is impossible without intense attention. For memorization, it is more useful to read the text with full concentration of attention 2 times than to reread it inattentively 10 times. Therefore, attempts to memorize something in a state of severe fatigue, drowsiness, when it is not possible to focus attention properly, is a waste of time. The worst and most uneconomical way of memorization is to mechanically reread the text in anticipation of it being memorized. Reasonable and economical memorization is active work on the text, which involves the use of a number of techniques for better memorization.
V.D. Shadrikov, for example, offers the following ways of arbitrary or organized memorization:
Grouping - dividing the material into groups for some reason (by meaning, associations, etc.), highlighting strong points (abstracts, titles, questions, examples, etc., in this sense, compiling cheat sheets is useful for memorizing ), plan - a set of strong points; classification - the distribution of any objects, phenomena, concepts into classes, groups based on common features.
Structuring the material is the establishment of the mutual arrangement of the parts that make up the whole.
Schematic - a picture or description of something in general terms.
Analogy - the establishment of similarities, similarities between phenomena, objects, concepts, images.
Mnemic techniques are certain techniques or methods of memorization.
Recoding - verbalization or pronunciation, presentation of information in a figurative form.
Completing the memorized material, introducing something new into memorization (using words or intermediary images, situational signs, etc. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov was born in 1814, died in 1841).
Associations establishing relationships by similarity, adjacencies or opposites.
Repetition consciously controlled and not controlled processes of material reproduction. It is necessary to start trying to reproduce the text as early as possible, since internal activity mobilizes attention to the strongest degree and makes memorization successful. Memorization is carried out more quickly and is more durable when repetitions do not follow one another directly, but are separated by more or less significant intervals of time.
Playback is an essential component of memory. Reproduction can proceed at three levels: recognition, reproduction itself (voluntary and involuntary), recall (in conditions of partial forgetting, requiring volitional effort).
Recognition- the simplest form of reproduction. Recognition is the appearance of a feeling of familiarity when re-perceiving something.
Involuntarily, an unknown force draws me to these sad shores.
Everything here reminds me of the past...
A.S. Pushkin."Mermaid"
Playback- a more "blind" process, it is characterized by the fact that the images fixed in the memory arise without relying on the secondary perception of certain objects. It is easier to learn than to reproduce.
At unintentional reproduction thoughts, words, etc. are remembered by themselves, without any conscious intention on our part. The reason for unintentional playback may be associations. We say: "I remembered." Here thought follows association. At intentional reproduction we say, "I remember." Here the associations follow the thought.
If reproduction is difficult, we speak of recall.
Remembrance- the most active reproduction, it is associated with tension and requires certain volitional efforts. The success of recall depends on the understanding of the logical connection of the forgotten material with the rest of the material that is well preserved in the memory. It is important to evoke a chain of associations that indirectly help to recall the necessary. K.D. Ushinsky gave the following advice to teachers: do not impatiently prompt a student who is trying to remember the material, since the process of recall itself is useful - what the child himself managed to remember will be remembered well in the future.
Remembering, a person uses various techniques:
1) intentional use of associations - we reproduce in memory various kinds of circumstances that are directly related to what needs to be remembered, in the expectation that by association they will cause the forgotten in the mind (for example, where did I put the key? turned off I iron, leaving the apartment?, etc.);
2) reliance on recognition (they forgot the exact patronymic of a person - Pyotr Andreevich, Pyotr Alekseevich, Pyotr Antonovich - we think that if we accidentally get to the correct patronymic, we will immediately recognize him, having experienced a feeling of familiarity.
Recall is a complex and very active process that requires perseverance and resourcefulness.
The main of all the qualities that determine the productivity of memory is its readiness - the ability to quickly extract from the stock of memorized information exactly what is needed at the moment. Psychologist K.K. Platonov drew attention to that. that there are l RODI who know a LOT, but all their baggage lies in the memory of a dead weight. When you need to remember something, the necessary is always forgotten, and the unnecessary “gets into your head on its own.” For others, the luggage may be smaller, but everything is at hand in it, and exactly what is needed is always reproduced in memory.
K.K. Platonov gave useful tips for memorization. You can’t first learn something somehow at all, and then develop the readiness of memory. The readiness of memory itself is formed in the process of memorization, which must necessarily be semantic and during which links are immediately established between memorization and those cases when this information may be needed. Remembering something, you need to understand why we do it and in what cases certain information may be needed.
Saving and forgetting- these are two sides of a single process of long-term retention of perceived information. Preservation - is retention, and forgetting - it is a disappearance, a dropping out of the memory of the memorized.
At different ages, in different life circumstances, in different activities, different material is forgotten, as one remembers, in different ways. Forgetting isn't always so bad. How overloaded our memory would be if we remembered absolutely everything! Forgetting, like memorization, is a selective process that has its own patterns.
Remembering, people willingly resurrect the good and forget the bad in their lives (for example, remembering a campaign - difficulties are forgotten, but everything fun, good is remembered). First of all, what is forgotten is that which is not of vital importance for a person, does not arouse his interest, does not occupy a significant place in his activity. What excited us is remembered much better than what left us indifferent, indifferent.
Thanks to forgetting, a person clears the place for new impressions and, freeing memory from a pile of unnecessary details, gives it a new opportunity to serve our thinking. This is well reflected in folk proverbs, for example: "Whoever needs someone, that one is remembered."
In the late 1920s, forgetting was studied by the German and Russian psychologists Kurt Lewin and B.V. Zeigarnik. They proved that interrupted actions are retained in memory more strongly than completed ones. An incomplete action leaves a subconscious tension in a person and it is difficult for him to focus on something else. At the same time, simple monotonous work like knitting cannot be interrupted, it can only be left. But when, for example, a person writes a letter and is interrupted in the middle, there is a violation of the tension system, which does not allow forgetting this unfinished action. This sensation of unfinished action is called the Zeigarnik effect.
But forgetting, of course, is not always good, so it is often fought with. One of the means of such struggle is repetition. Any knowledge that is not consolidated by repetition is gradually forgotten. But for better preservation, it is necessary to introduce variety into the very process of repetition.
Forgetting begins shortly after memorization and at first proceeds at a particularly rapid pace. In the first 5 days, more is forgotten after memorization than in the next 5 days. Therefore, what has been learned should be repeated not when it has already been forgotten, but while forgetting has not yet begun. A cursory repetition is enough to prevent forgetting, but a lot of work is needed to restore what has been forgotten.
But this is not always the case. Experiments show that it is not uncommon for reproduction to be most complete not immediately after memorization, but after a day, two or even three days. During this time, the learned material is not only not forgotten, but, on the contrary, is fixed in memory. This is observed mainly when memorizing extensive material. This leads to a practical conclusion: one should not think that the best answer in the exam is what is learned immediately before the exam, for example, on the same morning.
More favorable conditions for reproduction are created when the learned material “rests” for some time. It is necessary to take into account the fact that the subsequent activity, which is very similar to the previous one, can sometimes "erase" the results of the previous memorization. This sometimes happens if you study literature after history.
Forgetting can be the result of various disordersmemory:
1) senile, when an elderly person remembers early childhood, but does not remember all the upcoming events,
2) with concussion, the same phenomena are often observed as in old age,
3) split personality - after sleep, a person imagines himself to be different, forgets everything about himself.
It is often difficult for a person to remember something on purpose. To facilitate memorization, people have come up with different ways, they are called memorization techniques or mnemonics. Let's take a look at some of them.
1. Rhyme reception. Any person remembers poetry better than prose. Therefore, it will be difficult to forget the rules of behavior on the escalator in the subway, if you present them in the form of a playful quatrain:
Canes, umbrellas and suitcases You do not put on the steps, Do not lean on the railing, Stand on the right, go on the left.
Or, for example, in Russian there are eleven exception verbs that are not easy to remember. What if they rhyme?
See, hear and offend, Drive, endure and hate,
And twirl, watch, hold,
And depend and breathe
Look, -it, -at, -yat write.
Or, in order not to confuse the bisector and median in geometry:
A bisector is a rat that runs around the corners and divides the corner in half.
The median is such a monkey that jumps to the side and divides it equally.
Or, to memorize all the colors of the rainbow, memorize the jolly sentence: "How once Jacques the bell-ringer broke a lantern with his head." Here, every word and color starts with one letter - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
2. A number of mnemonic techniques are used when remembering the dates of birth of famous people or significant events. For example, I.S. Turgenev was born in 1818 (18-18), A.S. Pushkin was born one year before the 19th century (1799), M.Yu. Lermontov was born in 1814 and died in 1841 (14-41).
3. In order to remember what is the organ of daytime vision and what is night vision - rods or cones, you can remember the following: at night it is easier to walk with a wand, and they work with cones in the laboratory during the day.
The qualities of memory
What is good and bad memory?
Memory begins with memorization the information that our senses receive from the outside world. All images, words, impressions in general must be retained, remain in our memory. In psychology, this process is called - preservation. When needed, we reproducible previously seen, heard, experienced. It is by reproduction that the quality of the entire memory apparatus is judged.
A good memory is the ability to remember quickly and a lot, to reproduce accurately and on time.
However, one cannot attribute all the successes and failures of a person, his victories and losses, discoveries and mistakes to memory alone. No wonder the French thinker F. La Rochefoucauld wittily remarked: "Everyone complains about their memory, but no one complains about their mind."
So, the qualities of memory:
1) memorization speed. However, it acquires value only in combination with other qualities;
2) preservation strength;
3) memory accuracy - absence of distortions, essential omissions;
4) memory readiness- the ability to quickly extract from the memory reserves what is needed at the moment.
Not all people quickly memorize material, remember for a long time and accurately reproduce or recall exactly at the very moment when it is needed. Yes, and this manifests itself differently in relation to different material, depending on the interests of a person, his profession, personal characteristics. Someone remembers faces well, but badly remembers mathematical material, others have a good musical memory, but bad for literary texts, etc. In schoolchildren and students, poor memorization of material often depends not on poor memory, but on poor attention, on lack of interest in this subject, etc.
Performance
One of the main manifestations of memory is reproduction of images. Images of objects and phenomena that we do not perceive at the moment are called representations. Representations arise as a result of the revival of previously formed temporary connections; they can be called up by the mechanism of associations, with the help of a word, a description.
Representations are different from concepts. The concept has a more generalized and abstract character, while the representation has a visual character. Representation is an image of an object, a concept is a thought about an object. Thinking about something and imagining something are not the same thing. For example, a thousand-square - there is a concept, but it is impossible to imagine. The source of representations are sensations and perceptions - visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic.
Representations are characterized by clarity, i.e. direct similarity with the corresponding objects and phenomena (we internally or mentally “see”, “hear”, “smell”, “feel” touches, etc.).
Weight I see Pavlovsk hilly. Round meadow, inanimate water, The most languid and the most shady, After all, it will never be forgotten.
A. Akhmatova
But representations are usually much poorer than perceptions. Representations never convey with the same brightness all the features and signs of objects; only individual features are clearly reproduced.
Representations are very unstable and changeable. The exception is people who have highly developed ideas related to their profession, for example, for musicians - auditory, for artists - visual, for tasters - olfactory, etc.
Representations are the result of processing and generalization of past perceptions. Without perceptions, representations could not have been formed: the blind born have no ideas about colors and colors, the deaf from birth have no sound representations.
It is more accurate to call a representation a representation of memory, since it is connected with the work of figurative memory. The difference between representations and perceptions is that representations give a more generalized reflection of objects. In representations separate perceptions are generalized, constant signs of things and phenomena are emphasized and accidental signs that were previously available in separate perceptions are omitted. For example, we see a tree - an image of perception, we represent a tree - the image is dimmer, more indefinite and inaccurate.
Representation is a generalized reflection of the surrounding world. We say "river" and imagine it: two banks, flowing water. We have seen many different rivers, the presentation reflects visual signs characteristic of objects and phenomena. We can perceive only a specific river - the Volga, the Moskva River, the Kama, the Yenisei, the Oka, etc., the image of perception is accurate.
To imagine means to mentally see or mentally hear something, and not just to know. Representation is a higher stage of cognition than perception, they are the stage of transition from sensation to thought, this is a clear and at the same time generalized image that reflects the characteristic features of an object.
We can imagine the whistle of a steamboat, the taste of lemon, the smell of gasoline, perfume, flowers, touching something, or a toothache. Of course, anyone who has never had a toothache cannot imagine this. Usually, when we say something, we ask: “Can you imagine?!”
Speech plays an important role in the formation of general ideas, naming a number of objects in one word.
Representations are formed in the process of human activity, therefore, depending on the profession, one type of representations mainly develops. But the division of representations by type is very conditional.
Success in almost all areas of life depends on whether we can remember the right information at a certain time. So the human memory and attempts to improve it have been in the center of close attention of the entire globe for hundreds of years.
Human memory provides the continuity of experience and the basis for the development of personality. All our impressions leave a trace and, when we need to, they are updated, recalled. If it were not for memory, everything would become a moment, because only preservation and the possibility of reproduction organizes a person's idea of himself as a subject that exists up to the present moment.
Meaning and history
Memory as a mental process is associated with all mental functions, its connection with emotions, motor functions and cognitive processes is especially strong. Bartlett emphasizes that memories are not lifeless and fixed once and for all layers of experience.
Remembrance is creation, construction, the basis of which is our attitude to the past. That is, every time we remember, we create – the parts of the brain, in which there was an excitation to an event in the past, become active again when we remember, creating it.
All other creatures, except for humans, have genetic and mechanical memory. The genetic is responsible for the transfer through the genes of those properties that are necessary for the creature to survive. Mechanical - the result of learning for a short period of life. Both are incapable of the kind of organization of experience that human memory makes possible.
The concept of memory has long been under the jurisdiction of philosophy, as it is one of the foundations of human knowledge. Plato represented it in the form of an imprint, however, without endowing it with activity. Aristotle singled out the role of associations when referring to it in the process of thinking.
From the middle of the 19th century, an era of memory research in psychology opens. At this time, an experimental approach to the development of concepts related to the mental life of the individual is being laid. Thanks to the successes that psychology has achieved, it has become clear what memory is - a property of the nervous system, which consists in saving, reproducing and changing information, but so far no consensus has been reached on a huge number of side issues.
general information
Memory is a condition for learning, the formation of skills, the acquisition of knowledge. The main functions of memory: recognition, reproduction, memorization, preservation.
Because of the abundance of grounds for classification, there are many different groups within which it is subdivided into specific species. For example, on the basis of difference from other creatures, the following types of memory in humans can be distinguished:
- Arbitrary. Responsible for purposeful memorization.
- Logical. The inclusion of the memorized in logical connections.
- mediated. The use of memory aids.
On the other hand, the storage time of the material in memory plays an important role. And its types for the duration of storage are different:
1. Instant memory
Instantaneous, it can also be called sensory, is a direct reflection of what the senses have perceived. It retains information for about 0.1-0.5 seconds. It represents an impression.
Short-term - responsible for storing the most essential elements of the image for 20 seconds, if the material is not repeated. This memory belongs to the realm of the actual consciousness of a person, it contains only that which corresponds to the individual portrait of the personality, that which the person paid attention to.
3. RAM
Or, as it is also called, a person's working memory can store information for up to several days, depending on the task. The stored information is needed precisely to solve the problem facing the person. The operational one can be increased, which will lead to the development of a mobile one.
4. Long-term memory
It contains the most fundamental and significant memories and knowledge. Stores information indefinitely. Repetition reinforces stored experience.
5. Genetic memory
Information in the genotype that is inherited. It is on her that we cannot influence.
The quality of memory depends on the individual characteristics of the person himself. The individual features of the processes of memorization and reproduction in humans add up to types of memory. Among them are: figurative, verbal-logical. Thus, the figurative type is distinguished by the fact that whole “pieces” of the image are preserved. In the semantic type, the elements of the perceived are built into a system, the emphasis is on the meaning, and not on the form.
Structure
William James was the first to propose the division of memory into short-term and long-term on the basis that we irretrievably lose some of the information that we receive, and remember the other for many years. Ebbinghaus introduced his forgetting curve around the same time. Ebbinghaus' law states that we forget more than half of what we have learned in an hour, and by the end of the week less than 1/5 of what we have learned is left.
Thanks to experiments and observations on people with brain damage, we already know that the parts of the brain responsible for short-term and long-term memory are different. There are still different theories about the volumes of the short-term.
One of them, which is perhaps the most popular, is that the maximum number of storage units in it is 7. It does not matter what we consider a unit of information - a letter or a word. If you give a set of letters, then a person will remember about 7, the same thing will happen with words, although words seem to be more informative and complex units of information.
Thus, the ability to remember 7 units of information, in fact, does not limit us too much. It is enough to correctly organize disparate elements into groups so that there are no more than 7 of these groups, then it will be possible to remember huge pieces of information. Proper organization refers to the process of combining groups with information from long-term memory. The effectiveness of this technique has been proven in the experiments of Bauer and Springston.
Some scientists (Baddeley and others) advocate that the amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory is limited only by the speed with which we repeat information. Thus, time is of the essence. The more information we can fit into a small amount of time, the better we can potentially remember it.
We are always in the short-term, it is directly given to us. Our knowledge, memories and everything else that gives meaning to life and allows us to perceive new experience are in the long-term. She, apparently, can store an unlimited amount of information for any period of time.
On the one hand, memory is everywhere in the brain, on the other hand, some areas clearly perform the functions necessary for the interaction of its different types. How does memory and memorization work? Hebb's theory provides an original answer to this:
- Due to the short-term, a coil of nervous activity begins.
- A sufficiently large number of repetitions leads to a chemical or structural change.
- If there was a combination of information with past memories, a meaningful inclusion, then the information is transferred to permanent storage.
Mnemonics - the art of remembering
There are a huge number of sources talking about how to develop memory. It is best to turn directly to cognitive psychology, which has been conducting experiments for years and studying the mental processes of a person and the development of memory itself. Features of memory not only improve the memorization of information, but make it possible to intensively develop the intellectual level of a person.
Organization can occur with the help of familiar ideas, things, objects. Associations of a stranger with a friend allow you to quickly access information. Connecting the imagination, crossing the new and unfamiliar with it, or creating scenes from objects, allows you to remember the material much faster and for a longer period.
The second fact that is needed for the development of memory is that vivid emotions associated with some information make it possible to memorize this information easily and for a long time.
Third: repetitions at short intervals have a better effect on memorizing the material than “shock” classes with long breaks.
And the last thing: an increase in blood glucose levels immediately after memorizing information leads to the fact that it is easier for a person to reproduce it in the future.
Memory training will help people who want to develop analytical skills. Exercises aimed at developing working memory improve logical thinking, as well as the ability to concentrate, which are almost the basis of any successful study and work. It turns out that when we develop memory, we develop in general. How to train this type of memory:
- A person is presented with visual or sound images one after another.
- The task of a person is to indicate whether the image that he perceives now was already presented before at an n-step ago.
2. Method of places
Improving memory allows you to remember absolutely everything, but for this you will first have to develop concentration. The method of places, which has been known since 500 BC, is the arrangement of objects of thought in places in a certain room that is well known to you.
Poor memory complicates the learning process, prevents the manifestation of the full potential of the individual, therefore, a person’s memory must be developed from childhood and throughout life. Author: Ekaterina Volkova
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Introduction
Memory is of great importance, since it depends on its development how intelligent and educated a person will be. The development of memory begins in childhood, including in preschool educational institutions.
Memory is the basis of any mental phenomenon. Sensations and perceptions without the inclusion of memory in the act of cognition would be experienced by a person as having arisen for the first time, which would exclude the possibility of knowing the world and orienting in it. Memory ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality. The normal functioning of the individual and society is impossible without memory.
Memory has several types: figurative, semantic (verbal-logical), motor, emotional, short-term and long-term.
The development of memory is necessary and important even in childhood, since the further development of the child depends on it, therefore the relevance of the work lies in the fact that among the variety of proposed methods and means, choose the one that meets all standards, is effective and rational.
The purpose of the work is to explore the types and features of human memory, its development in the learning process.
To write this work, the following research methods and techniques were used: studying the literature on this topic; psychological and pedagogical techniques (observation).
The significance of sociocultural factors in the formation of higher forms of memory was studied by P. Janet. The mechanisms of memory and various types of memory - motor, emotional, figurative, verbal - logical, were studied in detail by P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, J. Bruner, J. Piaget. A great contribution to the development of the processes of voluntary and involuntary memorization was made by P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov and others. Features of the memory of preschool children are described in detail in the works of L.A. Venger, V.S. Mukhina. The development of cognitive processes of a preschool child in various types of cognitive-speech activity and activation methods that increase the cognitive activity of children are described in the works of O.A. Shagraeva, L.G. Niskanen, N.N. Podyakova, R. Zintsa, F.V. Ippolitova, E.S. Malykh, D. Lapp and others.
1. The concept of memory. Types of memory
R.S. Nemov notes: “The impressions that a person receives about the world around him leave a certain trace, are preserved, consolidated, and, if necessary and possible, are reproduced. These processes are called memory. “Without memory,” wrote S.L. Rubinshtein, “we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it flows, would irrevocably disappear into the past.
Memory is the basis of human abilities, it is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, developing skills and abilities. Without memory, the normal functioning of either the individual or society is impossible.
Memory can be defined as the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience. Diverse instincts, innate and acquired mechanisms of behavior are nothing but imprinted, inherited or acquired in the process of individual life experience. Without the constant renewal of such experience, its reproduction under suitable conditions, living organisms would not be able to adapt to the current rapidly changing events of life.
All living beings have memory, but it reaches the highest level of its development in humans. No other living being in the world has such mnemonic possibilities as he possesses.
Human memory can be defined as psycho-physiological and cultural processes that perform the functions of remembering, storing and reproducing information in life. These functions are basic for memory. They are different not only in their structure, initial data and results, but also in the fact that they are developed differently in different people.
In the scientific literature, there are various definitions of memory, which are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 - Definition of memory given by different authors
|
Definition of memory |
||
|
R.S. Nemov |
Psychophysiological and cultural processes that perform the functions of remembering, preserving and reproducing information in life. |
|
|
S.K. Nartova-Bochaver |
The property of the psyche to perceive, store and reproduce some information, which can have a very different form and content. |
|
|
E.I. Horns |
Imprinting, preservation and subsequent recognition, and reproduction of traces of past experience, which allows you to accumulate information without losing your previous knowledge, information, skills. |
|
|
L.V. Cheryomushkin |
The basis of mental life, the basis of our consciousness. It is a magic box that preserves our past for our future. |
|
|
The ability to preserve and reproduce in the mind previous impressions, experience, as well as the very stock of impressions and experience stored in the mind. |
||
|
M.N. Ilyin |
The ability to receive, store and reproduce information. Memory underlies the abilities of the child, is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge and skills. |
|
|
G.A. Uruntaeva |
Mental cognitive process, consisting in the reflection of past experience. |
|
|
V.M. Smirnov |
The ability of an organism to acquire, store and reproduce information and experience in consciousness. |
Thus, the above definitions indicate the disunity of the concept of "memory", that it is a philosophical category. After analyzing the definitions of "memory", we will adhere to the characteristics of the concept of "memory" by E.I. Rogov: memory - imprinting, preservation and subsequent recognition, and reproduction of traces of past experience, allowing you to accumulate information without losing your previous knowledge, information, skills.
In modern psychological literature, there are various classifications of types of memory. Figure 1 shows the classification of memory developed by M.A. Cold. In our opinion, this classification most fully reflects all types of memory, which also include subtypes of memory.
Figure 1 - Classification of memory
So, depending on the duration of information storage, the following types of information are distinguished:
short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition);
random access memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term;
Long-term memory is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time.
When using long-term memory, recall often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.
In many life situations, the processes of short-term and long-term memory work in conjunction and in parallel. For example, when a person sets himself the task of remembering something that obviously exceeds the capabilities of his short-term memory, he often consciously or unconsciously turns to the use of semantic processing and grouping of material, which facilitates memorization.
Such a grouping, in turn, involves the use of long-term memory, appeal to past experience, extracting from it the knowledge and concepts necessary for generalization, ways of grouping the memorized material, reducing it to the number of semantic units that do not exceed the amount of short-term memory.
Figure 2 shows the interrelated work of short-term and long-term memory, including displacement, repetition and coding as private processes that make up the work of memory.
Figure 2 - Memory scheme according to R. Atkinson and R. Shifrin
The translation of information from short-term to long-term memory often causes difficulties, since in order to do this in the best way, it is necessary to first comprehend and structure the material in a certain way, link it with what a person knows well. It is precisely because of the insufficiency of this work, or because of the inability to carry it out quickly and efficiently, that people's memory seems to be weak, although in fact it may have great potentialities.
According to the material of activity, memory is distinguished:
motor, which is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. It is involved in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. The improvement of human hand movements is directly related to this type of memory;
emotional is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but it is especially manifested in human relationships. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period;
figurative - this is a memory for ideas, for pictures of nature and life, as well as for sounds, smells, tastes. It can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory;
verbal, which refers to the memorization of material related to the sign system - words, texts, mathematical symbols, and so on, and the processes of operating with this material.
According to the leading analyzer, the following types of memory are distinguished:
visual, associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is based, in particular, on the process of memorizing and reproducing material: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily;
auditory - this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who possesses it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning of the text being read, and the like.
Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role is mainly reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the body.
According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization and reproduction of material, memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary. In the first case, they mean such memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting a special mnemonic task for himself (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.
L.N. Leontiev considers arbitrary memorization as a purposeful mediated process, including certain techniques or methods of memorization. He found that under the conditions of an experiment with memorizing words (based on pictures), some older preschoolers are already able to use this memorization technique, as evidenced by a significant increase in the number of words retained in memory compared to the number of words they memorize without the help of pictures.
In a number of studies P.I. Zinchenko, an increase in the productivity of arbitrary memorization with age was noted. This suggests that at preschool age children begin to form mnemonic activity with specific goals and ways of its implementation. At the same time, the importance of a special study of the development of voluntary memory in preschool children is of great importance. It was this problem that was devoted to the experimental study of P.I. Zinchenko.
Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary, in many cases it surpasses it. Involuntarily, material is also remembered better, which is associated with interesting and complex mental work and which is of great importance for a person.
P.I. Zinchenko and A.A. Smirnov, on the basis of many experiments, came to the conclusion that involuntary memorization is memorization without setting a goal to remember and without specially directed efforts.
The memory of a preschooler is basically involuntary. This is due to the fact that the child, as a rule, does not set himself conscious goals to remember anything. Memorization and recollection occurs independently of his will and consciousness. They are carried out in the activity and depend on its nature.
Thus, several types of memory are distinguished in the literature, each type of memory has its own functions and features. In order for memory to be productive, it is necessary to develop it from preschool age, using various techniques.
Based on the analysis of various characteristics of the concept of “memory”, we can give the following definition: memory is the ability to capture and store information, and then recognize it, without losing previous knowledge, skills and abilities.
Psychological features of memory development
memory thinking child remembering
Figurative memory artificially causes the missing sensations, supplementing the truncated information to a full-fledged image that caused it. The inclusion of all channels of perception cancels the principle "Repetition is the mother of learning." Repetition destroys what one has memorized. Nature does not repeat itself a second time.
Children's memory is rich in images of individual specific objects that a child once perceived: the taste of drink and cake, the smell of tangerines and flowers, the sounds of music, the cat's fur soft to the touch, and the like.
During the period of keeping the image in memory, it undergoes transformations:
Simplification by omitting individual parts;
Exaggeration of individual details;
Transforming a figure into a more symmetrical and different one.
This is a figurative memory - a memory of what is perceived with the help of the senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell. Therefore, figurative memory is divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile.
Visual memory. The power of visual images can be stored in memory for many years. Visual memory, one of the types of memory, characterized by the fact that people who possess it more easily remember the impressions they received through vision; so, when memorizing by heart, they achieve this faster if they themselves read than if they are read aloud, since when they transmit what they read, visual images of what they read, pages and lines on which it is written, arise in their minds. Faces or objects ever seen sometimes remain in the memory for a lifetime. The study shows that visual memory is better developed in girls than in boys. Some scientists localize visual memory on the outer surface of the occipital lobe, the destruction of which leads to a lack of recognition of objects (or the so-called mental blindness).
auditory memory. Auditory memory is a figurative memory associated with the activity of the auditory analyzer and aimed at remembering sounds: music, noises, and so on.
Olfactory memory. Olfactory memory is a figurative memory associated with the activity of olfactory analyzers. Designed to memorize smells. In humans, compared with animals, it is significantly reduced.
Taste memory, in turn, is associated with the activity of taste analyzers, and is aimed at remembering tastes.
Tactile memory is a memory that allows you to store information about the outside world.
In each person, all types are developed differently, as a rule, one or two, less often three, types of memory are most developed. For example, a person will remember this or that information better if he can read it, another - after listening to the same text. There are practically no people in whom all types of memory were developed equally well.
In modern literature, there are different points of view on the methods and ways of developing memory. For example, M. Ibuka, Acting Director of the Early Development Association and Director of Talent Education, found that children easily memorize the spelling of complex Chinese characters, such as "pigeon" or "giraffe." Unlike abstract words like "nine", a child can easily memorize words for specific objects - "giraffe", "raccoon", "fox" - no matter how difficult they are. If an adult has to make a conscious effort to memorize, then the child has a wonderful figurative memory.
This is one of the features of the child's brain - to see an object that is not in sight. Children think in pictures. M.V. Osorina believed that the ability to figuratively represent in the mind and fantasize develops in a child in ascending order from two to five years. At this age, he discovers new opportunities to double the world, presenting imaginary images on the inner mental screen. This ability gives him the ability to do things he can't do in real life.
If you constantly include games to create images in classes with a child, then this way of remembering will become familiar to the baby, images will arise without tension.
M. Abibulaeva notes: “Parents generally pay attention to a child's poor memory only when he already has problems at school. He cannot remember a simple story or verse, cannot solve a problem because it is difficult for him to imagine its solution. That is why the training of figurative memorization should take place much earlier than any difficulties arise.
V. Oaklander describes numerous studies that have reliably shown that children who are capable of playing imagination have a higher IQ, overcome difficulties more easily, and the development of imagination improves their adaptive capabilities and learning process.
L.V. Cheremoshkina, in the manual for parents and teachers "Development of Children's Memory", writes that "as psychological studies show, a preschooler remembers extremely little material. On average, out of 15 words named to him, he remembers only 2.12 words. It is safe to say that children 3-4 years old are not yet ready to use any aids for memorization: pictures, tips, questions only prevent the child from memorizing.
The first rudiments of free memories, with which, according to P.P. Blonsky, it would be most careful to connect the beginning of figurative memory, he refers to the second year of life.
It should also be recognized as correct Blonsky's assertions that we do not yet know when images appear in children. He concluded that figurative memory appears somewhat earlier than verbal, but much later than motor and affective.
The earlier appearance of figurative memory does not mean its subsequent disappearance and replacement by verbal memory. However, figurative memory, says P.P. Blonsky, continues to remain at a lower level of memory compared to verbal. This also applies to the most developed - visual images of memory, which arise most easily when a person's consciousness is at a lower level than with full, perfect wakefulness. Visual memory can only be viewed as a low form of memory. Usually, visual memory is poor, so another, higher type of memory, story memory, is incomparably more useful.
Memory-story is, according to P.P. Blonsky, genuine verbal memory, which must be distinguished from the memorization and reproduction of speech movements, for example, when memorizing meaningless verbal material.
Representing the highest level of memory, memory-story, in turn, does not immediately appear in the most perfect forms. She goes through drinking, characterized by the main stages of the development of the story. Initially, the story is only a verbal accompaniment of the action, then it is the words accompanied by the action, and only then the verbal story appears on its own, as a living and figurative message.
These are the main provisions of the concept of P.P. Blonsky about the correlation of figurative and verbal memory in their development.
A study by N.A. Kornienko. The subjects - preschool children - were asked to memorize and then reproduce: in some cases - a number of objects (toys) that are easily divided into semantic groups (first series), in other cases - the same number of words that have a specific meaning (second series), in third - the name of trees and shrubs not familiar to children (third series).
The results of the study showed the following: 1) in all age groups, the highest indicators were obtained in experiments with memorizing objects; 2) the second place was taken by the memorization of words of a specific meaning; 3) remembering unfamiliar names was the least productive; 4) the difference between all cases of memorization decreased with age; 5) the differences between the productivity of memorizing different kinds of material in the experiments with reproduction turned out to be sharply pronounced in comparison with the experiments with recognition, and at the same time they converged significantly.
Thanks to the restructuring of mnemonic processes at preschool age, the child is able to set conscious goals for himself (remember, recall) and strives to achieve them. This drop is a complex process that includes two main steps. The first stage is the identification and allocation of a mnemonic goal by the child. At the second stage, the corresponding actions and operations are formed.
In the middle preschool age, the first attempts to apply certain techniques appear. Children can independently carry out, albeit in simple forms, the processing of material. In the experiments of Z.M. Istomina during the exercises, the children showed the ability to use certain techniques in the form of mental operations for mnemonic purposes (this increases the productivity of memorization). This makes it possible to teach the child how to remember and recall.
The upbringing of logical memory presupposes, first of all, the development of the mental activity of children - the development of the ability to analyze, highlight properties, signs, and compare in objects; carry out generalization, combining objects according to signs, classify on the basis of generalization; establish meaningful connections. Mental operations become ways of logical thinking.
During the work of L.M. Zhitnikova, Z.M. Istomina, A.N. Belousa, devoted to the study of the formation of methods of logical memorization in the conditions of special education, it was found that children can already master in the process of specially organized learning such logical memorization techniques as semantic correlation and mental grouping, and use them for mnemonic purposes.
Classification (grouping) as a way of memorization consists in using the general names of groups as a support in memorizing and reproducing their constituent elements. First, the child carries out a simple orientation in the material proposed for memorization. Then he begins to lay out the pictures into groups for and remembers what is included in each group, and when playing, he relies on the groups he himself formed.
In the process of mastering the grouping as a method of logical memorization, the children experienced difficulties. P.I. Zinchenko notes that at the first stages, many children have a bifurcation of mental and mnemonic activity. It manifests itself in the following: when performing the operation of mental grouping, children forget that they need to memorize pictures, and when they try to remember, they stop grouping. However, when this technique is mastered by children, it brings a significant mnemonic effect. L.M. Zhitnikova notes that already at the early preschool age, children show shifts in memorization due to their mastery of grouping as a cognitive action. Children of senior and middle preschool age, successfully mastering the classification, consciously use it as a way of memorizing.
Children's mastery of semantic correlation as an independent intellectual action is carried out in several stages of increasing complexity. First you need to learn how to find an identical picture to the proposed picture. After that, the children learn to find for this picture not identical, but only similar to it in content, close in meaning. At the next stage, the task becomes more complicated: for the name (word), you need to select a picture with an image of an object designated by this word, and then select a picture that is close to the word in content. Z.M. Istomina emphasizes that the classes are repeated as many times as necessary for children to learn how to correctly correlate pictures.
To use the semantic correlation of words with pictures for mnemonic purposes, a condition is required: children must master well not only direct, but also reverse operations. It is important that these operations are well practiced on their own. This is a condition for the transition of a mental action into a mnemonic device.
In the process of learning semantic correlation as a method of memorization, Z.M. Istomina revealed noticeable age and individual differences. Experiments have shown that in order to form a semantic correlation as a mnemonic device for children of primary preschool age, a different number of training sessions and multiple solutions to various problems are necessary. For older preschoolers, the number of learning steps is noticeably reduced. With age, the number of semantic connections increases and the number of connections established on random associations decreases.
Before senior preschool age, connections based on association by adjacency predominate. The highest productivity of reproduction takes place when relying on semantic connections, as connections by similarity and contiguity. The lowest productivity is found in children who have established random connections. In general, the use of semantic correlation by children has a positive effect on the productivity of mnemonic activities, and the effectiveness of its use increases with age.
Thus, qualitative changes in the work of memory can occur in a relatively early period of a child's development (in the middle preschool age), but only under the condition of specially organized, purposeful training in logical memorization programs. It is advisable to simultaneously teach children various methods of logical memorization, tk. they rely on similar mental operations. Self-control also plays a significant role in increasing the productivity of memorization. The results of these studies seem to be very important in connection with the preparation of preschoolers for schooling.
The task of studying the role of the word in the development of memory was considered by B.N. Saltzman. The children were shown colored figures from the mosaic, after which the subjects had to lay out these figures from the mosaic from memory. In the first series of experiments, the examination of the figures was carried out without verbal accompaniment, in the second series - with the naming of the color, the number of colors and the location of the colors in the figures.
In the first case, younger preschoolers perceived the figures in silence, then most often they took the first parts of the mosaic that came across and laid out some kind of figure, and not what was shown to them. In contrast, in the second case, there were no people who were not able to restore the figure at all. In this series, purposeful searches for the elements of the figure were observed. The word clearly contributed to the analytical-synthetic activity of children.
Middle-aged preschoolers made extensive use of the word (and already in their speech) even in the first series of experiments. They didn't need any special stimulation.
In older preschoolers, the use of speech (and again their own) was even more significant. Unlike middle-aged preschoolers, they had a more systematic designation of what characterized the figure laid out in front of him. The posing of questions by adults had a significant influence on them in this direction (in the second series of experiments). It is also important that at a given age, not only external, but also internal speech, which preceded external action, began to play an facilitating role in memorization.
It is easy to see that the results of all works devoted to the study of the relationship between figurative and verbal memory, image and word in the processes of memorization and reproduction point to the inseparable unity of both types of memory, the unity of the sensory (objective, figurative, concrete) and verbal-logical, abstract in memorization and reproduction.
Conclusion
Memory is one of the important categories of human abilities. It is thanks to her that a person remembers important events, learns by memorizing educational material, and other things develop.
Memory is necessary for a person, since without it it is impossible to imagine the normal existence of a person. It underlies any mental phenomenon. Sensations and perceptions, thinking without the inclusion of memory in the act of cognition would be experienced by a person as having arisen for the first time, which would exclude the possibility of knowing the world and orienting in it. Memory ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality.
There are several types of memory, the development of which requires different ways, techniques and methods. It is also important to take into account the fact that each person has some kind of memory developed better, therefore, developing memory from childhood, both educators, teachers, and parents must find out what kind of memory should be emphasized so that the child is comprehensively developed.
The memory of interior designers should be well developed. First, so that projects do not repeat. Since any well-known details are easily recognized, which can lead to a scandal or a bad reputation. Secondly, the designer needs to distinguish between different areas of art (modern, baroque, classicism) so that there is no mixing of styles, which is unprofessional. Thirdly, it is important for a designer to memorize the details, interior items that can be used in their creative projects in the future.
Thus, memory is important in any professional activity. This determines the professionalism, the success of a specialist. For a designer, figurative and visual memory is especially important. Because without representation of images it is impossible to create projects. Visual memory helps to reproduce the seen details and interior items. Therefore, memory must be constantly developed, even when it seems unnecessary. Not always the development of memory is associated with any special and time-consuming exercises and tasks. Memory can be developed by memorizing favorite poems, playing sports, playing with a child or in the company of friends.
List of used sources and literature
1. Developmental and educational psychology: A textbook for ped students. in-tov / V.V. Davydov, T.V. Dragunova, L.B. Itelson. - M.: Enlightenment, 1999. - 246 p.
2. Gavrina S.E. Attention. Memory / S.E. Gavrina. - M.: Rossman-Press, 2010. - 72 p.
3. Gurin Yu.V. Game training. Memory, space, time / Yu.V. Gurin. - M.: KARO, 2004. - 64 p.
4. Zhukova O.A. The book of tasks and exercises for the development of attention and memory / O.A. Zhukov. - M.: Astrel, 2010. - 96 p.
5. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Logos, 2002. - 137 p.
6. Kulagina I.Yu. Developmental psychology / I.Yu. Kulagin. - M.: Bustard, 2001. - 376 p.
7. Mamaeva V.V. Memory / V.V. Mamaev. - M., 2010. - 32 p.
8. Mukhina V.S. Developmental psychology: developmental phenomenology, childhood, adolescence: A textbook for students. universities / V.S. Mukhin. - M.: "Academy", 2002. - 329 p.
9. Mukhina V.S. Child psychology / V.S. Mukhin. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985. - 272 p.
10. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems / L.F. Obukhov. - M.: Trivola, 1995. - 129 p.
11. Pavlenko E.K. Memory, logic, attention / E.K. Pavlenko. - M.: Mir knigi, 2011. - 64 p.
12. Strakhov I.V. Psychology of character / I.V. Strakhov. - Saratov: SGU, 1970. - 219 p.
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