The first independent foreign policy action of Peter I was an attempt to achieve Russia's access to the southern seas - the so-called. Azov campaigns. Why Azov? The answer to this question follows from the previous foreign policy of Russia during the time of Vasily V. Golitsyn and Princess Sophia. In the 80s, in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire, an alliance of Poland, Austria and Venice was formed. After the conclusion of peace with Poland in 1686, Russia also came out against Turkey, although the forces and means for this were clearly not enough (Golitsyn's Crimean campaigns fully proved this).

The successes of the combined forces of Austria and Poland significantly weakened Turkey. The Orthodox peoples of the Ports grew stronger hopes for a near liberation, including with the help of Russia. The activity of the Orthodox Balkan and other hierarchs of the church in negotiations with the Moscow Patriarchate and state authorities has increased. Actions were expected from Russia, and in 1694 the issue of starting a war with Turkey was resolved. Peter took into account the mistakes of his predecessors and did not attempt to break into the Crimea, finding a more accessible target for himself - the Turkish fortress of Azov at the mouth of the Don, the strategic importance of which was enormous, and the presence of the Don Army nearby (in 1637 - 1642 already seizing Azov) made things much easier.

The campaign itself in 1695 was, as it were, a double one: the 120,000-strong local cavalry under the command of Boris P. Sheremetev and the Zaporizhian army rushed to the lower reaches of the Dnieper, following the traditional path to the Crimea. At the same time, another army of only 31 thousand people. under the leadership of not one, but three generals (Franz J. Lefort, Fedor A. Golovin and Patrick I. Gordon) and Peter himself went to Azov. All ammunition, equipment and food were sent in advance by ships. Thus, this time the situation differed very favorably from Golitsyn's attempts to move through the steppe, which was terrible due to lack of water and heat.

July 5, 1695 began a multi-day shelling of Azov and earthworks to prepare for the assault. The most serious obstacle was the two stone towers built by the Turks on both banks of the Don. Stretched between them, three huge chains blocked the passage for ships along the river, and the besiegers lost their uninterrupted supply of ammunition and food. On July 14-15, both towers were occupied by the Cossacks. On August 5, the first assault on the fortress took place. But poor preparation and disunity in the actions of Golovin, Lefort and Gordon led to the failure of the assault. In addition, it was not possible to block the besieged garrison - Azov was supplied by sea and the Russians could not do anything about it. As a result, on September 27, it was decided to lift the siege and return to Moscow.

However, the failure of the campaign only spurred the efforts of the young king. Engineers, "digging masters", ship carpenters were discharged from the West. In Moscow, 22 galleys and 4 fireships were built and delivered in parts to the Don. Near Voronezh, Kozlov and other towns, thousands of working people built 1300 plows, 300 boats, 100 rafts. Soon after the funeral of his older brother Ivan, who died on January 20, Peter leaves for the shipyard to participate in a fantastically fast construction. In April 1696, Sheremetev's cavalry (up to 70 thousand) again set off for the lower reaches of the Dnieper, and ships with the main forces (75 thousand) moved down the Don. Now the Russian fleet was able to close the mouth of the Don and interrupt any supply of the fortress. A new siege of Azov began. On June 16, the fortress was shelled from cannons, and two thousand Don and Ukrainian Cossacks went on the assault. On the eve of the general offensive, on July 18, the Turks, having shown prudence, surrendered the fortress. It was decided to populate the deserted and destroyed Azov with three thousand families from lower towns and four hundred Kalmyk horsemen. It was also decided to build a new fleet, because. hastily built for the second Azov campaign was already unusable.

The serious tasks set before Russia required people who had knowledge that could only be obtained in the West in those years. So, in March 1697, the "Great Embassy" began to search for specialists. Formally, the great ambassadors were F.Ya. Lefort, F.A. Golovin and Prokopy B. Voznitsyn. With them were 20 nobles and 35 volunteers, and between them, as if in a crowd, was the Preobrazhensky Regiment constable Pyotr Mikhailov (tsar). At the same time, it was already announced in Riga that Peter allegedly went to Voronezh for shipbuilding. The "Great Embassy" also had one more - diplomatic - purpose. Peter sought to probe the soil for the continuation of further struggle with Turkey.

As a rule, Peter overtook the "Great Embassy", without delay doing the most important thing. Then he joined the embassy, ​​for some time he was together. But then he left again. As a private person, he traveled from Riga to Mitava and Libava, from where he sailed alone by sea to Koenigsberg, where he studied artillery. Of course, there were also diplomatic negotiations in Koenigsberg. In Amsterdam, Peter was at first accompanied by only ten people. In the town of Saardam and in Amsterdam, Peter Mikhailov worked at the shipyards as a carpenter. After living in Holland for 4.5 months, Peter then lives in England for 3 months, working at shipyards, hiring specialists in Russia, mastering the craft of a watchmaker, showing interest in astronomy, etc. Further, his path lay in Vienna. He was faced with the task of persuading Austria to continue the war with Turkey. It was very difficult to do this, since the war for the "Spanish Succession" (1701 - 1714) was started in Europe.

The Austrian emperor promised only to support Russia in negotiations with Turkey and not to do anything without the consent of the king. Peter's next task is negotiations with Venice. However, the alarming news of another unrest of the archers forced Peter to return to Moscow (although he learned about the suppression of unrest on the way).

During the "Great Embassy" Peter I realized the situation and the balance of power in Europe. The main trouble for him was the obvious retreat from joint actions against the Turks of Austria, which France was drawing into the impending war for the "Spanish Succession" against Holland and England. And without this serious ally, Russia could not fight the Ottoman Empire. Thus, the strategy of access to the southern seas, which had been adopted, became unrealistic.

At the same time, in Europe, Peter I identified other possibilities for strengthening Russia and stimulating the development of its economy. They consisted in the return of the northwestern lands lost under the Stolbovsky peace. This is how the Baltic direction of Russia's foreign policy took shape. However, a war with a military power like Sweden alone was also unrealistic. Diplomatic probing allowed Peter I to identify possible allies. They were supposed to be the traditional opponents of Sweden, which for a century and a half dominated the north of Europe, often defeating its neighbors - Denmark, Poland and other countries - in almost continuous wars. The main ally of Peter was August II the Strong (Elector of Saxony and King of Poland), who dreamed of joining Swedish Livonia to his Saxon possessions.

From the end of 1698, Augustus II, relying on an agreement with Peter, entered into negotiations with Denmark, which had land claims against Sweden because of the seized territories. August II also spent a lot of money to attract the political leaders of Poland to his side (after all, August II conducted negotiations with Peter I on behalf of Saxony).

First of all, Peter I held negotiations with Denmark, and already in April 1699 an agreement was concluded on actions against Sweden. In September 1699, ambassadors from Augustus II also arrived in Moscow. Quite lengthy negotiations began. All conversations took place in Preobrazhensky in the narrowest circle of authorized persons. Peter I was also at the meetings. Keeping complete secrecy was extremely necessary. At the same time, a large delegation of Swedes arrived in Moscow to receive confirmation from Russia of the conditions of the Peace of Cardis in 1661, which in turn consolidated the defeatist conditions of the Stolbovsky peace. Russian diplomats and the tsar himself showed remarkable resourcefulness and composure, welcoming the Swedish embassy in a friendly and hypocritical manner. The most heated debate concerned the demand of the Swedes from the Russian Tsar to secure the treaty by kissing the cross. After lengthy disputes, the Swedish side was convinced that since Peter I took an oath back in 1684, under King Charles XI, now, under Charles XII, there is no need for this.

As a result, in November 1699, Russia had agreements against Sweden with both Saxony and Denmark. So, secretly from the Swedish king Charles XII, the so-called Northern Union (Russia, the Commonwealth, Saxony and Denmark) was created.

Fulfilling the terms of the agreement, the troops of Saxony (without the consent of Poland!) already in February 1700 entered Livonia, and taking Dinaburg (Daugavpils), unsuccessfully besieged Riga. Even earlier, Denmark opened hostilities against Holstein, an ally of Sweden. Having occupied several fortresses, the Danes were stuck on the siege of the strongest fortress of Tenningen. Here the Swedes opposed them. August II demanded that Peter I enter the war. But the Russian tsar could not do this until the conclusion of peace with Turkey and was playing for time.

In relations with Turkey, Russia's efforts to make peace began with the participation of Duma adviser P.B. Voznitsyn at the congress in Karlovice, near Belgrade, in October 1698, where, with the assistance of England and Holland, Austria and Poland achieved peace with Turkey. Russia still faced a difficult diplomatic struggle. In an effort to ensure peace with Turkey on the eve of the war in the north, Peter sent to Constantinople a new plenipotentiary representative of the Duma clerk, the head of the Ambassadorial Order, Yemelyan I. Ukraintsev, on the 46-gun ship "Krepost" accompanied by a squadron of 10 ships. The Turks became alarmed and tried to stop the embassy in Kerch, demanding to follow the dry route. But the demand was rejected and the military-diplomatic demonstration took place. On July 3, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed, according to which Russia retained Azov and the Azov lands along the river. Mius. The Lower Dnieper towns went to Turkey, however, with the condition of the destruction of the fortifications. Annual payments to Crimea were cancelled. Russian ships could trade only in Kerch.

About a month later, on August 8, 1700, the news of a 30-year peace with Turkey reached Moscow, and already on August 9, having informed Augustus II, Peter ordered to move troops to the Swedish borders.

North War. From Narva to Poltava

Three periods can be distinguished in the Northern War (1700 - 1721). The first is the period of the coalition war and the victories of the Swedes (1700 - 1706). The second and decisive period was the single combat between Russia and Sweden, which ended in Poltava (1707 - 1709). The third period (1710-1721) from Poltava to Nystadt is the finishing off of Sweden together with the former allies.

The primary goal of the tsar was to seize the lands once lost by Russia in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland (the so-called Ingria) with Noteburg (Oreshok) and Narva (Rugodivo). The envoys of Denmark and, especially, Poland, tried in every possible way to distract Peter I from the Narva course of action, fearing that in Narva he would receive a springboard for capturing the rest of Livonia (which was claimed by Poland). In principle, they clearly predicted Peter's strategy, but intended to use him to achieve their goals. However, in practice things are far from being so simple. There was a long, hard war for Russia and its people.

The actual number of troops that besieged Narva was just over 40 thousand people. Moreover, about 11 thousand were the noble equestrian militia. Only three regiments were the most trained (Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky and the former Lefortov regiment).

All troops were divided into three groups ("generalships") with three commanders (Avtomon M. Golovin, Adam A. Veide and Nikita I. Repnin). The general, however, purely formal leadership was for A.M. Golovin.

The cities of Yam, Koporye and a number of others immediately voluntarily surrendered to the Russians, and on September 22, the advance detachment, together with Peter I, appeared near Narva. The fortress was surrounded by a semicircle on the left bank of the river, but the line of the siege camp turned out to be too stretched and the density of fire dropped sharply. Near Narva, the weakness and diversity of Russian artillery was revealed. The besiegers were extremely passive. For two months of the siege, even Ivangorod could not be taken. A significant part of the Russian troops did not arrive at Narva even by November 1700.

In the meantime Augustus II lifted the unsuccessful siege of Riga on 15 September. Charles XII unexpectedly (with the support of English and Dutch ships) landed at Copenhagen, when the Danish army was in Holstein near Tronningen. Copenhagen was forced to surrender, and Frederick IV made peace with Sweden and terminated the alliance with Augustus II. However, even on the way to Narva, Peter I realized that the Danish king had surrendered to the Swedes, but there was no other choice. The situation was aggravated by something else: sent to Revel B.P. Sheremetev, under the threat of a superior army of 18-year-old Charles XII, quickly retreated to Narva.

The saddest thing happened during the unexpected counterattack of the Swedes on November 19th. Peter I was not in the camp at that time - he went for troops to Novgorod). Having accurate data on the location of the besiegers, the Swedes of Charles XII, hidden from the Russians by a curtain of snowfall, broke through the thin line of the besiegers and broke into the camp. The mass betrayal of foreign officers immediately began, including the commander-in-chief at that moment, Duke von Krui. The defense was steadfastly held only by the former amusing regiments. The next day, the Russian generals capitulated on the condition of free, with the preservation of weapons and banners (but without artillery), the transition to the right bank of the Narva. When the Russians withdrew, the Swedes, violating the agreement, attacked those who were crossing and robbed them to the skin. It was already a complete defeat, bringing about 6,000 dead. The main thing is that the army lost all the artillery created with such difficulty.

After Narva, Karl could move deep into Russia and, having inflicted a final defeat on Peter, withdraw Russia from the war. However, after the Narva defeat, Karl considered the task completed and went to Riga in order to deal with Augustus. The long-term hunt of Charles XII for August II began in the expanses of Poland, which lasted for a long six years. Thus, Russia received a kind of time-out.

As after the failure of the first Azov campaign, the defeat at Narva stimulated the organizational activity of Peter I. First of all, his efforts were aimed at restoring the combat capability of the army, replenishing its ranks. An equally important task was the creation (almost anew) of artillery. All this required a lot of money.

Russia's international position has become very difficult. Denmark was forced to join the war with France and became useless for Peter. August II was able to ensure the security of Saxony (but not Poland) only by giving part of his troops to Austria. Under these conditions, Peter I is making vigorous efforts to keep Augustus II as an ally (put at his disposal the 20,000-strong corps of N.I. Repnin, promised financial assistance for two years, 100 thousand rubles each). Under an agreement with him, Russia renounced its claims to Livonia and Estonia and limited itself to interests in Ingermanland and Karelia.

Meanwhile, Charles XII inflicted a crushing defeat on Augustus II near Riga and headed for Poland, where, according to Peter I, he "stuck" for a long time. The outflow of Swedish troops to the Commonwealth created a more favorable environment for Russia. Part of the Russian soldiers led by B.P. Sheremetev for a number of years operated in the nearby areas of Liflyanlia, gradually gaining experience in battles with well-armed and strong Swedish troops. Soon Sheremetev began to win victories. An attempt by a Swedish landing in Arkhangelsk was repulsed, and even earlier attempts were repulsed to capture Gdov and the Pechora Monastery near Pskov. Thus, the army gradually gained experience, strength and fighting spirit.

To create powerful artillery, the construction of blast-furnace and hammer mills was launched in the north-west of Russia and in the Urals. The commissioning of the Kamensky and Nevyansky factories in the Urals in 1701 was especially important, because the cannons made from the Ural metal were durable and long-range. For guns, not only cast iron was needed, but also copper. Peter sends out an order throughout the country to collect some of the bells. By May 1701, about 90 thousand pounds of them had accumulated in Moscow. Ultimately, the Russian army received really powerful artillery, and this affected the immediate results of the war.

Having correctly assessed the situation, Peter 1 decides to concentrate all troops for an offensive in Ingermanland and Karelia. In August 1702, the Russians ousted the Swedes from Lake Ladoga and the region of the river. Izhora. After that, a 10-day siege of Noteburg (island-fortress at the source of the Neva) was organized, which was led by the tsar himself. On October 11, 1702, the Swedes capitulated. They were allowed to leave Noteburg with honor (i.e., retaining the banners, weapons, property and cannons). The number of victims of the besiegers was very high. However, the Russian soldiers did something almost unbelievable: they overcame the mighty walls of Noteburg with only stairs. Since then, Noteburg (Nutlet) has become known as Shlisselburg, i.e. the key is the city, and on the commemorative medal the inscription was stamped: "The enemy had 90 years."

In April 1703, the Nyenschanz fortress surrendered at the mouth of the Okhta, which flows into the Neva at its very mouth. It was decided to build a new fortress closer to the sea. So on May 16, 1703, the Peter and Paul Fortress was laid, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg. In May, the ancient Russian fortresses of Yam and Koporye were taken. A year later, a fortress in the bay opposite the mouth of the Neva was fortified with artillery. It was named Kronshlot (the basis of the future Kronstadt) and it was ordered to defend it to the last man.

In 1704, the Russian army, having strengthened in battles, again besieged and took Narva. Ultimately, by the end of 1704, Russian troops captured the territory of Livonia and Estonia. Only three large cities remained in the hands of the Swedes: Riga, Revel and Pernau (Pärnu). The entire coast of the Neva was also in the hands of Russia.

Meanwhile, in the Polish-Lithuanian state, Charles XII had considerable success. He invaded Lithuania, occupied Warsaw and Krakow. In Poland and Lithuania, a resistance movement was growing, but the absence of a strong state power and the eternal contradictions of magnate groups prevented the organization of powerful resistance to the Swedes. At the end of 1703, the pro-Swedish Warsaw Confederation arises, declaring Augustus II deposed. Soon, she even elected another king - the Poznan governor Stanislav Leshchinsky. However, most of the Polish army remained loyal to August II, and in August 1704 the Narva Treaty of Alliance was concluded between the Polish-Lithuanian state and Russia. Thus, Russia managed to avoid the threat of a separate peace between Sweden and Augustus II, and this prevented Charles XII from concentrating all his forces against Russia.

In 1705, after some failures, the Russian troops took Grodno, the Swedish naval attacks on Kronshlot and the attack on Shlisselburg were repulsed. By the autumn of this year, Lithuania, Courland, Lesser Poland and Ukraine were liberated from the Swedes through the joint efforts of Russian, Polish and Ukrainian troops. But these successes, oddly enough, again gave rise to friction between the allies. Therefore, when the large army of Charles XII approached Grodno, where by the winter of 1706 the main forces of the Russians and the Polish-Lithuanian formations had concentrated, Augustus II hastily left with part of his troops. In addition, in February, the Swedes defeated a 30,000-strong Saxon army marching towards Augustus II. The defense of Grodno in these conditions was very risky, and Peter I ordered the Russian troops to retreat to Volhynia. The maneuver was successfully carried out, and by May 8, 1706, the Russian army reached Kyiv.

Charles XII with an army was in Volhynia for a long time, and then defeated Augustus II in Saxony in September 1706. As a result, Augustus II, refusing an alliance with Russia, provided Charles XII with Saxony as a base for waging war. Thus ended the first phase of the war. Russia was left without allies.

For his part, Peter I, as soon as Charles XII left the Oder, swiftly invaded Poland and liberated the territory up to the Vistula, which helped to more or less establish (now without Augustus II) relations with the Poles.

The idea of ​​Peter I in the new conditions was to "torment the enemy" in Poland, and "to give battle at their own borders, when the necessary need would require it." A long stage of preparation and choosing the moment for the general battle began. Already in the spring of 1708, in a wide area from Pskov to Ukraine, on a strip 200 km wide, bread and fodder were hidden from the Swedes in the forests everywhere, notches and blockages were arranged. Velikiye Luki, Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod, Petersburg, as well as Moscow and Kyiv, were prepared for defense. The main forces of the Russians were in Polissya in order to be able to move towards the enemy in any possible direction.

Charles XII in January 1708 captured Grodno, and in the summer Minsk and the rest of Belarus. Charles XII strove to reach the road to Moscow by a roundabout maneuver. However, the fighting in the Smolensk region showed the complexity of this plan. Then Charles XII, counting on the help of Hetman Ivan S. Mazepa, as well as the Crimean Tatars, decided to move to Ukraine, and Levengaupt's corps hurried to join him from near Riga. Such a change in the plans of the Swedish king was a great success for Russian strategists (and above all for Peter I).

Now it was important to defeat Lewenhaupt before connecting with the main forces in order to isolate Charles's army, which had gone far to the south. At the village Lesnoy On September 28, 1708, a major battle took place. The cavalry of Alexander D. Menshikov destroyed both Lewenhaupt's corps and the convoy, on which the Swedish king counted so much. This victory actually cut off Charles XII from the supply bases in Poland and the Baltic states and thus largely predetermined his defeat at Poltava.

Although the majority of the Ukrainian population and the Cossacks met the Swedes with hostility, the hetman of Ukraine Mazepa, after 5 years of secret ties with Leshchinsky and the Swedish king, on October 28, 1708, openly joined the Swedes, actually opening the way for them deep into Russia. However, of the 4-5 thousand people who ended up with Mazepa, many soon left the Swedish camp.

Anticipating the Swedes, dumbfounded by the betrayal, Peter I sent A.D. Menshikov to take Mazepa's rate in Baturin. After the assault, the fortress, city and castle were destroyed and burned "as a sign to the traitors." For the Swedes, this was a heavy loss and it was not the fortress itself, but the huge stocks of weapons and food prepared for them by Mazepa. On November 6, 1708, a new hetman was elected - Ivan I. Skoropadsky. The Russian troops sharply increased military discipline, cruelly suppressing any attempts to rob the local population. The autumn of 1708 and the winter of 1709 passed in the attempts of Charles XII to fight his way to Moscow along the Belgorod-Tula line. In Ukraine, meanwhile, guerrilla warfare with the Swedes was developing more and more widely.

By April 1709, the maneuvers of the Swedish troops led to a situation where the capture of Poltava by them could open up the possibility of connecting with the troops of S. Leshchinsky and the Swedish general Krassov. In addition, the Zaporozhian Sich and the Crimean Tatars were close here. In early April, the Swedes besieged Poltava with its 4,000-strong garrison and armed (about 2,500) combat-ready population. The city fought off the attacks for two months.

Meanwhile, the Russian command concentrated its main forces nearby. But help did not come to Charles XII, because the Russian corps of Goltz successfully operated in Poland, linking the troops of S. Leshchinsky and the Swedish troops of Krassov. In fact, the Swedes were surrounded by Poltava. However, in May 1709 the situation worsened, as relations with the Zaporozhian Sich became more complicated. During the war years, the Cossacks, at the risk of quarreling Turkey with Russia, robbed Greek merchants from Porta twice. The Sultan demanded huge compensation for this. Russia complied with the demand, but in return deprived the Cossacks of their salaries. In response, in March 1709, the transition of the Cossacks to Mazepa began. Therefore, Peter I in May 1709 ordered the destruction of the Sich. As a result, 8,000 unpaid Cossacks ended up in the camp of Charles XII.

One way or another, but by mid-June, the issue of a general battle was resolved. On June 15, part of the Russian troops crossed the Vorskla, which separated them from the Swedish army, which was besieging Poltava, and erected fortified positions near the crossing.

HELL. Menshikov commanded the cavalry, all the infantry was subordinate to B.P. Sheremetev, and artillery - to Yakov V. Bruce. In total, Russia had about 42 thousand regular troops and 5 thousand irregular formations. In the army of the Swedes as a whole there were about 48 thousand people, of which about 30 thousand were combat-ready. Shortly before the battle, the king himself was wounded in one of the cavalry skirmishes. Field Marshal Reinshield became commander.

The fighting began Charles XII, appointing an attack on June 27th. A sudden and silent night attack by the Swedes was discovered by A.D. Menshikov, and the enemy was overturned. But then a furious onslaught of the Swedish army began on the main fortifications of the Russians. Some of the Swedes managed, incurring losses, to break through them, but, breaking away from the main forces, they died. Then another attack was repulsed. With heavy losses, the bulk of the Swedish troops withdrew into the forest. The next day, the Russians went on the attack: the infantry - in the center, and the cavalry - on the flanks. At the same time, the Swedes went on the attack. A fierce oncoming hand-to-hand fight ensued. The swift attack of A.D.'s cavalry was decisive. Menshikov to the right flank of the Swedes. The army of Charles XII fled. By 11 am, the outcome of the battle was decided. The Swedes left more than 9,000 dead on the battlefield. About 3 thousand, along with Field Marshal Reinshild, were taken prisoner. The Russians had over 1,300 killed and over 3,000 wounded.

The Swedes were pursued by 2 guards and 2 infantry regiments mounted on horses. They drove the Swedes the next day. Their remnants were intercepted at Perevolochna at the confluence of the Vorskla into the Dnieper. About 17 thousand soldiers surrendered here and 127 banners and standards and 28 guns were captured. Charles XII and Mazepa with 2 thousand Swedes and Cossacks nevertheless crossed to the other side of the Dnieper. Volkonsky overtook their remnants on the river. Bug. In the battle, up to 200 people were killed and 260 were taken prisoner. But Charles XII and Mazepa fled to Turkey.

Thus, the military power of Sweden was broken and a decisive turning point occurred in the course of the Northern War. Russia has declared its rights to the status of a great European power. The second phase of the war is over.

End of the Northern War

The Poltava victory radically changed the international position of Russia. In Poland, the position of Augustus II immediately strengthened, and Stanislav Leshchinsky was forced to flee. In October 1709, Peter I concluded with August II a new defensive-offensive against Sweden and the Swedish protégé S. Leshchinsky. By the way, a secret article was also concluded on the division of the Baltic states. Not only Ingria, but also Estonia and Revel departed along it to Russia. Poland, more precisely, Augustus II as the Elector of Saxony, got Livonia.

Denmark abruptly changed its position by agreeing to an open alliance treaty with Russia (October 11, 1709), and without any military or financial assistance. Thus, the Northern Union was restored. Moreover, on October 21, 1709, a defensive treaty was concluded with Prussia. Finally, on July 3, 1710, Russia concluded a 12-year convention with Hanover, which then seemed very important in view of the prospects of the Elector of Hanover to become King of England. The French government also began to look for ways of rapprochement with Russia. Finally, even Turkey, albeit for a short time, was under the impression of the Poltava victory.

Holland and England found themselves in a very disadvantageous position, not taking upon themselves the mediation in the pacification of Sweden and Russia. And the victory of Russia did not correspond to the interests of these powers. Therefore, their further efforts were aimed only at disrupting the peace between Russia and Sweden.

Meanwhile, B.P. Sheremetev, on the orders of Peter, laid siege to Riga, and the troops of A.D. Menshikov rushed to Poland. The quick and vigorous military actions of the Russian troops in 1710 led to a number of victories over the Swedes. Such large fortresses as Revel, Vyborg, Riga, Pernov and Kexholm passed into the hands of the winners. By the autumn of 1710 Estonia, Livonia and Karelia were liberated from the Swedish troops. Since the policy of withdrawing the estates of German barons to the Swedish treasury, implemented at the end of the 17th century, caused strong discontent among the ruling strata of the Baltic states, and the hardships of the Swedish-Russian and Swedish-Polish wars ruined the peasants, the anti-Swedish sentiments of the Baltic nobility at the time of the expulsion of the Swedes was very strong. And the peasantry even provided support to the Russians. Russia returned the reduced estates, restored the class institutions of the nobility. The local nobility willingly entered the Russian military and civil service.

The successes of the Russian troops contributed to a sharp increase in Russia's influence in Courland, which was secured by the marriage of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm with the niece of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna.

The euphoria of victories in the Baltic was replaced by a new military thunderstorm in southern Russia. The Turkish ruling circles and the Crimean Khan wanted to take revenge for the defeat during the years of the Azov campaigns. Considerable efforts were also made by Charles XII, who was in Turkey. Both France and England, and Austria and Venice, had a hand here... After all, no one wanted to see Russia strong. In the autumn of 1710, Turkey declared war on Russia, and the Russian ambassador Peter A. Tolstoy was imprisoned.

In January 1711, the impetuous raid of the Crimean Khan to Kharkov was repulsed, as were the forces of the Poles, Tatars and parts of the Cossacks in Right-Bank Ukraine. Counting on the promised help of the Wallachian ruler Brankovan, the Moldavian ruler D. Cantemir, on the help of the Austrian Serbs and Augustus II (and this is a total of more than 80 thousand people), the Russian army rushed to the south, hoping that the regiments of B.P. Sheremetev by May 15 from near Riga will be at the Dniester. The infamous Prut campaign began. However, all plans collapsed. Sheremetev was almost 2 weeks late, and the 120,000-strong Turkish army had already built bridges across the Danube at the end of May. Brankovan, however, gave the Russian plans to the vizier and did not let the detachments of the Serbs through his lands. Dmitry Kantemir came to Sheremetev with only a small detachment, and August II did not send anyone. Such an unfavorable situation was exacerbated by the mistake of Sheremetev, who did not comply with the order of Peter I to leave the main forces at the Dniester and, with a swift throw of a 15,000-strong formation, tried to prevent the appearance of the Turks at the Danube. Learning that the Turks are already on the Danube. Sheremetev slowly moved down along the Prut. Instead of Sheremetev, Peter nevertheless sends the Rennes cavalry corps to the Danube, and the main Russian forces concentrate on the Dniester near Soroca only by the beginning of June (on June 12, a bridge across the Dniester was only built).

Thus, the Russian troops lost the gain both in time and in maneuver. Nevertheless, Peter sent the main forces of the army to the Prut along the already scorched bare steppes. It was a terrible ordeal, since there was not a drop of water in the bare steppe. On June 29, the troops, having made a bridge, stretched to the right bank. Entering Iasi, they did not find the provisions promised by D. Cantemir (there was a severe crop failure that summer). The Moldavian ruler managed to supply Russian troops with meat, but there was no bread. The movement downstream of the Prut was continued. But, not getting on the Danube, the Russians deprived themselves of the support of the Slavic peoples. The fatal role was played by the lack of proper intelligence. The troops of Repnin, Veide and Sheremetev, united together, numbering 38 thousand people. On July 8, they found themselves surrounded by huge enemy forces (100-120 thousand people). On July 9, the battle began. At the same time, there was no agreement in the camp of the enemy. On the morning of July 10, the Janissaries refused to go into battle. Negotiations began. Finally, on July 11, P.P. returned from the camp of the Turks. Shafirov and reported to Peter I about the concluded peace.

The peace, signed by Shafirov and the vizier, ordered the return of Azov to the Turks, the destruction of Taganrog, Kamenny Zaton. From now on, Russia was not supposed to interfere in the problems of Poland and pledged to let Charles XII into Sweden (which only infuriated the Swedish king).

In general, the tragic failure of Peter I in the Prut campaign cost Russia a minimum of losses and the surrender of two hostages to Turkey (P.P. Shafirov and B.P. Sheremetev’s son Mikhail). Turkey twice more (at the end of 1711 and at the end of 1712) tried to declare war on Russia, and only in 1713 was the Peace of Adrianople signed, confirming the terms of peace on the Prut.

While the war with the Ottomans was going on, Russian diplomats in Europe in mid-August obtained from England and Holland consent to the possibility of bringing Russian troops into Pomerania for operations in the German possessions of Sweden. At the end of May 1711, an agreement was reached with Augustus II on joint actions in Pomerania. Real hostilities began only in June 1712 with the blockade of Stettin and Stralsund. After the defeat of the Swedes by the Russians at Friedrichstadt and the surrender of the Swedes who took refuge in Toningen, the army of A.D. Menshikov returned to the east. Due to the disagreement of the allies, "the company was in vain." Behind all this, in most cases, was England and partly Holland. The maritime powers did not want to let Russia into the Baltic, and Russia badly needed ice-free ports. In May 1713, the Peace of Utrecht put an end to the war for the "Spanish Succession". It would seem that the threat of creating an anti-Russian coalition is quite real. However, England's attempts to raise Holland, Prussia and Austria against Russia failed. On the contrary, in June 1714, Russia concluded an alliance and guarantees agreement with Prussia (Prussia is guaranteed Stettin, and Russia - Ingria, Karelia, Estonia with Revel and, in the future, new seizures from Sweden).

All this allowed Russia to concentrate its actions in Finland, having prepared for this a special galley fleet (about 200 units). In the course of these actions, Russian troops occupied Helsingfors (Helsinki), and soon the city of Vaza, and, thus, all the most important strongholds on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia were in the hands of Russia by the beginning of 1714.

At the next stage of the war, the decisive actions were for the fleet, since Abo (Turka) and the Aland Islands were to be attacked again. The Swedish squadron (17 battleships, 5 frigates and more than a dozen other ships) stood at Cape Gangut. The Russians, on the other hand, decided to use the galley fleet stationed in Tvereminda Bay. Having outwitted the Swedes, they blocked part of the Swedish fleet in the skerries. The three-hour fierce battle ended with the victory of the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral General Fyodor M. Apraksin (July 27, 1714). On August 3, Russian troops occupied Abo. Umeo followed him.

As a result of the 1714 campaign, not only Finland, but the entire southern coast of the Baltic was liberated from the Swedes. Already in 1713, by decree of Peter I, all Arkhangelsk trade was transferred to St. Petersburg. "Window to Europe" began to operate with the continued resistance of Charles XII, who captured the Dutch and English ships in the Baltic. In 1715, he issued the Charter of Privateers, which opened a war against all non-Swedish merchant ships. In response, England sent its fleet to the Baltic, and in October 1715 an alliance was concluded, however, short-lived, between Peter I and the new English king George I (Elector of Hanover).

1716 seemed to be the year of Russia's greatest military and political success. Finland, Courland, Danzig were added to the conquered territories. Russian troops were in the former Swedish Pomerania, in Denmark. At one time, the united squadron of Russia, Denmark, England and Holland was under the command of Peter I himself. However, the Northern Union again fell apart. Denmark was pushed to attack the Russians. Perhaps only Prussia was for the preservation of Russian troops in Mecklenburg and the Empire. France also sought rapprochement with Russia. On August 15, 1717, an agreement between Russia, France and Prussia was concluded in Amsterdam, which guaranteed the existing possessions of the interested parties.

The change in French policy forced Charles XII to negotiate with Russia. On May 10, 1718, the Åland Congress was opened. By autumn, the powers seemed to have agreed. Nevertheless, the Swedes played for time until everything suddenly broke off: on November 30, 1718, Charles XII was killed during the siege of the Norwegian fortress, and after that the head of the Swedish delegation at the congress, Hertz, was arrested and executed.

Meanwhile, in Europe, fearing the rapidly growing influence of Russia against the Russians, an alliance was concluded between George I, Augustus II and Austria. The whole of 1719 passed in diplomatic struggles, and the Aland negotiations continued. England sought concessions from Sweden and in August 1719 concluded an agreement with it. Thus was put an end to the Åland Congress. The English squadron of Norris entered the Baltic Sea.

Against this background, the conclusion of eternal peace with the Porte in November 1720 was a clear success for Russia. And rapprochement with France and peaceful cooperation with Holland inspired new hopes in Russia. Prussia and Poland took a very cautious position towards Russia. From a military point of view, 1720 was a successful year for Russia. Landing forces on the western coast of the Gulf of Bothnia defeated the Swedish garrisons, attacked Umea and a number of other points. And on July 27, 1720, the Russian fleet won a brilliant victory at Grengam, capturing 4 frigates, 104 guns, 407 prisoners. The English fleet, being in the Baltic Sea, did not dare to prevent the defeat of the Swedes. The Russian fleet in the Baltic retained its formidable strength.

From that moment on, the Swedes, in the end, decided on peace negotiations. It was decided to gather for them in the city of Nystadt (Finland). Congress opened at the end of April 1721, but the war did not stop. In 1721, a new 5,000-strong landing under the command of Peter P. Lassi invaded the Swedish lands, passing through them for about 300 km. The English fleet again tried to fight the Russians. After four months of negotiations, peace with Sweden was concluded on August 30, 1721. Sweden ceded to Russia "perfect unquestioning and eternal possession and ownership of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland and part of Karelia with Vyborg and its district, with the cities of Riga, Dynamund, Pernov, Revel, Dorpat , Narvoi, Kexholm and with the islands of Ezel, Dago and Men and all other lands from the Courland border to Vyborg".

As a result of a long and painful war, Russia took the most important place in Europe, and the position of a maritime power contributed to the development of its economy.

Persian campaign

After the triumphant end of the war with Sweden, the foreign policy of Peter I was already acquiring the features of an imperial one. Expanding the range of its economic interests, the Russian government tried to find a trade route to distant India. Russia sought to establish closer ties with Central Asia. However, the expedition against Khiva of Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky was destroyed by the Khan's troops, after which the Central Asian direction was abandoned for 150 years. Russia showed close interest in the situation in Transcaucasia and Iran. The power of the Safavids was going through an acute crisis, which weakened Iran and threatened to overthrow the dynasty and attack neighbors. Back in 1717, Artemy P. Volynsky was sent to Iran as an ambassador with the task of establishing trade with Iran and India. The sharp eyes of the ambassador did not escape all the signs of a crisis of power in the country, which gave rise to the idea of ​​annexing to Russia the territories adjacent to it, subject to Iran. A. Volynsky concluded a trade agreement, according to which Russian merchants received the freedom to purchase raw silk.

Meanwhile, the Afghans rebelled in Iran, the Afghan Mir-Mahmud seized the Shah's throne. Pro-Turkish uprisings broke out in Shirvan and Dagestan. With the fall of Shah Hossein, the Ottoman Empire sought to capture all of Iran, and this created an even more serious threat to Russian interests in the Transcaucasus, where Armenians and Georgians were waiting for Russian help, as well as on the Caspian coast.

Under these conditions, Russia undertook diplomatic pressure, demanding that Turkey renounce its claims to the possession of the Transcaucasus. Ripe war. A 46,000-strong army was equipped for a campaign in Iran and a Caspian flotilla was created. The campaign began in the summer of 1722. Soon, Russian troops occupied the entire western coast and south of the Caspian, including Rasht. Meanwhile, the Turkish army captured Georgia. This made the son of the deposed Shah Hossein Tahmasp agree to all the conditions of Russia. His ambassador concluded an alliance treaty in St. Petersburg (September 12, 1723), according to which the Russians took part in repelling the Afghans, receiving in return the provinces of Dagestan, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Astrabad with the cities of Baku, Derbent and Rasht. Peter expected to use these newly acquired lands as a springboard for further advancement to the "warm seas".

This created the threat of a new Russian-Turkish war. However, in June 1724, a Russian-Turkish treaty was concluded in Constantinople. The powers agreed that Georgia and Armenia remained with Turkey, but Russia received Turkey's consent to the possession of the western and southern coasts of the Caspian. Unfortunately, already in the era of palace coups that followed the death of Peter I, interest in this direction was completely lost and in 1732 - 1735. all the conquests of the times of the Persian campaign, which seemed from now on an unnecessary burden, were returned to Persia. For lasting successes on the southern borders, Russia still had too few forces.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Peter 1:

European

· The struggle for access to Europe through the Baltic Sea - the northern war of 1700-1721.

· Strengthening Russia's position in Europe. Foreign trips of Peter 1. The beginning of dynastic ties with the German states

Asian

· The struggle with Turkey for the Black Sea. Azov campaigns 1695-1696

· Prut campaign 1710-1711 - the second war with Turkey. Peter, along with his entire army, was surrounded and forced to conclude a peace treaty, abandoning all previous conquests in the south.

Persian campaign 1723-1724 - Baku and Derbent captured

Azov campaigns. Grand Embassy

Even during the reign of Sophia under the leadership of V.V. Golitsyn, Russian troops, in accordance with the Eternal Peace with Poland, undertook in 1687 and 1689. two unsuccessful campaigns against the Crimean Khanate. Having become the de facto ruler of the state, Peter I continued the fight against Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. In 1695, the Turkish fortress of Azov was besieged, but the Russian troops failed to take it. The second Azov campaign, undertaken in the same 1696, ended with the capture of Azov and the foundation of the Taganrog fortress. The outbreak of the war with Turkey raised the question of allies, the need for cash loans and the purchase of weapons abroad. For this purpose, in 1697, the Great Embassy went to Europe, which included Peter, who was listed as one of the foremen of the detachment of volunteers. During the Grand Embassy, ​​it turned out that Austria and Venice, Russia's allies in the anti-Turkish coalition, did not intend to assist Russia in the war with Turkey.

North War

Russia's allies in this war were Denmark, the Commonwealth and Saxony (Northern Union). On August 13, 1700, Russia made peace with Turkey, and on July 14 declared war on Sweden, and on September 23, Russian regiments began to lay siege to the fortress of Narva. In August 1700, the Swedish king Charles XII forced Denmark out of the war. The battle between the Swedish and Russian troops took place on November 19, 1700 and ended in a complete victory for the Swedes. Charles XII did not continue military operations against Russia, but sent an army to Poland against Augustus II, where, according to Peter I, he got stuck for a long time. At this time, Peter is actively creating a regular army, restoring artillery. Warships are being built in Arkhangelsk, which are being dragged across Karelia to Lake Ladoga. In 1702, with the help of these ships, the Russians took the Noteburg fortress (the Russian city of Oreshek). In the spring of 1703, the Nienschanz fortress was taken at the mouth of the Neva, and in May of the same year the city of St. Petersburg was founded. In 1704 the Russian army took Narva and Dorpat. The protege of Charles XII Stanislav Leshchinsky became the king of the Commonwealth. In 1706 August II renounced the Polish crown. Charles XII with the main forces moved to Moscow. Charles XII did not have enough food, ammunition, artillery. On September 28, 1708, the Russians attacked the Swedes near the village of Desnoy, not far from the town of Propoisk. Lewenhaupt's corps was defeated, losing 8,000 people and the entire convoy. Hetman of Ukraine Ivan Mazepa went over to the side of Charles XII, promising him artillery, 50,000 Cossacks, food. But the Swedish king did not receive any of this. On November 2, 1708, a detachment of A.D. Menshikov took Baturin, the residence of Mazepa. The attempts of Charles XII to go to Moscow along the Muravsky Way were repulsed by Russian troops. Then the Swedes decided to besiege Poltava. Thanks to Poltava fortress, it withstood a 3-month siege that began in April 1709, until Peter I approached Poltava with the main forces. On June 27, 1709, the Battle of Poltava took place, ending in the complete defeat of the Swedes. Charles XII and Mazepa fled to Turkey. Having lost its land army, Sweden maintained a powerful fleet in the Baltic and continued the war. In 1710 Turkey declared war on Russia. Thanks to the diplomatic skills of Shafirov, an associate of Peter I, they managed to sign peace with Turkey on July 12, 1711. Russia gave Azov to Turkey and liquidated Taganrog. In the northwest, Russia was preparing for naval battles with Sweden. The Baltic Fleet was being created, and the combat training of its personnel was intensively going on. On July 25-27, 1714, the Swedish fleet was defeated in the battle at Cape Gangut. At the beginning of 1720, Russian sailors M.M. Golitsyn defeated the Swedish fleet of Vice Admiral Sheblat near Grengam Island. On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was concluded between Russia and Sweden. Estonia, Livonia, Ingria with St. Petersburg and part of Karelia went to Russia. Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea and became a great maritime power. Among other foreign policy measures of Peter, the Persian campaign of 1722-1723 should be mentioned. Russia received the western shore of the Caspian, but later it had to abandon its acquisitions.

Results of foreign policy:
¾ As a result of a long and painful war, Russia took the most important place in Europe, having won the status of a great power.
¾ Access to the Baltic Sea, the annexation of new lands contributed to its economic and cultural development.
¾ During the war, Russia created a powerful regular army, began to turn into an empire.
¾ Russia's foreign policy successes required huge human sacrifices and material costs. The greatness of Russia has become the heaviest burden for the entire Russian people.

Most of all, Peter I was occupied with the thought of the fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Great Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how far Russia lagged behind in its development.

This event in the life of the young tsar marked the beginning of his transformational activity. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, he introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked him.

By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the reckoning from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the new year on January 1.

Foreign policy of Peter I

The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the Town Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

1. Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
2. Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
3. Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.
4. Table of Ranks (1722): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

• state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
• palace, which belonged personally to the king;
• sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and under it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Medical reforms of Peter I

The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, which trained doctors and pharmacists.

In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.

To grow, study, create collections of medicinal plants, pharmaceutical gardens were created, where seeds and foreign flora were imported.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide range of nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

1. The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
2. Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
3. The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
4. Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of a Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

1. The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
2. Lack of reform system.
3. The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
4. Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

In the course of the history of our country by this time, significant shifts in its development had already taken place. The city separated from the countryside, agriculture and handicrafts were separated, industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground for Peter's reforms had already been prepared.

RUSSIAN EMPIRE in modern times (XVIII- the endXIXcentury)

Materials will be offered according to the textbook of Itskovich, Kocherezhko 1

TOPIC 1. The Russian Empire in the 18th century.

The history of Russia in the 18th century is divided into 4 main periods:

The reign of Peter 1 (1682 - 1725),

the era of palace coups (1725 - 1762),

The reign of Catherine II - the policy of "enlightened absolutism" (1762 - 1796),

The reign of Paul 1 is a counter-reform to Catherine's reign (1796 - 1800).

Russia of the era of Peter the Great (late 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)

Peter's reforms became one of the most important milestones in Russian history, which determined the further development of our country. Peter's contemporaries and historians expressed a variety of assessments of the personality of the first Russian emperor, including diametrically opposed ones, but they all recognized the greatness of this figure. (p. 66).

Peter's foreign policy I : the struggle for access to the seas.

The main goal of the policy of Peter I was to gain access to the seas (Baltic and Black) in order to turn Russia into an economically developed and influential European power. The main way to solve this problem was wars (out of 36 years of Peter's reign, Russia fought for 26 years).

Three main directions of the foreign policy of Peter I:

Southern (Crimean-Turkish direction) - the struggle for access to the Black Sea (for this, it was first supposed to seize access to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov):

1695 - 1696 - two Azov campaigns of Peter I in order to conquer access to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov (for this, it was first supposed to capture the fortress of Azov). After the failure of the first campaign (the Russians besieged Azov, but did not have a fleet and therefore could not stop the supply of food by the Turks to the fortress), Peter issued a decree on the construction of shipyards 2 near Voronezh on the Don. With a small fleet during the second campaign, Peter managed to capture Azov and access to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Taganrog was built there.

1697-1698 - Peter the Great sent an embassy to the countries of Western Europe in order to find allies against the Ottoman Empire. The huge embassy (more than a hundred people) did not achieve the support of England and Holland. Having learned about the Streltsy revolt of 1698, Peter, who was an incognito embassy and learned to build ships, was forced to return to Russia and then reorient himself from the struggle for the Black Sea (against Turkey) to the struggle for the Baltic Sea (against Sweden);

1710-1711 - Russian-Turkish war during the Northern War. The Ottoman Empire, instigated by England, France and Sweden, declared war on Russia. In 1711, the Russian army led by Peter I made an unsuccessful Prut campaign and was surrounded by the Turks. As a result, the Prut peace treaty was concluded, according to which Russia returned Azov to Turkey, and Taganrog had to be destroyed;

Northwestern, or Swedish (the main of all directions)- the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, which was controlled by Sweden. The main event is the Northern War of 1700-1721. between Russia and Sweden, which became the main catalyst for Peter's internal reforms:

1699 - diplomatic preparation of Russia for war . Creation of an anti-Swedish coalition consisting of Russia, Poland (the Commonwealth), Saxony and Denmark. The conclusion of the Constantinople peace between Russia and Turkey;

1700-1706 - the first period of the war, the heaviest for Russian troops: in 1700, there was a crushing defeat of the Russian troops near Narva, after temporary successes in 1701-1704, Russia lost allies and was left face to face with Sweden (as a result, Peter took up the reconstruction of the entire military apparatus);

1707-1709 - second period: the unsuccessful campaign of Charles XII against Russia, the transfer of the strategic initiative to Russia as a result of two important victories - first near the village of Lesnoy (1708), and on June 27, 1709 - near Poltava(the land forces of the Swedes were defeated; this battle determined the final outcome of the Northern War);

1710-1721 - the third, final period of the war, during which hostilities were conducted on the territory of other states and were accompanied by an attempt by European states to intervene in the course of the war. 1714 - in the naval battle at Cape Gangut The Russian Baltic Fleet defeated the Swedes.

AT1720 in the year in the battle at Cape Grengam, the Russian detachment of galleys 3 defeated the Swedish squadron 4, after which the Russian troops captured Finland;

1721 - concludedPeace of Nystad between Russia and Sweden , through which Russia finally got access to the Baltic Sea and part of the Baltic states (Lifland, Estonia, Ingermanland and part of Karelia),but returned Finland to Sweden and undertook to pay Sweden an indemnity of 1.5 million gold rubles;

The eastern (Iranian) direction is the struggle for the annexation of Transcaucasia. The main event was the successful Caspian (Persian) campaign against the Caucasus and Iran in 1722-1723. As a result, in 1723, the Russian - Iranian treaty, according to which the provinces of Iran on the western coast of the Caspian Sea (with the cities of Baku, Derbent, etc.) ceded to Russia.

In 1724 was signed Treaty of Constantinople between Russia and Turkey, delimiting their interests in Transcaucasia: the sultan recognized Russia's acquisitions in the Caspian region and renounced claims to Persia, and Russia recognized the rights of the sultan to Western Transcaucasia (the peoples of Transcaucasia did not learn liberation, but many of their representatives fled to Russia).

Cm. with. 68-70 textbook Itskovich, M., Kocherezhko, S. History: Full course. multimedia tutor. - St. Petersburg: "Piter", 2013. - 272 p..

Peter I went down in history as one of the greatest statesmen of Russia. The first Russian emperor is known not only as the author of many reforms and transformations, but also as an outstanding commander. The active foreign policy of Russia, aimed at expanding territories and strengthening borders, under the leadership of Peter the Great, brought the country the title of a maritime power. Having achieved access to the Baltic Sea - which his predecessors did not succeed in, Peter I turned the country into a strong and economically developed empire.

the date	Name	Major Events	Causes	Result	Special Achievements
	Azov campaigns	1695 - the first Azov campaign	The Azov campaigns became a logical continuation of the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire	Unsuccessful trip	The first Azov campaign ended in failure due to the lack of its own fleet and insufficient supply of the army.
		1696 - the second Azov campaign		Capture of the fortress of Azov	The fortress of Azov became the first point of entry of Russia to the southern seas. However, Russia did not have the strength to continue the war with the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the Black Sea.
	Great Northern War		The need to have their own access to the northern sea shores
		1700 - Battle of Narva	First major battle of the war with Sweden	Defeat in battle	The crushing defeat near Narva showed the complete failure of the Russian army and proved the urgent need for radical reforms.
		1703 - the capture of the mouth of the Neva	Several significant victories gave Russia complete control over the mouth of the Neva River	The conquest of Shlisselburg, the Nyenschanz fortress, the capture of Swedish ships guarding the entrance to the Neva	The advance of the Russian troops along the Neva became the key to gaining the first point of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1703, the construction of St. Petersburg, the future new capital of the Empire, began at the mouth.
		1709 - Battle of Poltava	Turning point in the Great Northern War	Victory in the battle became the key to victory in the war itself.	With the victory in the Battle of Poltava, the very nature of the war changed: the military initiative passed into the hands of Russia.
		1721 - signing of the Peace of Nystadt			Russia became a full-fledged European maritime power, gaining access to the sea and acquiring significant territories.
	Russo-Turkish War		Escalation of the old Crimean conflict	Defeat	Turkey declared war on Russia, distracting Peter I from the northern front
		1711 - Prut campaign		An unsuccessful campaign led to the defeat in the war
		1712 - surrender of Azov
		1713 - the conclusion of peace between the Ottoman Empire and Russia			The end of the Russian-Turkish war on unfavorable terms for Russia closed access to the Sea of ​​Azov
	Eastward advance	1716 - expansion of the Siberian territories	The advance of Russia to the east, to the territory of Siberia	Successful expansion of territories	Development of cities along the Irtysh and Ob: Omsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Semipalatinsk, etc.
		1717 - campaign in Central Asia		The Russian detachment was defeated by Khan Khiva	The first reconnaissance military expeditions to Central Asia ended in failure
	Caspian / Persian campaign		Russia took the side of Persia because of the conflict with Turkey	Successful advance to the west, acquisition of new territories along the Caspian coast	The acquisition of the western coast of the Caspian Sea strengthened Russia's position in the confrontation with the Ottoman Empire. Subsequently, the territories were lost.

The largest military conflict during the reign of Peter I - the war with Sweden - ended in a complete and absolute victory for Russia. The Northern War brought the country a long-awaited access to the Baltic Sea, and after that - the development of new sea routes, the expansion of foreign trade, the development of the economy and an increase in weight in the European political arena. In addition, new land territories were the results of the victory, and first of all, the land around the Neva, where St. Petersburg, the future capital of the empire, was built.

After the signing of the Treaty of Nystadt, in 1721, the two highest legislative bodies of the country - the Senate and the Synod - suggested that Peter accept the title of emperor. In the autumn of 1721, the country received a new name - the Russian Empire.