Phonetic means

Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

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Intonation (from Latin intono - I pronounce it out loud), a set of sound means of the language, which, superimposed on a number of spoken and audible syllables and words: a) phonetically organize speech, dividing it into phrases and significant segments according to the meaning - ...

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Expressive means of language- - a concept that is defined differently in the specialized literature due to the ambiguous interpretation of the category of expressiveness (see: Expressiveness of speech). In the works of some researchers V. s. are identified with stylistic figures (see, for example ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language

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I Intonation (from Latin intono I pronounce it loudly) is a set of sound means of a language that, superimposed on a number of spoken and audible syllables and words: a) phonetically organize speech, dividing it according to meaning into phrases and significant ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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Ennius, Quint; Ennius, Quintus, 239-169 BC e., Roman poet, "father of Roman literature." Born in the Alpine town of Rudia in Calabria; brought out of the house the knowledge of the Alpine dialect, which did not play significant in the culture of ancient Italy ... ... Ancient writers

Diction- the most important characteristic of the culture of colloquial, as well as vocal speech. The term has 2 meanings: 1) acoustic degree of intelligibility, intelligibility of sound speech, 2) physiological degree of clarity of pronunciation, i.e. the work of articulatory organs ... ... Psychology of communication. encyclopedic Dictionary

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"IPA" request redirects here; see also other meanings. Request "MFA" redirects here; see also other meanings. Not to be confused with the NATO phonetic alphabet. International Phonetic Alphabet Type Alphabet Languages ​​Reserved for ... Wikipedia

Books

• Russian rhetoric and culture of speech, I. B. Golub, V. D. Neklyudov. The most important information about classical rhetoric is presented. The history of rhetorical teachings is covered. The concept of oratorical speech is revealed. Rhetorical canons are considered. Analyzed…

Figurative means of language are the subject of scientific interest of stylistics, and phonetic means of expression are studied by phonics. Let's talk about them.

How can sounds be expressive?

Often we hear or read that our native language is very beautiful and harmonious. So say about him and foreigners who do not know the Russian language. That is, they judge only by the impression of the sounding speech. Why is Russian speech perceived by ear as beautiful, harmonious?

There are several reasons for this.

In our language, there are not many words in which three or more consonants are located side by side. There are also few words in which there are two vowels next to each other (sounds, not letters: in the word “her”, for example, the consonant Y is between the vowels).

And an approximately equal number of vowels and consonants in a word is perceived by ear as pleasant.

Speech sounds can be described not only in terms of articulation (vowels or consonants, etc.), but, like all sounds in general, in terms of acoustics (acoustics is a branch of physics that studies sounds). It turned out that speech sounds with certain acoustic characteristics are perceived as pleasant, while those with other characteristics are perceived as unpleasant. There are many "pleasant" sounds in Russian. However, both are involved in the creation of an expressive work.

What phonetic means of expression exist

First, it should be noted that writers, and especially poets, simply use the features of words to create an image. Suppose they select words with an approximately equal number of vowels and consonants. This cannot be fully considered a means of expression, but the work in this case is perceived as light and musical.

Secondly, there are actually phonetic figurative means.

Alliteration

The repetition of the same consonant in a visible section of the text is called alliteration. For example, A. Akhmatova: "In a white flame, a bush / Icy dazzling roses leans"(in the first line, a hard L, and in the second, a soft L').

A variant of this technique is the so-called Scandinavian alliteration, when all the words, say, in the title begin with the same letter. It is especially popular in England. Let's say G.K. Chesterton's "Five Righteous Criminals" cycle, J. Rowling's heroes are Godric Gryffindor, Salazar Slytherin, Minerva McGonagall, etc.

Assonance

This is the repetition of the same vowels in one line or phrase.

This refers to the repetition of sounds, not letters, that is, as a rule, vowels in a strong (shock) position.

Let's give an example of assonance to the sound [A] from A. Blok's poem:

Oh, spring without end and without edge -
Endless and endless dream!

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is the use of speech sounds that convey any natural sounds to create a complete picture in a work. The most common examples of onomatopoeia are associated with the use of hissing sounds to convey rustling and rustling, or the sounds [G] and [R] to convey a roar. Here is an example from A. Barto's poem:

Say quieter
"Six mice"
And immediately mice
They will rustle.

What have we learned?

Among the visual means of the language that help the author to create a spectacular and reliable picture of life, there are also phonetic ones. They are based on the properties of sounds and the peculiarities of their perception by people. Among phonetic means, alliteration, assonance, sound writing can be distinguished.

Introduction

Phonetics- the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).

Without the pronunciation and perception by ear of the sounds that make up the sound shell of words, verbal communication is impossible. On the other hand, for verbal communication, it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word from others that are similar in sound.

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

Phonetic means of the Russian language

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

• - sounds
• - stress (verbal and phrasal)
• - intonation.

The shortest, minimal, non-segmented sound unit that stands out during the successive sound division of a word is called sound speeches.

Speech sounds have different qualities and therefore serve in the language as a means for distinguishing words. Often words differ in only one sound, the presence of an extra sound compared to another word, the order of the sounds.

For example: jackdaw - pebble,

fight - howl,

mouth - mole,

nose - dream.

The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into consonants and vowels.

Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation.

The consonants are different:

• 1) by the participation of noise and voice,
• 2) at the place of noise generation,
• 3) according to the method of noise generation,
• 4) by the absence or presence of softness.

Participation of noise and voice. According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorants are called consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], ["], [s ], [h "], , formed by noise with the participation of the voice. Noisy deaf consonants include: [p], [p "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s"] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice.

The location of the noise. Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [p] ; middle-lingual - middle-palatal; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].

Noise generation methods

Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k], fricative [c], [f], [s], [h ], [w], [g], [x], affricates [c], [h], stop-pass: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [ R].

Hardness and softness of consonants. The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of the midpalatal articulation of the tongue, which complements the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it are called hard.

A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlative in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound.

For example: rose - dew and rose - grew [grew - grew].

So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.

The correlative series of deaf and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants are distinguished by the presence of a voice (voiced) or its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [r], [r "] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [h "] - unpaired deaf.

The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:

The composition of consonant sounds, taking into account the deafness-voicedness correlation, is shown in the following table

(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [dro" and], ["and]).

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence in the consonant system of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds. So, [l] - [l "] are distinguished before the vowel [o] (cf .: lot - ice [lot - l "from], and before the sound [e] not only [l] - [l"], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (cf .: [l "eu], [c" eu], [b" eu], etc.).

Assonance is the repetition of vowels (It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing ... - Pushkin). Assonance is usually based only on stressed sounds, since vowels often change in an unstressed position. Therefore, sometimes assonance is defined as the repetition of stressed or weakly reduced unstressed vowels. So, in the lines from Pushkin's "Poltava" the assonances on a and on about create only accented vowels: Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The stars are shining. The air does not want to overcome its drowsiness. And although many unstressed syllables repeat variants of these phonemes, transmitted by letters oh ah, their sound does not affect the assonance.

In cases where unstressed vowels do not undergo changes, they can increase assonance. For example, in another stanza from Poltava, the sound of speech determines the assonance to at; since the quality of this sound does not change, and in the unstressed position at emphasizes the phonetic similarity of the highlighted words: But in the temptations of a long punishment, having endured the blows of fate, Russia strengthened. So heavy mlat, crushing glass, forges damask steel(in the last two lines, the assonance to at connects with assonance a). In the same text, different sound repetitions are often used in parallel. For example: It's snowy, it's snowy all over the earth to all limits. The candle burned on the table, the candle burned(Parsnip). Here is the assonance e, and alliterations on m, l, s, v; repeated combinations of consonants: ml, sun- St.. All this creates a special musicality of poetic lines.

Alliteration called the repetition of consonants. For example:

The night will come; the moon goes around

Watch the distant vault of heaven,

And the nightingale in the darkness

Sounding tunes turns on.

In these Pushkin lines, alliterations are noticeable on n, d, s, v.

With the greatest certainty, our hearing catches the repetition of consonants standing in a pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word. The repetition of not only the same, but also consonants similar in some way is taken into account. So, alliteration is possible on d - t or z - s, etc. For example:

March!

So that time

burst into nuclei.

To the old days

So that the wind

related

Only

hair tangle(Mayakovsky).

The alliterations with r in the first part of this passage, the chased rhythm, the abrupt sound of these lines leave no doubt about the purpose of the sound writing, with which the poet seeks to convey the music of the march, the dynamics of the struggle, overcoming difficulties ...

Alliteration is the most common type of sound repetition. This is explained by the dominant position of consonants in the system of sounds of the Russian language. Consonants play the main semantic role in the language. Indeed, each sound carries certain information. However, six vowels in this respect are significantly inferior to thirty-seven consonants. Let's compare the "record" of the same words, made using only vowels and only consonants. You can hardly guess by the combinations ee, ayuo, ui, eao any words, but it is worth conveying the same words in consonants, and we can easily “read” the names of Russian poets: “ Drzhvn, Btshkv, Pshkn, Nkrsv. Such “weightiness” of consonants contributes to the establishment of various subject-semantic associations, therefore the expressive and pictorial possibilities of alliterations are very significant.

SPEECH EXPRESSION

Expressiveness and its basic conditions

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also feelings, imagination.

The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - proper linguistic and extralinguistic.

One of the main conditions of expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which implies a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing, effective. If the author does not properly think over the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.

To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech also depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, indifference to its content gives speech (especially oral) emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot affect the feelings of the addressee.

In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also essential, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the sender and addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same questions: the first ¾ setting out the topic of their message, the second ¾ following behind the development of his thought. In establishing psychological contact, it is important to relate to the subject of speech of both the speaker and the listener, their interest, indifference to the content of the statement.

In addition to deep knowledge of the subject of the message, the expressiveness of speech also implies the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee, to arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of language means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.

One of the prerequisites for speech expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily choose the language tools you need in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed as a result of systematic and conscious training. The means of training speech skills is attentive reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attitude to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness). ).

The speech expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author's target setting on it.

The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of language units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive possibilities of the language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of the language of all its levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.

Phonetic means of expression. euphony of speech

As you know, sounding speech is the main form of the existence of a language. The sound organization of speech, the aesthetic role of sounds is handled by a special section of stylistics - phonics. Phonics assesses the peculiarities of the sound structure of the language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various methods of enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.

The sound expressiveness of speech primarily lies in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. First of all, phonics is interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the significance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of fiction and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also being studied. In non-artistic speech, phonics solves the problem of the most appropriate sound organization of linguistic material, which contributes to the accurate expression of thought, since the correct use of phonetic means of the language ensures quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, and eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of statements. For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasing to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is considered to be a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. At the same time, most consonant combinations contain sounds [m], [n], [p], [l], which have a high sonority. Consider, for example, one of the poems by A.S. Pushkin:

Chased by spring rays,

There is already snow from the surrounding mountains

Escaped by muddy streams

To flooded meadows.

Nature's clear smile

Through a dream meets the morning of the year:

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, forests

As if they are turning green.

Bee for tribute in the field

It flies from the wax cell...

The sonic instrumentation of this poem is interesting. Here, first of all, there is a uniform combination of vowels and consonants (and their ratio itself is approximately the same: 60% of consonants and 40% of vowels); approximately uniform combination of deaf and voiced consonants; there are almost no cases of accumulation of consonants (only two words contain, respectively, three and four consonants in a row ¾ [squas '] and [fstr 'and 'ch'ajlt]. All these qualities together give the verse a special musicality and melody. They are also inherent in the best prose works.

However, the euphony of speech can often be disturbed. There are several reasons for this, the most common of which is the accumulation of consonant sounds: defective book sheet:[stbr], [ykn]; competition of adult builders:[revzr], [xstr]. More M.V. Lomonosov advised "to avoid consonants that are obscene and nasty to the ear, for example: the gaze is nobler than all senses, for six consonants, placed side by side ¾ vst-vz, the tongue is very stuttering." To create harmony, the number of sounds included in the consonant combination, their quality and sequence are important. In Russian (this has been proven), the combination of consonant sounds obeys the laws of euphony. However, there are words that include more consonants than the normative: meeting, disheveled, stumble; there are lexemes containing two or three consonants at the end, which makes pronunciation much more difficult: range, meter, ruble, stale, dating etc. Usually, with the confluence of consonants in oral speech, in such cases, an additional "syllabicity" develops, a syllabic vowel appears: [rubl '], [m'etar], etc. For example:

This Smury came to the theater about two years ago ... (Yu. Trifonov); In Saratov, there was a performance staged by Sergei Leonidovich back in the spring (Yu. Trifonov);

The earth is bursting with heat.

The thermometer is blown up. And on me

Rumbling, crumbling worlds

Drops of mercury fire.

(E. Bagritsky)

The second reason that violates the euphony of speech is the accumulation of vowel sounds. Thus, the opinion that the more vowel sounds in a speech, the more harmonious it is, is incorrect. Vowels give rise to euphony only in combination with consonants. The confluence of several vowels in linguistics is called gaping; it significantly distorts the sound structure of Russian speech and makes articulation difficult. For example, the following phrases are difficult to pronounce: Letter from Olya and Igor; Such changes are observed in the aorist; title of the poem by V. Khlebnikov "The Word of El".

The third reason for the violation of euphony is the repetition of the same combinations of sounds or the same words: ...They produce the collapse of relationships(N. Voronov). Here, in the words next to each other, the combination is repeated -sheni-.

True, in poetic speech it is very difficult to distinguish between a violation of euphony and paronomasia - an intentional play of words similar in sound. See for example:

Here we heard

quietly see through

transported first time

the first song of winter.

(H. Kislik)

colleague, employee,

companion, interlocutor

How many of these CO!

Weightless without each other

Terrible time carried,

Let's get into these catfish

Squirrel in the wheel.

(V. Livshits)

The euphony also decreases due to the monotonous rhythm of speech created by the predominance of monosyllabic or, conversely, polysyllabic words. One example is the creation of so-called palindromes (texts that have the same reading both from beginning to end and from end to beginning):

Frost in the knot, I climb with a look.

Nightingales call, a cart of hair.

Wheel. It's a pity. Touchstone.

Sleigh, raft and cart, the call of the crowds and us.

Gord doh, move drog.