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The nature around us consists of parts, or, as they are also called, components. Due to their interaction, they are closely connected with each other, and this interaction unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. Such a single system is called a natural-territorial complex, or landscape.L. S. Berg is deservedly considered the founder of Russian landscape science. He defined natural-territorial complexes as areas similar in the prevailing nature of the relief, climate, waters, vegetation and soil cover. One can single out natural complexes of deserts, forests, steppes, etc. L. S. Berg wrote that a landscape (or a natural-territorial complex) is, as it were, an organism in which the parts determine the whole, and the whole affects the parts.The sizes of natural-territorial complexes are different. The largest can be considered the entire geographical shell, smaller - the continents and oceans. The smallest natural-territorial complexes may include ravines, glades, ponds.For example, in a temperate climate, pine forests grow on loose sandy soils, and if the soils are clayey, then spruce will predominate. The interaction between components unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. As a result, natural complexes are formed. The word "complex" in translation from Latin means "plexus". This interweaving of the components of the nature of land is shown in the diagram. What is a natural complex?A natural-territorial complex (abbreviated as a natural complex, or PC) is a section of the earth's surface that is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction. This area has more or less clearly defined boundaries, has a natural unity, which is also manifested in its external appearance.The diversity of PC on land depends on the composition of rocks, topography and climate, which have a great influence on other components.Between the components of nature there is an interchange of matter. For example, plants exchange with soil and air, and mineral and organic substances, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This exchange determines the unity and integrity of the PC, so it is enough to influence one component to change the entire complex.Natural-territorial complexes (landscapes) tend to change over time. Most of all, they are influenced by human economic activity. Recently (within the framework of the development of the Earth), complexes created by man, anthropogenic (Greek anthropos - man, genes - birth) landscapes begin to appear on the planet. According to the degree of change, they are differentiated into:- slightly modified - hunting grounds;- modified - arable land, small settlements;- heavily modified - urban settlements, large-scale mining, large-scale plowing, deforestation;- improved - sanitary clearing of forests, park zone, "green zone" around large cities.Human impact on landscapes now acts as an important nature-forming factor. Of course, human activity in our century cannot but change nature, but it must be remembered that the transformation of landscapes must take place taking into account the interconnection of all components of the natural-territorial complex. Only then can the disturbance of natural balance be avoided.
The nature around us consists of parts, or, as they are also called, components. Natural components include relief, climate, water, plants, animals and soils. All these components have come a long way of development, so their combinations are not random, but natural. Due to their interaction, they are closely connected with each other, and this interaction unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. Such a single system is called a natural-territorial complex, or landscape.
L. S. Berg is deservedly considered the founder of Russian landscape science. He defined natural-territorial complexes as areas similar in the prevailing nature of the relief, climate, waters, vegetation and soil cover. One can single out natural complexes of deserts, forests, steppes, etc. L. S. Berg wrote that a landscape (or a natural-territorial complex) is, as it were, an organism in which the parts determine the whole, and the whole affects the parts.
The sizes of natural-territorial complexes are different. The largest can be considered the entire geographical shell, smaller - the continents and oceans. The smallest natural-territorial complexes may include ravines, glades, ponds. It is important that, regardless of size, all components of these complexes are closely interconnected with each other.
Combinations of the components of nature are not random, but natural. There are many connections and interactions between them. For example, in a temperate climate, pine forests grow on loose sandy soils, and if the soils are clayey, then spruce will predominate. The interaction between components unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. As a result, natural complexes are formed. The word "complex" in translation from Latin means "plexus". This interweaving of the components of the nature of land is shown in the diagram. What is a natural complex?
A natural-territorial complex (abbreviated as a natural complex, or PC) is a section of the earth's surface that is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction. This area has more or less clearly defined boundaries, has a natural unity, which is also manifested in its external appearance.
The diversity of PC on land depends on the composition of rocks, topography and climate, which have a great influence on other components.
Between the components of nature there is an interchange of matter. For example, plants exchange with soil and air, and mineral and organic substances, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This exchange determines the unity and integrity of the PC, so it is enough to influence one component to change the entire complex.
The reason for the formation of natural-territorial complexes are natural components. They are usually divided into two groups:
Zonal. These are external factors that depend on the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun. (Uneven heating is explained by the sphericity of our Earth.) It varies depending on the geographical latitude: when moving from the equator to the poles, the heating of the earth's surface decreases. Due to zonal factors, zonal natural-territorial complexes were formed: geographical zones and natural (geographical) zones. These complexes are well expressed on the plains, where their boundaries extend parallel to the latitudes. In the mountains and in the depths of the ocean, zonal natural-territorial complexes change with height or depth. Examples of zonal natural-territorial complexes are tundra, steppes, taiga, mixed forests, alpine meadows in the mountains;
Non-zonal (or azonal). These are internal factors that depend on the processes occurring in the bowels of the Earth. Their result is a geological structure, relief. Due to non-zonal (azonal) factors, azonal natural-territorial complexes arose, which are called physiographic countries. They are distinguished by the geological structure and relief associated with it. Examples of azonal natural-territorial complexes (natural regions) are the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazonian Lowland, the Cordillera, the Himalayas, etc.
Thus, our Earth is a system of zonal and azonal complexes, and the azonal complexes, together with the relief, form the base, while the zonal ones, like a veil, cover them. Touching and penetrating each other, they form a landscape - part of a single geographical shell.
Natural-territorial complexes (landscapes) tend to change over time. Most of all, they are influenced by human economic activity. Recently (within the framework of the development of the Earth), complexes created by man, anthropogenic (Greek anthropos - man, genes - birth) landscapes begin to appear on the planet. According to the degree of change, they are differentiated into:
- slightly modified - hunting grounds;
- modified - arable land, small settlements;
- heavily modified - urban settlements, large-scale mining, large-scale plowing, deforestation;
- improved - sanitary clearing of forests, park zone, "green zone" around large cities.
Human impact on landscapes now acts as an important nature-forming factor. Of course, human activity in our century cannot but change nature, but it must be remembered that the transformation of landscapes must take place taking into account the interconnection of all components of the natural-territorial complex. Only then can the disturbance of natural balance be avoided.
Verification is supported by the use of requirements tracing methods, which allows you to connect parts of the project with each other, check the adequacy of the requirements for their implementation precedents and functions, and vice versa. With the help of tracing, you can make sure that: all components of the initial requirements of the project are taken into account; all implemented components serve a given purpose and requirements for a set of programs.
Tracing should establish the correctness of the links between two or more components and/or requirements development processes that are: predecessor - successor, or master - subordinate, as well as the correspondence between requirements and their implementation by specific software components. Each component and module of the software package must justify its existence and meet certain specified requirements. The key elements of verification and testing are tracing relationships. These relationships can be defined using a model using the concepts "traces to" and/or "traces from". If one or more software component requirements are created to support some feature defined in the source document, then the requirement is traced back to some feature. If a requirement for a software component "traces to" a specific test script, then that requirement is tested by that script. That a description of a component "traces from" a particular software requirement implies that that requirement is implemented by the specified component.
The needs of the customer should be tracked by analyzing the content of the requirements so that it can be determined which requirements will be affected if, during or after development, the needs change. It also ensures that the requirements specification addresses all customer needs. In addition, you can trace the direction from the requirements to the needs of the customer to determine the origin of each requirement for the software package. If it is necessary to represent customer needs in the form of feature use cases, then the analysis should reflect the tracing between use cases and functional requirements.
As a software suite is produced, processes can be traced back from the requirements, and relationships between individual requirements and components of the suite can be identified. This type of relationship ensures that each requirement is satisfied because it is determined which component meets that requirement. Another type of relationship can control individual elements of the product towards requirements in order to know the reason and purpose of creating each component. In most software packages there may be components that are not directly related to the requirements of the customer, but it is necessary to establish what each component is needed for.
If the tracer detects unplanned functionality in the absence of a corresponding requirement, then the code fragment may indicate that the developer has implemented a requirement that an analyst or customer can add to the specification. However, this may be an element of the program, "decorating" a fragment that does not belong to the complex. Traceability links can help you sort through these situations and gain a better understanding of how the components of the system fit together to meet your requirements. Verification or test scripts, which are created from individual requirements that can be traced back to those requirements, provide a mechanism for identifying unrealized requirements because there is no expected feature or component. Skipping the implementation, verification, and testing of a requirement can be a significant defect if the customer is not satisfied, or if a feature is missing from the finished product that is critical to reliability or security.
Tracing the requirements of a complex set of programs is a time-consuming task, usually performed manually, which requires appropriate organization and qualifications of specialists. If traceability data for requirements is carefully captured during development, managers will have an accurate view of the state of implementation of the planned functionality and characteristics of the software package. Missing links from requirements indicate components that have not yet been created. If testing yields an unexpected result, then tracing links between tests, requirements, and module and component text can point to the most likely parts of the code that need to be checked for defects. Knowing which tests check which requirements saves time by allowing you to remove redundant ones and identify and create the necessary tests (see Figure 2.4).
Traceability information makes it easier to make changes during maintenance, which increases the productivity of developers when modifying a software package. It is advisable to use traceability information when certifying a product with special requirements for reliability and safety in order to demonstrate to the customer that all requirements have been implemented, although this does not prove that they are implemented correctly and completely. Naturally, if the requirements are incorrect or key requirements are missing, then traceability results will not help.
Documenting component relationships reduces the risk of problems if a key team member with important information about the system suddenly leaves the project. Tracing relationships between design components can be explicit or implicit. An explicit trace is a link or relationship between a function of a complex and a component that supports that function, which is determined solely by the decision of the expert that such a relationship makes sense.
Rice. 2.4.
The development methodology and system structure can define implicit trace relationships - "child" requirements between components and "parent" requirements when there are formal, hierarchical relationships. Traceability links help you track "parent" requirements, relationships, and dependencies between individual requirements. This information reflects the impact of the change if an individual requirement is removed or modified.
A convenient way to represent the relationships between requirements and other system components is the requirements traceability matrix. Each functional requirement in such a matrix is associated with a specific use case (in the "back" direction), and with one or more verification and testing elements (in the "forward" direction). Additional columns can be added to expand links to other work products, such as system documentation. Once all known relationships between components have been defined with the tool, it is imperative to check the component relationship trace matrix for the following two possible indicators of defects or errors.
If no trace relationships are found when looking at a row in the link matrix, it is likely that a software component requirement that matches the function of the original requirements document has not yet been defined. However, blank lines are indicators of possible errors and should be checked carefully. Modern requirements management tools should provide the ability to automate such verification.
If there are no trace relationships checked in a certain column, a software component requirement has probably been created for which there is no product function that requires it. This may indicate a misunderstanding of the role of a software requirement, a deficiency in the original design document, or a program component that is incorrect, does not meet a system requirement, or is a developer defect, in which case it should be removed.
To find missing relationships, you need to look for trace matrix rows that show that a certain function is not associated with any program requirement (use case). When a gap is found in the relationship, you need to return to the original set of requirements for the software package and the associated program requirements.
Communication between the components of the complex
from "Molecular complexes in organic chemistry"
Several years ago, Briegleb suggested that adducts of aromatic substances with nitro compounds are formed due to electrostatic attraction between molecules.To describe this type of electron exchange occurring during collisions, the name contact charge transfer has recently been proposed. In Chapter II, the available experimental data will be discussed, proving that in some cases the changes in the spectra accompanying the donor-acceptor interaction in solution are partly caused by collisions, and partly characterized by a longer contact time of the components of the complex. Bayliss and Breckenried.g suggested that the changes in the UV spectra that accompany the relatively weak interaction that occurs when iodine is dissolved in an aromatic hydrocarbon, such as mesitylene, may be entirely due to the physical perturbation of the solution by aromatic molecules that are incorporated into the solvent cells. Although experiments are described in the literature confirming such a view of the interaction, it follows from most of the data that many of the interactions considered are based on not only physical phenomena. In the IR spectra of solutions of halogens in aromatic solvents, absorption bands were found that characterize true complexes , and, as mentioned above, the solid adduct of benzene with bromine of composition 1 1 was isolated from a cooled solution of components .
Further, Weiss suggested that the stability of the complex should depend on the ionization potential D and electron affinity A. However, the heats of such interactions, which usually have a value of the order of several kilocalories, are much less than the heats that characterize the process of salt formation. Usually organic. molecular complexes are diamagnetic. Nevertheless, during the last few years a number of paramagnetic complexes have been found, which, therefore, must have some biradical character. These complexes will be discussed in chapter U.
To describe the interaction of a donor and an acceptor, Brekman proposed the term resonant complex and attributed to the complex of composition 1 1 the structure of a resonant hybrid - a structure in which there is no bond between the components of the complex, and a structure in which there is a bond between the donor and acceptor. Similarly, Pauling described complexes of the silver ion with olefins.
The following chapters discuss the spectra, structure, and stability of donor-acceptor complexes. In this regard, a more detailed interpretation of Mulliken's ideas about the connection of components in the complex is given. In addition, the magnetic and electrical properties of the complexes are discussed, as well as the possible role of various complexes as intermediates in organic reactions.
Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:
Ø deepen understanding of the essence of the concept of "components of nature" and the relationship between them;
Ø to study the structure, the main properties of the PTC and the landscape
natural component- this is an integral material part of nature, representing one of the spheres of the geographic shell of the Earth (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.). Natural components on the surface of the Earth are represented rocks, air, surface and groundwater, soil, vegetation and wildlife. Climate (long-term weather regime) and relief are not components of nature, since they are not material bodies, but reflect the properties of air masses and the earth's surface.
There are three groups of natural components: lithogenic, hydroclimatogenic and biogenic (Fig.).
All components of nature are in close relationship and a change in one leads to a change in others.
The closest interaction of the components is typical for the near-surface (soil) and the nearest above-surface layer of the Earth, since it is here that all spheres of the geographic shell of the Earth (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.) come into contact. For example, the relief influences the climatic features of the territory. Climate and topography influence the formation of waters, soils, flora and fauna. In turn, the flora and fauna are united by a system of interaction with each other and influence other components of nature. The relationship between the components of nature must be taken into account when organizing economic activity. For example, drainage leads to a decrease in the groundwater of the territory, and this affects the soil, flora and fauna, etc.
Natural components, closely interacting with each other in a certain area, form complexes, which are called natural-territorial complexes. Under natural-territorial complex(PTK) is understood as a relatively homogeneous area of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by a peculiar combination of natural components. According to the size of the territory, there are three levels of PTK: planetary, regional and local
The largest - the planetary or global level of the PTC - is represented on the planet by a geographical envelope.
PTK at the regional level: continents, natural areas, physical and geographical countries, are structural parts of the geographical envelope. NTCs of the local level are represented by landscapes (facies, tracts).
The boundaries of the NTC, as a rule, are not clearly identified, and the transition from one complex to another is gradual. On the maps, the boundaries of natural complexes are drawn with lines, which are a conventional sign. Each natural complex has its own structure. Structure of the PTK- this is a combination of the components of the nature of the forming PTC.
PTC properties. The main property of PTK of different ranks should be considered its integrity. Integrity means a close relationship between the components of the PTC.
Another important property of the natural complex is sustainability, which lies in the ability of the PTC to return to its original state when exposed to external forces (deforestation, land reclamation, etc.).
The sustainability of natural complexes is of great importance in connection with the increasing human impact on nature. Crisis phenomena in nature occur when the stability and ability of the PTC to self-heal is disturbed. Sustainability is provided by a variety of relationships between the components of the natural complex. The more complex the PTC, the more stable it is, i.e. has more opportunities for self-healing and counteracting human economic activity.
PTCs are constantly evolving, i.e. have the property of variability. This can be seen on the example of local complexes, when the processes of overgrowing of lakes, the emergence of ravines, the swamping of forests, etc. are underway. It is believed that under natural conditions, the evolution of natural complexes occurs in the direction of increasing their stability. In this regard, the main problem with anthropogenic impact on nature is not to reduce the natural stability of natural-territorial complexes.
The concept of landscape. landscape structure . With the development of geography, the idea of PTK changed. On the basis of the doctrine of natural-territorial complexes, a new direction has been formed - landscape science, the object of study of which is the landscape (from German land - land, schaft - a suffix expressing the relationship).
The landscape is a homogeneous natural formation within the natural zone and reflects its main features. The landscape can be taken as the basic unit in the physical-geographical zoning. To form ideas about the territory, it is enough to study it within the landscape. Each landscape is part of larger territorial geographical units.
The landscape is a relatively homogeneous area of the geographic envelope, characterized by a regular combination of its components and the nature of the relationships between them.
The landscape includes not only natural components, but also small NTCs - facies and tracts that make up its morphological structure.
The simplest (elementary) complex is the facies, which is characterized by the greatest homogeneity of natural components. An example can be a section of a small river valley, a hollow, a small depression, etc., which have homogeneous geological deposits and soils, the same microclimate, water regime and composition of the biocenosis.
Facies are combined into tracts. A tract is a system of facies confined to a separate large landform or watershed on a homogeneous substrate and the general direction of physical and geographical processes. Examples of tracts can serve as PTK within the ravine, hill. A larger unit of the landscape is the area, which is a combination of tracts that regularly repeat within the landscape. The allocation of areas is primarily due to the peculiarities of the geological structure and relief.
anthropogenic landscapes. As a result of the transforming activity of man, in place of natural landscapes, transformed - anthropogenic ones arise.
In landscape science, depending on the degree of anthropogenic impact, there are primary natural landscapes, which are formed by the action of only natural factors; natural-anthropogenic landscapes, which are formed by the action of both natural and anthropogenic factors, and anthropogenic landscapes, the existence of which is supported only by the activities of people. The degree of their change depends on the intensity of economic use. The greatest changes occur during the industrial, transport and agricultural use of landscapes.
Under anthropogenic landscape refers to a geographical landscape that has been transformed by human activity and differs in structure and properties from natural landscapes. Since human activity that causes the formation of anthropogenic landscapes can be purposeful and non-purposeful (unintentional), different anthropogenic landscapes are formed. There are slightly changed, changed and strongly changed landscapes.
A purposeful impact on landscapes leads to their transformation and the formation of landscapes with specified parameters and functions. Agricultural, industrial, recreational, urbanized and others are formed, which are sometimes called cultivated, or cultural. Under cultural landscape refers to a territory in which, as a result of human activity, the landscape has acquired new properties compared to its previous state (Fig...).
Landscapes, over time, are characterized by changes in qualitative and quantitative parameters. Such transformations are called landscape development. The factors causing landscape development processes are divided into internal and external. As a result of development, some landscapes can be transformed and disappear, while others, on the contrary, can be formed. The task of rational nature management is to prevent undesirable destruction (degradation) of landscapes, i.e. manage landscape development.
Questions and tasks
1. What is PTK and what natural components stand out in them?
2. What does the concept of "Sustainability of PTK" mean and what factors ensure it?
3. As a result of what economic activity can the interrelations of the PTC be destroyed? Give examples.
