The activity of human society takes place within certain geographical limits, in a certain territory. The nature of this area, climate, soil, precipitation, minerals, vegetation, surface profile, rivers, lakes, seas, natural routes of communication, etc. set the framework for the activity of human society, its occupation and development. With the development of technology, the dependence of human society on geographical conditions is weakening, but due to economic considerations, it remains, albeit in a truncated form. For example, at present we can grow rice in greenhouses on the islands of the Arctic Ocean, but it is hardly economically feasible to use these islands for rice crops; communication routes make it possible to set up oil refineries and iron foundries where not a single pood of oil or iron ore is mined; It is possible to imagine that oil production is carried out where there is none, with the current state of technology, but such oil production (by chemical processes) is not economically feasible. As for the consumption of products, at the present time, wherever there is rail, air or steamship communication, we can, under appropriate social conditions, consume the products of the most remote countries.

In remote times, the dependence of human society on geographical conditions was incomparably greater. Geographical conditions determined to a greater extent not only the occupations of people (mining and manufacturing industries), but also the consumption of products, the trade relations of a given society with other societies (depending on the means of communication) and even social organization (for example, the so-called "Asiatic mode of production" ). Therefore, the historian cannot bypass the geographical conditions, not only in the study of the history of more distant times, but also of recent decades. For example, when studying the history of Azerbaijan in the 20th century, we cannot ignore its oil-bearing areas, which made it possible to create the Baku oil industry with tens of thousands of workers.

But at the same time, we should not exaggerate the role of geographical conditions. When studying the same history of Azerbaijan, we must keep in mind that only under a certain social formation, industrial capitalism, did the development of the oil industry begin, and this development took giant strides under another social formation, transitional to socialism. Thus, the main factor in the historical process is not geographical conditions, but the development of the productive forces and the relations of production corresponding to them.

The historian finds a general description of a certain territory in physical geography, which deals with the consideration of a given territory in relation to its geology, geophysics, meteorology, paleontology, flora, fauna, etc. The division of the globe at the moment between existing state organizations, the division of states into administrative units , the location of the last and existing settlements in space, the historian finds in political geography, which studies the existing states, their borders, population, cities, etc.

What is the current state of industry, trade, agriculture, transport, etc., in individual states and regions, the historian learns from economic geography, which bases its conclusions on statistics. But in all these areas, the principle “everything flows, everything changes” is especially applicable. State borders are now completely different than they were in 1914; economic development makes leaps up or down every year; where 50 years ago there was a votskaya village, there is now a Russian village without a single votyak; where there was a forest, there may be a bare steppe, and in the place of the latter - a beautiful grove; the river may be in a different direction, etc., etc.

Which of these changes should be considered by history, which by historical geography?

Until now, historical geography, which most scientists define as a science that studies the relationship between people and nature in the past, deals with the settlement of people and individual societies on the globe, establishing the location of individual settlements (cities, fortresses, villages, etc.), boundaries between states and their administrative units, means of communication, distribution of certain crafts and occupations, etc. in the past. Some historians propose to create another special, cultural-historical geography, which deals with the distribution of individual cultures, for example, Muslim culture.

If we understand the relationship between man and nature broadly, then any difference between historical geography and history disappears. Usually, settlements appear where there are more convenient natural conditions (drinking water, convenient communication routes, soil, vegetation), or, less often, where it is necessary for political reasons (border protection, places of exile, etc.). But even in the latter case, natural conditions matter. If we take the production activity of people, then it all consists of the relationship between people and nature, from the impact of people on nature. Should, therefore, all this activity (production, socio-political and cultural) be studied by historical geography? If so, then history should simply turn into historical geography.

So it used to be. History and geography were one common science. But gradually there was a separation from history, due to the rapid development of the natural sciences, physical geography; as a result of the development of economic sciences, economic geography arose. Political geography has retained the greatest connection with history, but since bourgeois historians often did not want to touch the history of recent decades, leaving this area to politicians, sociologists and economists, political geography also received an independent existence from history.

Can we create independent historical-geographical sciences corresponding to the listed parts of geography? Can we also single out cultural-historical geography as a separate science?

We now have a number of courses in historical geography, which may be called courses in historical political geography. They consider the changing boundaries between individual states, regions, nations, the location of cities and settlements, the development of trade routes, etc. over the centuries. But can these questions be considered outside the historical development of individual social units (states, nations, etc.)? It is forbidden. Pointing out that the border between the two states in the XV century. took place here, and in the 16th century there, the student of the change of boundaries must indicate the causes of this phenomenon. But this means that he must give the history of individual states. On the other hand, the historian, considering the history of individual public organizations, cannot but consider their borders, the location of cities, trade routes, and so on. Consequently, we cannot separate historical political geography from history. Even less can we separate historical economic geography and cultural-historical geography from history, because economic and cultural development in a certain territory cannot be separated and considered in isolation from the general historical process of social organizations that existed in a given territory.

The sources for history and historical political, economic and cultural geography are the same: chronicles, annals, state acts, travel descriptions, etc. nomenclature and geographical maps, but these sources must inevitably be used by the historian of a particular era.

The inextricable connection between historical, political, economic, and cultural geography and history also explains to us the fact that there is not a single specialist in these disciplines. They were dealt with exclusively by historians of the respective epochs. Seredonin, Lyubavsky, Barsov, Belyaev, Kipert, Freeman and others, who gave courses and essays on historical geography, are all historians.

What then explains the emergence of a special discipline of political historical geography and the desire to create an economic and cultural historical geography? Partly, of course, by the transfer to more distant eras of the existing independent political and economic geography. The main reason is the view that history is concerned with the simple establishment of facts. If one takes this point of view, then one can create specific political, economic and cultural historical geography that determine changes in borders, etc., without setting out to explain the causes of these changes. But it will not be science, because the latter considers phenomena in their causal dependence. As soon as historical political, economic and cultural geography begins to explain the causal dependence of facts, they turn into history.

Thus, the existence of scientific historical political, economic and cultural geography is impossible. Any such attempt will either be a collection of facts or political, economic or cultural history.

Historical geography, as an auxiliary historical science, will and must exist. But its scientific content should be completely different. By historical geography, we must mean the science of geophysical changes in a given territory under the influence of human society and the forces of nature. Such a science, determining the changes that have taken place over the centuries in the surface profile, in the qualities of the soil, in the amount of precipitation, in fauna and flora, in rivers, lakes, seas, etc., and establishing the causes of these changes, should be a natural science and be one of the branches of physical geography. Only such a historical geography is useful to the historian and makes sense of existence. Political, economic and cultural historical geography must become what they can only be - an inseparable component of history - and cease their independent, though short-lived, existence.

From scientific (physical) historical geography, the historian could draw information that is very useful for his work about the soil, forests, meadows, natural routes of communication and other geographical conditions in which the activities of the social organization considered by history proceeded in a certain era. But, unfortunately, such a historical geography has not yet been developed, and the historian, when studying more distant epochs, has to use certain indications of general historical sources, unverified by natural scientists, under certain geographical conditions. The development of historical geography is a matter for the future.

REFERENCES A:

D. Gettner. Geography, its history, essence and methods. Translation by E. Ya. Torneus. edited by N. Baransky. 1930 N. Barsov. Essays on Russian historical geography. 1885 Y. Gauthier. Materials for the historical geography of Muscovite Rus. 1906 Kuznetsov. Russian historical geography. 1910 Lubavsky. Historical geography. A N. Maikov. Notes on ancient geography. 1874

With M. Seredonin. Historical geography. 1916 Spitsyn. Russian historical geography. 1917 G. V. Plekhanov. Basic questions of Marxism. 1928 K. Marx. Capital, vol. 1. 1930. P. Ivanov. Experience of historical research of land boundary in Russia. 1846 R. Kötzshke. Quellen und Grundbegriffe der istorischen Geographie Deutschlands und seiner Nachbarländer. R. Sieger. Zur Behandlung

der historischen Landerkunde. "Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsiorschung", B. 28, 1907 H. Beschorner. Wesen und Autgaben der historischen Geographie. „Geographer. Historische Vierteljahrsschrift", B. 9, 1906. O. Redlich. Histor.-Geograph. problem. "Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung" B. 27, 1905. E. Freemann. Historical geography of Europe 1903 K. Lamprecht. Zur

Organization der Grundkartenforschung. 1900 A. Westren-Doll. Urkundliche livische und kurische Ortsnamen. "Sitzungsberichte der Gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft" 1924 A. Westren-Doll. Grundworter in estnischen Siedlungsnamen. "Sitzungsberichte der Gelehrten Eastnischen Gesellschaft", 1926

Historical geography is a branch of historical science that studies the main characteristic features of the geographical, spatial side of the historical process. It concretizes our ideas about historical events and phenomena, connects them with certain territories, studies the geography of the historical past of mankind, including in terms of interaction and mutual influence of nature and society. In other words, historical geography is the geography of a certain territory at a certain stage in the historical development of its population.

For the geographical characterization of a particular region, as a rule, it is necessary to know its physical geography (relief, climate, vegetation, wildlife, minerals, etc.); political geography (territory and boundaries of political entities, their territorial and administrative structure, localization of places associated with various events, etc.); the geography of the population in terms of the formation of its composition, location and movement; economic geography, i.e., the geography of production and economic relations with regional and sectoral characteristics.

Historical geography is also based on these basic elements, but their content often differs from that which modern geography puts into them. And this difference is explained not only by the fact that historical geography studies a chronologically different stage in the development of mankind than modern geography. The point is in geography itself, geography as a science: the geography of the past differs sharply from the modern one.

Thus, for example, in a primitive society there is virtually no geography (more precisely, zoning) of production and trade, and at the same time, physiographic factors play a particularly large role there. Often in the historical geography of a particular era, a significant role is played by such factors that are practically not taken into account by modern geography: the geography of popular movements, the distribution areas of the main types of production tools, spheres of cultural influence, etc. In general, the definition of the range of problems of the historical geography of each era depends on features of a given social formation, from the basic laws of its historical development. That is why historical geography is an auxiliary historical discipline, closely related to the history of a given formation.

However, unlike the bulk of auxiliary historical disciplines, historical geography does not have special methods and techniques of research, it does not have separate sources of knowledge. The specific fund of this science, the factual material on which it is based, is provided to it by other sciences, first of all by history, and then by disciplines, often very far from history.

Thus, to study the problems associated with the physical geography of the past, historical geography uses data from historical climatology, geology, dendrochronology, soil science, astronomy, historical botany, plant geography, historical cartography, glaciology, and many other branches of science, including ethnography, archeology, and history itself. (information of chronicles, myths, legends, etc.).

Historical geography also widely uses the findings of such disciplines as toponymy, historical demography, historical statistics, numismatics, the history of prices and money circulation, anthropology, the geography of diseases, historical topography, linguistics, anthroponymy, the history of military art, the history of urban planning. But the overwhelming mass of information, most of the scientific baggage of historical geography, is drawn from historical sources by the methods and techniques of historical research proper.

After all, information of a historical-geographical order is provided not only by maps and geographical descriptions, but mainly and above all by chronicles, act material, cartularies, politicians, etc. Practically any written source can provide information on the historical geography of its era. Therefore, naturally, the historical geographer must be first and foremost a historian.

Such a breadth of the "source study base" of historical geography, the generalizing nature of the scientific activity of the historical geographer does not mean at all that historical geography occupies a special position among other historical disciplines. On the contrary, it retains its auxiliary character, revealing only one - the spatial - side of the historical process.

The close connection of historical geography with history determines another feature of this discipline - its direct dependence on historical science, on the level of its development, on its needs and tasks: while history was reduced to the history of wars, governments, events, i.e. political history, historical geography was also limited to problems of political geography (borders of states, localization of battles, etc.), and only in the last century did it acquire its modern form (population geography, economic geography of the era, etc.). Finally, the main directions of historical and geographical research have always coincided with the needs of history proper.

Another circumstance gives historical geography as a science a peculiar shade. As already mentioned, most of the problems that make up its content are, to one degree or another, the object of study of other sciences. The problem of "environment and society", for example, is of interest to geographers, sociologists, and philosophers; apart from historians, demographers, economists, ethnographers, anthropologists, specialists in toponymy, onomastics, etc., deal with issues of population distribution both in the present and in the past.

Almost all sections of historical geography can find corresponding analogues in history itself: the history of crafts and industry, trade, transport, etc. Therefore, the historical geographer faces a very difficult task - starting from the total amount of knowledge accumulated by other specialists, to determine his own, specific historical and geographical approach to these problems, focusing on the territorial aspects of the issues under study.

Such a peculiar perspective when looking at seemingly long-established issues often leads to new observations and conclusions, makes it possible to draw new conclusions based on well-known premises, expanding our understanding of a particular era. One example. It is common knowledge that there were many churches dedicated to various saints in medieval towns and villages; it is also well known that many of these saints were traditionally considered patrons of various crafts. But here is a simple mapping of churches and chapels dedicated to St. Nicholas (the patron of merchants and merchants), shows us the clusters of centers of this cult, i.e., shopping centers and the most common routes of merchants in this territory.

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industry ist. knowledge, studying geography ist. past humanity. I. g. has the same basics. sections, as the geography of modernity, that is, it breaks up into: 1) ist. physical geography, 2) I. g. population, 3) I. g. x-va, 4) ist. political geography. The last section includes the geography of the external. and int. borders, the placement of cities and fortresses, as well as the East. events, i.e., the path of the military. campaigns, maps of battles, geography of bunks. movement, etc. Physical. geography has changed relatively little over the East. period, i.e. for several. the last millennia. But for human development. Societies are also important those small changes from the point of view of the general characteristics of the landscape, to-rye changing the conditions of human life. These include changes in the course of rivers, the disappearance of oases, the appearance of irrigation. systems, deforestation, pl. species of wild animals, etc. The study of these conditions of human life and the changes that have taken place is included in the section ist. physical geography. When studying I. g. of any country, the researcher usually has to focus his attention on ch. arr. on the last three of the above sections of the I. g., in other words, to engage in historical and economic. (population and x-in) and historical and political. geography. In the field of national geographic problems, the researcher faces problems of a general nature (studying changes in the economic and political geography of a country or part of it over a given long period) and private problems (for example, tracing the growth of the territory of the Moscow Principality in 14-15 centuries or changes in the distribution of the population in the United States in the 18-20 centuries, etc.). In the study of historical and economic. and historical and political. geography of any country for a long time. time, the researcher, guided by the general periodization, must recreate a picture of the development of its economic. and political geography. So, for example, exploring the I. g. of Russia during the time from the end. 18th century to Oct. revolution, it is necessary to study the main. economic elements. and political geography on horseback 18th century, to establish the population, its nat. composition, its location, indicate the borders of which states and how exactly the territory under study was divided. (what was included in the borders of the Russian Empire, what was within the limits of others and which particular states), what was the internal. adm. division of this space. The most difficult part of the task is to show the economic. geography of the studied territory. - setting the level of development produces. forces, their placement. After that, the analysis of changes is carried out. economic elements. and political geography in the pre-reform. and post-reform. periods in order to obtain comparable pictures in this way at the time of the abolition of serfdom in Russia and by 1917. The described understanding of the subject of I. g. is accepted in owls. ist. and geographic sciences. In the pre-revolutionary Russian historiography did not have a single generally accepted understanding of the subject of I. g., and in the geography and historiography of the capitalist. countries it does not exist today. The most common in Russian. prerevolutionary scientific lit-re was a look, to-ry I. g. saw the task in the definition of political. the boundaries of the past and the location of ancient cities and settlements. points, in the indication of places ist. events and in the description of changes in the distribution of nationalities in the territory. studied country. Such an understanding of the subject of I. g. followed from a look at the subject of the ist. science - its main. task was to study the history of politics. events and, above all, a description of wars and their consequences for the borders of states, a story about governments. activity, and often the personal life of monarchs, their ministers and other representatives of power. In order for the story to be better understood by the reader, when describing wars, it is necessary to show the movement of troops, places and the course of battles; the narrative about the activities of the rulers became clearer to the reader when indicating changes in the borders of the country and its internal. adm. division, etc. Hence the definition of I. g. as an auxiliary. disciplines, along with paleography, heraldry, metrology, chronology. I. g. in its understanding, as indicated at the beginning of the article, can answer the historian and those questions that I. g. answered before and, therefore, can perform auxiliary functions. ist. disciplines. But her modern the content has expanded significantly, due to the expansion of the content of the ist. science, which now pays special attention to the study of socio-economic. processes. I. g. has become a branch of ist. knowledge, studying geography. side east. process, without which the idea of ​​it will not be complete and clear. Historical and geographical research is based on the same sources, to-rye serve as the basis of the ist. Sciences. Of particular value to I. g. are primarily sources containing information in geographical. section (for example, "revisions" of the population in Russia in the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries, census and scribe books, etc.). The monuments are legislative, with the exception of the decrees on the borders of adm. units, contain little information, to-rye can use I. g. Archeol. are of great importance for I. g. sources, especially for the study of economic. geography of the past. Toponymic and anthropological data are important for studying the I. of the population. Names of rivers, lakes, etc. geographical. objects given by the peoples who once lived on any territories are preserved even after these peoples have left their former habitats. Toponymy helps here to determine the nat. belonging to this population. Settlers in new places of residence often give their settlements, and sometimes even small, previously unnamed rivers, names brought from their old homeland. For example, after Pereyaslavl (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky), located on the Trubezh River, which flows into the Dnieper, in the North-East. Russia arose Pereyaslavl-Ryazan (now the city of Ryazan) and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Both of them lie on rivers, which are also called Trubezh. This indicates that both of these cities were founded by settlers from the South. Russia. Toponymy in this case helps to outline the paths of migration flows. Anthropological data make it possible to determine the formation of racially mixed peoples. On Wednesday. Asian mountain Tajiks according to anthropological. type belong to the Caucasoid race, the Kirghiz - to the Mongoloid, and the Uzbeks and Turkmens have features of both. At the same time, Taj. lang. belongs to the Iranian, and Kirg., Uzb. and Turkm. - to the number of Turks. lang. This confirms the information in the letters. sources on the introduction of nomadic Turks into agriculture. oases Wed. Asia at cf. century. I. g. uses primarily ist. method, as well as ist. science in general. When processing data from archeology, toponymy and anthropology, the methods of these disciplines are used. The beginning of the formation of I. g. as a separate discipline dates back to the 16th century. It owes its appearance to two major sources. phenomena of the 15th-16th centuries. - humanism and the Great Geographic. discoveries. During the Renaissance, educated people showed exceptions. interest in antiquity, they saw in it a model of culture, and Op. ancient geographers were considered as sources for modern geography. Great Geographical opening end 15 - early. 16th centuries showed the difference between the ideas about the universe of antich. authors and acquired new knowledge about it. Interest in classical antiquity prompted, first of all, to study the geography of antiquity. peace. The first fundamental work in the field of I. g. was an atlas of the ancient world, compiled by flam. geographer 2nd floor. 16th century A. Ortelius, as an appendix to his own atlas, modern. peace to him. Ortelius accompanied his maps with text, in which he briefly described the countries of the ancient world depicted on the maps. He, having declared "geography through the eyes of history," thus introduced I. g. into the circle of auxiliary. ist. disciplines. But Ortelius did not know how to be critical of the information of antiquity. authors, based on Op. to-rykh he compiled his atlas. This shortcoming was overcome in the next 17th century. prof. Leiden University in Holland by F. Klüver, who wrote two works on I. city ​​- east. Geography Dr. Italy and East. Geography Dr. Germany. French figures did a lot for the development of I. g. so-called. erudite ist. schools of the 17th and 18th centuries. and French geographers of this time J. B. D'Anville and others. Along with the geography of ancient. antiquity, they also studied geography cf. centuries. From the 2nd floor. 19th century content of common ist. works expands by including the facts of socio-economic. stories. Belatedly, the content of I. g. is also slowly expanding, which also began to engage in socio-economic. geography of the past. A characteristic work of this new direction is the collective work, ed. Darby in I. G. of England ("An historical geography of England before a. d. 1800", Camb., 1936). Maps on the history of x-va and culture are increasingly being introduced into the ist. atlases. In Russia, the founder of I. g. was V. N. Tatishchev. I. N. Boltin paid much attention to it. In the 2nd floor. 19th century N. P. Barsov, who studied the geography of Kievan Rus, worked a lot in the field of I. G. N. P. Barsov. In the beginning. 20th century begins teaching I. g. in St. Petersburg. archaeological in-those (read by S. M. Seredonin and A. A. Spitsyn) and in Moscow. un-te (read by M. K. Lyubavsky). After Oct. revolution M. K. Lyubavsky published a study "The Formation of the Main State Territory of the Great Russian Nationality. Settlement and Unification of the Center" (L., 1929). Owls. historians have created a number of in-depth studies on I. g. Among them, the foundation stands out. the work of M. H. Tikhomirov "Russia in the XVI century." (M., 1962). For I. G. Dr. In Russia, the study of A.N. Nasonov ""Russian land" and the formation of the territory of the Old Russian state" (M., 1951) is of great importance. Valuable works, ch. arr. according to historical cartography, belong to I. A. Golubtsov. Saturated historical and geographical. research material of E. I. Goryunova, A. I. Kopanev and M. V. Vitov. VK Yatsunsky published works on the history of the development of I. g., on its subject and tasks, and research on specific homelands. I. g. Research. homeland work. I. g. conducts the department of I. g. and the history of geographical. knowledge of Moscow. branch of the All-Union Geographic. about-va, which published three collections of articles on this discipline, and the group of I. g., formed in the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in con. 1962. The course of I. g. is read in Moscow. Historical and Archival Institute and in Moscow. un-those. Lit .: Yatsunsky V.K., Historical. geography. The history of its origin and development in the XIV - XVIII centuries, M., 1955; his same, Subject and tasks ist. Geography, "Historian-Marxist", 1941, No 5; his own, Historical and geographical. moments in the works of V. I. Lenin, in the collection: IZ, (vol.) 27, (M.), 1948; Tikhomirov M. H., "List of Russian cities far and near", ibid., (vol. ) 40, (M.), 1952; Goryunova E. M., Ethn. history of the Volga-Oka interfluve, M., 1961; Kopanev A.I., History of land ownership of the Belozersky region. XV - XVI centuries., M.-L., 1951; Bitov M.V., Historical and geographical. essays on Zaonezhye in the 16th - 17th centuries, M., 1962; "Questions of Geography". Sat., v. 20, 31, 50, M., 1950-60; Essays on the history of ist. Sciences in the USSR, vols. 1-3, M., 1955-1964 (chapters on the history of historical geography in Russia). V. K. Yatsunsky. Moscow.

Historical geography uses the sum of historical sources. These are messages from written documents, evidence of material monuments, data from ethnography, folklore, and language. Historical geography makes extensive use of toponymy, anthropology, and natural history data.

For historical, economic, political geography, and population geography, written sources provide the most complete information. However, not every written source contains materials on historical geography. Among them are, first of all, such specific types of documents as maps and historical and geographical descriptions. Cartographic materials on national history appeared rather late. The first maps - "drawings" belong to the 16th century. They did not have a degree grid, scale, exact coordinates. This character of the maps is preserved until the 18th century, which should be borne in mind when using them. Drawings of the XVI - XVII centuries. give only a schematic representation of a tone or a different territory. The distance on them is shown, as a rule, in days of travel, and the rivers serve as the main landmarks. This is precisely the character of S. Remezov's "Drawing Book of Siberia" (end of the 17th century), consisting of 23 drawings, which gives a general map of Siberia, its counties, the northern part of Russia, the distribution of the population, etc. The Big Drawing had the same character "of the entire Muscovite state to all neighboring states", compiled at the end of the 16th century. in the Discharge Order. Unfortunately, neither the Great Drawing, nor the new Great Drawing of 1627, created on its basis with the addition of the territory of the "field", have reached us. The lists of the Book of the Big Drawing have been preserved, which give: a description of the drawing “to the field” (roads, fords and “stiles”, towns and guard posts, notches, ditches, wells, indications of distances) and a description of the drawing of “the entire Moscow state”, on which rivers with adjacent lands, cities, prisons, churches, portages, minerals, peoples, etc. are marked. Based on these lists, we have the opportunity to reconstruct a drawing covering a vast territory from the Western Dvina and Dnieper in the west to the Ob in the east, and also southern regions (Crimea, Caucasus, Central Asia). The information of the Book of the Big Drawing is unique, but, like any other sources, they require a critical attitude, especially since the sources on the basis of which the drawing was created were different.

From the beginning of the XVIII century. in connection with the development of the country's economy, an increase in the level of scientific knowledge, topographic and other techniques, interest in cartographic material is sharply increasing. The "General Regulations" of 1720 provided for "each collegium to have general and particular land maps (or drawings)". Work began on mapping the entire country, which led to the publication by I. K. Kirilov in 1734 of the “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire ...” from 14 maps of regions and the general map of the Russian Empire. The new maps were oriented to the north, had a degree grid, scale, and were based on geodetic surveys of the area. The atlas of 1734 is important for clarifying the historical geography of the beginning of the 18th century .. for its content included “... provinces, provinces, counties and borders, as far as Russian surveyors could describe them and put them in land maps, cities are accurately expressed in length and latitude , suburbs, monasteries, settlements, villages, villages, factories, mills, rivers, seas, lakes, noble mountains, forests, swamps, high roads, etc., with all sorts of applications, have been investigated by Russian and Latin names.

The Russian Atlas, published in 1745, was somewhat larger than the previous one. It consisted of 19 regional maps and a general map.

The first "Historical Map of the Russian Empire" was compiled in 1793, although maps that were partially historical in nature, as applications to historical and historical-geographical works, appeared in the first quarter of the 18th century.

The significance of the cartographic material that emerged in Russia is enormous. The spaces of Eastern Europe and a significant part of Asia were mapped for the first time, which ensured further comprehensive study of the territory of Russia.

Over time, the amount of cartographic material increases. Both general and regional maps of the country of different character and different degree of completeness appear.

Cartographic material is a capacious and visual source. Systems of conventional signs, scales, illumination (coloring) allow you to concentrate a large amount of information.

By their nature, maps are divided into physical, economic, political and mixed types.

For historical geography, various kinds of descriptions of territories with a description of their physical and geographical features, economic condition, location of settlements, ethnic and social composition are valuable sources.

The economic notes compiled during the General Land Survey in Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries contain, in addition to materials on the history of the peasant and landlord economy, industry and trade, vast information on historical geography: territories, boundaries of land holdings and their belonging, assessment of the quality of land, types of land, settlements and their location, economic and commercial buildings, occupations of the population, etc.

A great deal of material on the historical geography of our country is provided by various kinds of historical-geographical descriptions. Here is the "History of the Greco-Persian Wars" by Herodotus with information about Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and partly Central Asia, the "Geography" of Strabo, Ptolemy, Ananias Shirakuni, the works of Tacitus, Jordanes and other authors, which, to one degree or another, relate to historical and geographical questions.

As the circle of written sources expands, geographical moments are touched upon in "walking", the writings of foreign authors about Russia and neighboring countries. Especially a lot of such information appears from the XVIII century. in descriptions of travels and expeditions of V. I. Bering, SP. Krasheninnikov, I. G. Gmelin, P. S. Pallas, I. I. Lepekhin, P. Chelishchev and others. Descriptions of individual territories are created, such as, for example, "Orenburg Topography" by P. I. Rychkov, geographical dictionaries - "Lexicon geographical” by V. N. Tatishchev, “Geographical lexicon of the Russian state” by F. A. Polunin, “Great geographical dictionary of the Russian state” by A. Shchekatov and others.

Information of the historical and geographical order is provided by chronicles, scribes, censuses, boundary, customs and other books, materials of revisions and censuses, monuments of an act character, such as spiritual and contractual letters, peace treaties, acts of land ownership, and other monuments.

Material sources are of exceptional importance for historical geography. They establish the existence of certain archaeological cultures, united by time, territory and common characteristics of material monuments. These cultures are a reflection of both the historically established economic ties, the unity of origin, and the geographical conditions for the development of human society. The method of archaeological mapping helps to determine the geographical location of archaeological cultures, the relationship and mutual influence of these cultures and ethnic groups, the location and distribution of certain types of production, agricultural crops, to identify trade routes and economic ties, etc. In some cases, with the help of material archaeological materials, it is possible to accurately establish the place of the settlement, which is mentioned in a written source, but has not survived to our time, the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic groups, the raw materials of individual crafts and crafts, the ancient topography of cities.

Ethnographic data make it possible to discover the composition, origin and settlement of individual ethnic groups, peoples, and the features of their economic and cultural life.

An important role in historical geography is occupied by linguistic sources that help to determine the areas occupied by certain peoples, the directions of population movement, and the processes of their mutual influence. For example, the dialects of the old-timer population of Siberia are Northern Russian in nature. This reflects the fact that the original Russian population of Siberia consisted mainly of immigrants from the Pomor counties. In this regard, toponymy data are of great importance for historical geography. Toponymy (topos - place + onoma - name) can be defined as a special linguistic, geographical and historical discipline that deals with the study of geographical names. According to the figurative expression of N. I. Nadezhdin, a famous ethnographer and literary critic of the 19th century. "toponymy is the language of the earth, and the earth is a book where the history of mankind is recorded in geographical nomenclature." The need to establish permanent names for geographical features appeared early. People must navigate the terrain and, above all, these landmarks were forests, fields, swamps, rivers. However, their multiplicity and recurrence necessitated the designation, if possible, of each object. They could reflect the features, properties of the designated geographical object, its location in relation to other objects, historical events, etc.

Historical geography, using toponymic data, proceeds from the position that geographical names, in the vast majority, are motivated and stable. With all possible accidents, the emergence of names has its own patterns, historical conditioning, stability. The name of Kotelny Island in the Arctic Ocean reflects the case. On the island, discovered in 1773, a copper cauldron was forgotten, which was the reason for the name. The Bering Sea owes its name to Vitus Bering, who in 1725-1728. examined him. The name took hold only in the 19th century. Before that, it was called the Kamchatka Sea, and the inhabitants of Kamchatka, the Itelmens, call it the Great Sea (Gytesh-Nyngal). But each of these accidents is at the same time a reflection of historical events of a larger or smaller scale.

A historian dealing with historical geography must distinguish the real basis for the origin of a name from various kinds of conjectures about individual geographical names. Thus, the name of the Yakhroma River in the Moscow Region was explained by the fact that the Grand Duchess, who was traveling with Prince Vsevolod near the city of Dmitrov, stumbled, getting out of the wagon, and shouted: “I am lame!”. An arbitrary explanation of the name of the city of Orenburg is a combination of the German words Ohr - ear and Burg - city. In fact, it was a "city on the Ori", that is, on the Or River. According to the then "German fashion" (Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Ranenburg), instead of the Russian "city", "city" to the base, indicating the geographical position of the city on the river. Or, they added the German "Burg". It should be noted that modern Orenburg is located almost 300 km from the place of its origin. The city was transferred twice, retaining its original name. Old city on the river Or is now known under the name of Orsk.

The use of toponymy materials is complicated by the fact that the name cannot always be explained. In some cases, the original meaning of the word has acquired a different meaning, the same word can be used in different ways. Until now, they have not found a satisfactory explanation for the origin of the names Moscow, Ryazan, Ryazhsk and other cities and places. M.N. Tikhomirov pointed out that the name of one of the old Moscow streets - "Varvarka" (now Razin Street) is derived from the church of St. Varvara, which was built in 1514. However, even before this construction, the street had a consonant name - "Varskaya". While these names are similar, there is also a difference. In the first case, it goes back to the name - Varvara, and in the second - to the word "vari". This word, which meant cooking salt and other products, as well as some duties of the population, was the basis of the original name of the street, and only later it was rethought in connection with the construction of the church.

Many names require historical explanation. So, one of the regions of the Russian state was called "Zavolzhye". This is the region of the middle reaches of the Volga, lying to the north along the axis from Uglich to Kineshma. It was “Trans-Volga” in relation to the center of the Russian state, and this name corresponded to the historical formation of territories, their development, the movement of the population, because, strictly speaking, “Trans-Volga” can be called lands south of this axis, if viewed from the left bank of the Volga . It should be borne in mind that the historical concept of "Trans-Volga" changes over time. Already in the XVI century. the concept of "Trans-Volga" extends to the left bank of the middle and lower reaches of the river. Volga. Thus, "Zavolzhye" for different historical periods includes different areas. The districts "Zaonezhye", "Zavolochye", etc. are defined in the same way. Explaining the name of these districts, their territory, we must take into account the process of their historical folding and allocation to certain areas, as well as subsequent changes.

Toponymy data are very important in establishing the settlement of people, their movement, and the development of new territories. It is known that the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, tracts are more ancient than the names of settlements. Therefore, they are important for determining the ancient population. The names of large rivers are especially stable. The names of small rivers and tributaries changed quite often. Apparently, this explains the fact that the names of a number of rivers located in the territory not originally inhabited by the Eastern Slavs can only be understood on the basis of the languages ​​spoken by the local non-Slavic population. At the same time, the Slavic population brought new names for both rivers and settlements. This explains the appearance in the Rostov and Ryazan lands of the Trubezh rivers (with the cities located on them - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky), rivers with the name Lybed, etc. If we keep in mind that Pereyaslavl existed in Kiev land, standing on the river . Trubezh, that the Lybid river is in Kyiv, it will become possible to connect the emergence of these names in the north with the movement of the population from the south. Toponymy makes it possible to establish the history of communication routes. Such names as Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochek, Zavolochye testify to the ancient portages. In the names of the Yamsky settlements, streets, evidence of the Yamsky tracts, pits has been preserved.

Toponymic information can be used in the study of economic, political geography, population geography. Anthropological data are important for studying the origin of races and peoples. Proceeding from the representation of the subordination of human biology to the laws of the development of society and its history, Soviet historical science adheres to the hypothesis of the origin of all people from one type of fossil anthropoids. This means that there is no direct succession between the old and new races, that modern races arose within the species Homo sapiens. Their settlement across the territory of the Old World, and then the transition to other continents, was long and complex and led to the formation of three main races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid, which, in turn, have further subdivisions. The process of correlation of these races and their parts, connections between them, mutual influence is far from clear. The boundaries between races are generally not clear and do not always coincide with the boundaries of languages. Races can be different among peoples close to each other, and at the same time, one race can be among different peoples. So, the Turkic peoples: Chuvash, Tatars, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Azerbaijanis, Yakuts have languages ​​close to each other. However, they differ in anthropological type. The original anthropological type is more preserved among the Kazakhs and Kirghiz, among the Uzbeks it is greatly softened, and among the Azerbaijanis the features of this type are difficult to detect. Consequently, anthropological data can confirm the mixing of peoples.

Historical geography also uses information from the natural sciences. They are of particular importance in the reconstruction of historical physical geography. For example, when establishing in the past the border between the forest and the steppe, when clarifying the areas at one time covered with forest and brought down by man. It is known that the landscape of the forest-steppe has changed a lot. It is not always possible to establish how and when, how this happened according to written and other sources. Natural science research comes to the rescue. Soil analysis can establish the primary or secondary nature of forest and steppe. Trees, shrubs, grass cover play an active role in the folding of soils. Climatic conditions, the degree of soil moisture, and a kind of competition of herbaceous vegetation have a certain influence on the possibility of spreading forests.

The materials of the natural sciences make it possible to establish the ancient riverbeds, which is important for the historical geography of the economy, transport links, especially in those areas where even now there is a high mobility of the riverbed, for example, for Central Asia. The solution of a number of issues in the history of this region depends on finding out how and in what way the channel of the Amu Darya went, whether it flowed into the Caspian Sea.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY, a complex discipline that studies the physical, socio-economic, cultural, political geography of past eras in historical dynamics. Formed at the intersection of history and geography. There are differences in the definition of the subject of historical geography by historians and geographers, as well as by various national scientific schools. In historical science, historical geography is defined as an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the spatial side of the historical process or the specific geography of the past of a particular country or territory. The tasks of historical geography include mainly the localization of historical events and geographical objects in past epochs. In particular, historical geography studies the dynamics of the internal and external borders of states and their administrative-territorial units, the location and topography of cities, villages and other settlements, fortresses, monasteries, etc., the localization of transport communications and trade routes in the historical past, directions historically significant geographical travels, expeditions, navigation, etc., determines the routes of military campaigns, places of battles, uprisings and other historical events.

In the understanding of most physical geographers, historical geography is a science that studies the "historical", that is, the last stage after the appearance of man, in the development of nature (the natural environment); within the framework of this research direction, a special sub-discipline has developed - the historical geography of landscapes (V. S. Zhekulin and others). Economic geographers consider historical geography as a discipline that studies mainly "time slices" (features that characterize a particular era). At the same time, historical geography also includes works focused on the study of the history of modern economic and geographical objects, as well as on the study of the evolution of national, regional and local settlement systems, territorial production clusters, spatial structures of the economy and other socio-spatial structures of various levels of hierarchy. (national, regional, local).

The main sources for historical geography are archaeological and written (chronicles, act materials, military topographic descriptions, travel materials, etc.) monuments, information on toponymy and linguistic data, as well as information necessary for the reconstruction of physical and geographical landscapes of the past. In particular, materials from spore-pollen and dendrochronological analysis are widely used in historical geography; much attention is paid to identifying the relict and dynamic characteristics of landscape components (biogenic, hydromorphic, lithogenic), fixing the "traces" of past anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment (sampling of soils formed on ancient structures, marking the boundaries of former land holdings, agricultural lands expressed in the cultural landscape) . In historical geography, both synchronic methods of research (“time slices”) and diachronic ones (when studying the history of modern geographical objects and the evolution of spatial structures) are used.

Historical outline. Historical geography as a special field of knowledge began to take shape during the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries. The works of the Flemish geographers and cartographers A. Ortelius and G. Mercator, the Italian geographer L. Guicciardini, in the 17-18 centuries - the Dutch geographer F. Kluver and the French scientist J. B. d'Anville were of the greatest importance for its formation in the 16th century. In the 16-18 centuries, the development of historical geography was inextricably linked with historical cartography; special attention in historical and geographical works was paid to questions of the historical dynamics of the distribution of the population, the settlement of various peoples, and changes in state borders on the political map of the world. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the subject of historical geography expanded, the range of issues studied included the problems of the historical geography of the economy, the interaction of society and nature in the historical past, the study of historical types of nature management, etc.

The leading national schools of historical geography were formed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The closest connection between history and geography developed during this period in France. In line with the geohistorical synthesis, the fundamental works of the French geographer J. J. E. Reclus, including the multi-volume work “New General Geography. Land and people" (volumes 1-19, 1876-94), which approved the role of historical geography in regional studies and regional studies. The historical and geographical traditions of the Reclus school were continued in the works of representatives of the French school of human geography (the head of the school was P. Vidal de la Blache). He and his followers (J. Brun, A. Demangeon, L. Gallois, P. Defontaine and others) formulated the most important principles of geographical possibilism, which for many decades became the methodological basis for the development of not only French, but also the entire Western historical geography. In the 20th century, the traditions of geohistorical synthesis in French science were also maintained within the framework of the historical "annals" of the school (especially in the works of L. Febvre and F. Braudel).

In Germany, an important impetus to the formation and development of historical geography was given by the works of F. Ratzel, the founder and leader of German anthropogeography. The attention of the German anthropogeographic school was focused on the influence of natural factors on the history of different peoples. Also, the works of Ratzel and his students described in detail the spread of local and regional cultural complexes around the globe, the role of historical contacts in shaping the culture of peoples in close connection with the landscape features of the respective territories. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, fundamental works on the historical geography of agriculture (E. Hahn), the settlement of peoples and the spread of civilization in Europe (A. Meizen) were published in Germany, and the foundations were laid for the historical and geographical study of cultural landscapes (O. Schlüter). The leading representatives of German historical geography of the 2nd half of the 20th century are H. Jaeger and K. Fen.

In the Anglo-Saxon countries (Great Britain, the USA, etc.), historical geography began to develop rapidly after World War I. Since the 1930s, the leader of British historical geographers has been G. Darby, whose works in the field of historical geography are considered a classic example of the successful use of the “time slices” methodology. The work of Darby and the scientists of his school significantly advanced the source base of historical geography, which for the first time included written materials relating to the corresponding eras (historical chronicles, cadastral books of lands, and other official documents) on a large scale. The emphasis was on comprehensive and thorough surveys of small areas, for which it was possible to collect detailed data. Along with local (large-scale) research, Darby and his students managed to prepare consolidated works on the historical geography of Great Britain. Similar views on the subject and content of historical geography were held by other leading British historical geographers of the 20th century - G. East, N. Pounds, K. T. Smith, who, like Darby, believed that the main task of historical geography is to reconstruct the geographical picture of past historical eras, using a comprehensive (integral) approach.

In the United States, historical geography during its formation was strongly influenced by the ideas of modernized and adapted to the latest scientific trends of geographical determinism (environmentalism), the main conductors of which in the American scientific community at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries were E. Huntington and especially E. Semple, a student of F. Ratzel, who adopted many of the provisions of his anthropogeography, the author of the fundamental work "American History and Its Geographical Conditions" (1903). But already in the 1920s, most American historical geographers began to move away from environmentalism, which was replaced by the ideas of the possibilists, borrowed mainly from Western European geography. Leading representatives of American historical geography of the 20th century - K. Sauer, R. Brown, A. Clark, W. Webb. The works of Sauer, the founder of the Berkeley (California) cultural-landscape and historical-geographical school, were of the greatest importance for the development of world historical geography. In his opinion, the main task of historical geography is the study of the interdependence of all the constituent components of the landscape of natural and cultural origin, distinguished for each class of phenomena, in historical dynamics. In the program work "Morphology of the Landscape" (1925), the cultural landscape was defined by Sauer as "a territory characterized by a characteristic interrelation of natural and cultural forms"; At the same time, culture was interpreted as an active principle in interaction with the natural environment, the natural area - as an intermediary ("background") of human activity, and the cultural landscape - as a result of their contact. This attitude was adopted by most of his followers from among the scientists of the Berkeley school.

Within the framework of the International Geographical Union, there is a Commission on Historical Geography, and a section of historical geography works at international geographical congresses (every 4 years). The International Historical and Geographical Seminar "Settlement - Cultural Landscape - Environment" (founded in 1972 by the German historical geographer K. Fehn on the basis of the Working Group at the University of Bonn, West Germany) is operating in European countries.

In Russia, historical geography as a scientific discipline began to take shape in the 18th century. One of the earliest works on historical geography in Russian science was the articles by G. Z. Bayer “On the beginning and ancient dwellings of the Scythians”, “On the location of Scythia”, “On the Caucasian wall” (published in Russian in 1728), as well as a number of his studies (in Latin) on the Scythian and Varangian issues. The subject and tasks of historical geography were first defined in 1745 by V. N. Tatishchev. M. V. Lomonosov singled out the most important problems of Russian historical geography - the history of the movement of peoples on the territory of European Russia, the ethnogenesis of the Slavs and the origin of Ancient Russia. I. N. Boltin was one of the first among Russian historians to raise the question of the role of climate and other geographical factors in history. Historical and geographical problems occupied a significant place in the works of V. V. Krestinin, P. I. Rychkov, M. D. Chulkov, and others, in geographical dictionaries, in the works of S. P. Krasheninnikov, I. I. Lepekhin, G. F. Miller, P. S. Pallas and others.

In the 1st half of the 19th century, the relationship between the formation of historical geography and the emergence and development of toponymic and ethnonymic studies can be traced in the works of A. Kh. "(1819), Z. Dolengi-Khodakovsky" Ways of communication in ancient Russia" (1838), N. I. Nadezhdin "Experience in the historical geography of the Russian world" (1837). The trend of the interconnected development of historical geography, toponymy, ethnonymy, etc., manifested itself in the works of N. Ya. Bichurin.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the historical and geographical study of the geographical objects, tribes and peoples of Eastern Europe mentioned in historical sources continued. The most significant were the works of K. A. Nevolin, N. P. Barsov, N. I. Kostomarov, L. N. Maykov, P. O. Burachkov, F. K. Brun, M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, toponymic and ethnonymic studies by M. Veske, J. K. Grot, D. P. Evropeyus, I. A. Iznoskov, A. A. Kochubinsky, A. I. Sobolevsky, I. P. Filevich and others. In the works of V. B. Antonovich, D. I. Bagalei, N. P. Barsov, A. M. Lazarevsky, I. N. Miklashevsky, N. N. Ogloblin, E. K. Ogorodnikov, P. I. Peretyatkevich, S. F. Platonov, L. I. Pokhilevich, P. A. Sokolov, M. K. Lyubavsky studied the history of colonization and, accordingly, changes in the boundaries of individual regions and localities during the 13-17 centuries. Theoretical aspects of the problem of colonization were considered in the works of S. M. Solovyov and V. O. Klyuchevsky, as well as in a number of works by A. P. Shchapov. Materials on historical geography were included in general, regional and local geographic, statistical and toponymic dictionaries (I. I. Vasiliev, E. G. Veidenbaum, N. A. Verigin, A. K. Zavadsky-Krasnopolsky, N. I. Zolotnitsky, L. L. Ignatovich, K. A. Nevolin, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, A. N. Sergeev, I. Ya. Sprogis, N. F. Sumtsov, Yu. Yu. Trusman, V. I. Yastrebova and others).

At the end of the 19th century, the first fundamental historical and demographic studies appeared: “The beginning of censuses in Russia and their course until the end of the 16th century.” N. D. Chechulina (1889), “Organization of direct taxation in the Muscovite state from the Time of Troubles to the era of transformations” by A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky (1890). At the same time, Russian scientists began to study the problems of changes in the physical and geographical landscapes of the historical past (V. V. Dokuchaev, P. A. Kropotkin, I. K. Pogossky, G. I. Tanfilyev, and others). The development of the methodological foundations of historical geography was influenced by the interpretation of the environment and the role of its individual factors in the works of N. K. Mikhailovsky, L. I. Mechnikov, P. G. Vinogradov, the geopolitical ideas of N. Ya. N. Leontieva.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the most important sections of historical geography were historical toponymy and ethnonymy (the works of N. N. Debolsky, V. I. Lamansky, P. L. Mashtakov, A. F. Frolov, and others). The problem of colonization was considered by V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Shakhmatov, G. V. Vernadsky, A. A. Isaev, A. A. Kaufman, P. N. Milyukov. The classic work in this area was the work of M. K. Lyubavsky "The Historical Geography of Russia in Connection with Colonization" (1909). New trends in historical geography developed (Thoughts on the Arrangement of Waterways in Russia by N.P. Puzyrevsky, 1906; Russian Waterways and Shipbuilding in Pre-Petrine Russia by N.P. Zagoskin, 1909). Thanks to the works of V. V. Bartold (“Historical and geographical review of Iran”, 1903; “On the history of irrigation of Turkestan”, 1914), G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo (“Materials on the ethnology of Amdo and the Kuku-Nora region”, 1903) , L. S. Berg (“Aral Sea”, 1908), etc., the study of Central and Central Asia was deepened. At the same time, a corpus of materials on the history of the land cadastre, taxation, surveying, demography, and statistics was systematized and studied (works by S. B. Veselovsky, A. M. Gnevushev, E. D. Stashevsky, P. P. Smirnov, G. M. Belotserkovsky, G. A. Maksimovich, B. P. Weinberg, F. A. Derbek, M. V. Klochkov and others). A significant contribution to the system of knowledge of historical geography was made by geographers - specialists in general problems of geography (A. I. Voeikov, V. I. Taliev, and others). In 1913-14, N. D. Polonskaya's "Historical and Cultural Atlas of Russian History" (volumes 1-3) was published.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientific schools of historical geography were formed. M. K. Lyubavsky, who lectured at Moscow University and the Moscow Archaeological Institute, emphasized that "the presentation of the historical geography of Russia ... is necessarily associated with the history of the colonization of our country by the Russian people." S. M. Seredonin, who taught historical geography at the St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute, put forward his concept of the subject of historical geography, defining it as "the study of the mutual relations of nature and man in the past." A. A. Spitsyn, who taught historical geography at St. Petersburg (since 1914, Petrograd) University, understood historical geography as “a department of history aimed at studying the territory of the country and its population, that is, the physical and geographical nature of the country and the life of its inhabitants, otherwise in other words, the establishment of its historical landscape. V. E. Danilevich, who taught a course in historical geography at the University of Warsaw, adhered to the same ideas about historical geography.

The works of V. K. Yatsunsky and his followers (O. M. Medushovskaya, A. V. Muravyov, and others) received the greatest recognition in Russian historical geography in the mid-second half of the 20th century. Considered the leader of the Soviet school of historical geography, Yatsunsky singled out 4 subdisciplines in its composition: historical physical geography, historical geography of the population, historical and economic geography, and historical and political geography. In his opinion, all elements of historical geography "should not be studied in isolation, but in their mutual connection and conditionality", and the geographical characteristics of previous periods should not be static, but dynamic, that is, showing the process of changing spatial structures. "Yatsunsky's scheme" was repeatedly reproduced in the 2nd half of the 20th century in many works of Soviet historians who turned to historical and geographical issues. Questions of historical geography were developed in the works of many domestic historians, among them - A.N. ”, 1962), B. A. Rybakov (“Herodot’s Scythia: Historical and geographical analysis”, 1979), V. A. Kuchkin (“Formation of the state territory of North-Eastern Russia in the X-XIV centuries”, 1984) and others. The historical geography of waterways in Russia has been studied in the works of E. G. Istomina. In the 1970s, textbooks on historical geography were published: "The Historical Geography of the USSR" by V. Z. Drobizhev, I. D. Kovalchenko, A. V. Muravyov (1973); "Historical geography of the period of feudalism" A. V. Muravyov, V. V. Samarkin (1973); "The Historical Geography of Western Europe in the Middle Ages" by V. V. Samarkin (1976).

Historical and geographical research carried out in the USSR and Russia within the framework of geographical science was carried out both by physicogeographers (L. S. Berg, A. G. Isachenko, V. S. Zhekulin) and representatives of the Russian school of anthropogeography (V. P. Semyonov -Tyan-Shansky, A. A. Sinitsky, L. D. Kruber), and later - economic geographers (I. A. Vitver, R. M. Kabo, L. E. Iofa, V. A. Pulyarkin, etc.) . In the middle of the 20th century, a significant number of major historical and geographical works of a regional orientation were published in the USSR (R. M. Kabo "Cities of Western Siberia: Essays on Historical and Economic Geography", 1949; L. E. Iofa "Cities of the Urals", 1951; V V. Pokshishevsky "Population of Siberia. Historical and geographical essays", 1951; S. V. Bernstein-Kogan "Volga-Don: historical and geographical essay", 1954; etc.). In the second half of the 20th century, historical-geographical research occupied a prominent place in the works of leading Russian geourbanists (G. M. Lappo, E. N. Pertsik, Yu. L. Pivovarov). The main directions of the historical and geographical study of cities are the analysis of changes in their geographical position, functional structure, and the dynamics of the urban network within a particular country or territory over a certain historical period. An important impetus to the development of historical geography in the USSR in the second half of the 20th century was given by the publication of specialized collections under the auspices of the All-Union Geographical Society (Historical Geography of Russia, 1970; History of Geography and Historical Geography, 1975, etc.). They published articles not only by geographers and historians, but also by representatives of many related sciences - ethnographers, archaeologists, demographers, economists, specialists in the field of toponymy and onomastics, folklore. Since the end of the 20th century, in fact, a new direction, revived in Russia several decades later, has become the historical geography of culture (S. Ya. Present, A. G. Druzhinin, A. G. Manakov, etc.).

A relatively isolated position among the areas of Russian historical geography is occupied by the works of L. N. Gumilyov (and his followers), who developed his own concept of the relationship between ethnos and landscape and interpreted historical geography as the history of ethnic groups. General problems of the relationship between nature and society in their historical dynamics are considered in the works of E. S. Kulpin. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century, the interdisciplinary links of historical geography with economic geography, social geography, political geography, cultural geography, as well as with research in the field of geopolitics are being strengthened (D.N. Zamyatin, V.L. Kagansky, A.V. Postnikov , G. S. Lebedev, M. V. Ilyin, S. Ya. Sushchiy, V. L. Tsymbursky, etc.).

An important center for the development of historical geography is the Russian Geographical Society (RGO); there are departments of historical geography in its parent organization in St. Petersburg, the Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society, and in some regional organizations.

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I. L. Belenky, V. N. Streletsky.