1. The concept of a geographical shell. The most important integral properties and regularities of the geographic envelope

General geography studies the structure, development and spatial division of the geographic envelope.

The geographic shell is a complex complex formation, consisting of a number of component shells (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere), between which there is an exchange of matter and energy, uniting these shells of different quality into a new integral unity, into a special planetary system. The consequence of this interaction is a variety of landforms, sedimentary rocks and soils, the emergence and development of living organisms, including humans.

The most important integral properties of the geographic envelope are:

• 1. The ability to accumulate and transform solar energy.
• 2. Saturation with various types of free energy, providing a variety of natural processes occurring within its limits.
• 3. The ability to produce biomass and serve as a natural environment for the existence and development of human society.

The particular properties of the geographic envelope are:

• - stay of matter in three states of aggregation: solid, liquid and gaseous;
• -presence of all chemical elements existing on planet Earth;
• - a variety of forms of movement of matter;
• -assimilation and transformation of matter and energy coming both from the inner parts of the planet Earth and from the Cosmos, mainly from the Sun;
• - the presence of the phenomenon of life - living organisms and their colossal energy;
• - the presence of conditions that make possible the existence of man and the development of society.

The geographical shell is also characterized by certain laws and regularities.

In philosophy and geography, it is customary to clearly distinguish between the concepts of "law" and "regularity". Law is a stable, recurring relationship between phenomena in nature and society. Regularity - a set of laws. In geography, we deal mainly with regularities that have a systemic conditionality.

The main regularities of the geographical shell are: integrity, rhythm, circulation of substances and latitudinal zonality (altitude zonation), development (increase in the complexity of the structure).

Let us dwell on the development of the geographic envelope in more detail. From a philosophical point of view, development is an irreversible, directed, regular change in matter and consciousness, their universal property. As a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object arises - its composition and structure. The following two forms of development are distinguished: 1) evolutionary development (gradual) and 2) revolutionary development (jump). There are also two lines of development: a) progressive (ascending) development and b) regressive (descending) development.

The history of the development of the geographical shell has several billion years. The age of the planet Earth is determined by the value of 4.5 - 5 billion years.

The noted properties and regularities of the geographic envelope characterize it as an independent integral system, the properties of which are not reduced to the sum of the properties of its parts. However, the integrity of this system by no means means its internal uniformity.

earth relief circulation galaxy

2. Vertical and horizontal differentiation of the geographic envelope

The geographic envelope is characterized by an extremely complex structure, being heterogeneous both in the vertical and horizontal directions.

In the vertical direction, the geographic shell breaks up into a number of component (private) shells, each of which is dominated by matter in a certain state of aggregation or form of its organization. This differentiation of matter occurred in the process of the development of the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system. The substance of private shells forms various components of nature: relief with the rocks that form it, soils with weathering crust, communities of plants and animals (biocenoses), water and air masses, etc.

The horizontal heterogeneity of the geographic shell is primarily due to the territorial differentiation of energy associated with the shape and origin of the planet Earth: a different amount of radiant energy coming from the World space, and the internal energy of the Earth received by one or another section of the shell. It was formed in the process of long-term development of the geographic envelope and is expressed in the existence of natural territorial and natural aquatic complexes (PTK and PAK, respectively) - historically determined and territorially limited natural combinations of interconnected components of nature. These complexes are the main object of complex physical and geographical research.

Both vertical and horizontal heterogeneity of the geographic shell arose in the process of its formation and development. However, the vertical inhomogeneity is due exclusively to the differentiation of matter, while the horizontal one is mainly associated with the spatial differentiation of energy. Since the vast majority of energy enters the geographic envelope from the outside and is subject to significant changes in space and time, horizontal differentiation is less stable, more dynamic and constantly becoming more complex in the process of evolution of the geographic envelope. As a result of a long development within the geographic envelope, a large number of PTCs of different sizes and varying degrees of complexity were formed, as if nested in each other and representing a system of subordinate units, i.e. a certain hierarchical ladder, the so-called unified taxonomic system.

3. Unified taxonomic system of natural complexes

In a single hierarchical system of taxonomic units, three levels of organization of the NTC are outlined: planetary (global), regional and topological (local), due to different patterns of differentiation of the geographical envelope at each of these levels.

Topological (local) natural complexes. Each smaller complex arises and separates itself in the process of development of the larger PTC containing it. Therefore, the smaller the complex, the younger it is, the simpler it is and the more dynamic it is.

The simplest, elementary PTC is facies. The main diagnostic feature of a facies is the spatial homogeneity of its constituent components. The facies has, within its limits, the same lithology of the constituent rocks, a uniform relief, and receives the same amount of heat and moisture along its entire length. This causes the dominance of a monotonous microclimate throughout its entire space, and, consequently, the formation of one indigenous biocenosis. On the terrain, facies usually occupy part of the microrelief form. Examples of facies are: the top of a sand bar on a river terrace with white-moss forest on medium podzolic sandy soils; the upper part of the slope of a moraine hill of northern exposure with a green moss spruce forest on medium podzolic medium loamy soils; sloping surface of the interfluve, composed of covers with soddy-weakly podzolic medium loamy soils, etc.

Usually, facies naturally replace each other along the profile of the relief. The combination of facies confined to one relief element is characterized by some common features: a certain unity and direction of modern processes (gravitational, surface runoff, podzolization, etc.), a similar hydrological regime, similarities in relation to incoming solar energy, etc. This allows groupings of facies, united by a common location on some element of the mesorelief form, to be singled out as an independent, more complex PTK - a sub-hole. Groupings of facies located on the slope of a ravine, hill, or ravine, on the top surface of a hill or on the bottom of a gully, on the surface of a floodplain or a floodplain terrace, etc., can serve as examples of substows.

A more complex NTC is a tract, which is a certain system of genetically, dynamically and territorially interconnected facies and sub-stows. As a rule, tracts are clearly separated in space; each of them usually completely occupies the entire form of the mesorelief. Due to the fact that each form of mesorelief serves as a reason for the isolation of the NTC occupying it from the neighboring one, in flat conditions each ravine, hill, depression, floodplain, river or lake terrace is not only geomorphological formations, but also separate NTCs, most often tracts . Tracts can be 1) simple, consisting of only facies, and 2) complex, in which at least one relief element is occupied by a sub-tow. Characteristic combinations of regularly repeating tracts form larger NTK - landscapes.

The landscape is a genetically homogeneous natural territorial complex that has the same geological foundation, the same type of relief, the same climate and consists of a set of dynamically coupled and naturally repeated in space main and secondary tracts, characteristic only of this landscape. The main diagnostic feature of a landscape is its morphological structure, i.e. a set and spatial arrangement of the smaller PTCs (morphological units) that make it up. The morphological structure of the landscape is revealed through various morphological units.

Representing a system of interconnected relatively simple NTCs, the landscape itself is at the same time an integral part of more complex NTCs and, ultimately, a part of the geographic envelope.

The landscape, on the one hand, is crowned by a series of NTCs of the topological level, on the other hand, a series of units of the regional level begins with the landscape.

Thus, in a single hierarchical system of taxonomic units, the following three levels of organization of the NTC are distinguished: planetary (global), regional, and topological (local).

Yulia Alexandrovna Gledko

General Geography: Study Guide

admitted

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus as a textbook for students of higher education institutions in the specialties "Geography (according to directions)", "Hydrometeorology", "Space and Aerocartography", "Geoecology"

Reviewers:

Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after M. Tank" (Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography Candidate of Geographical Sciences O. Yu. Panasyuk);

Dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Geography and Nature Protection of the Educational Establishment “Mogilev State University named after A.A. Kuleshova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor I.N. Sharukho

Introduction

General geography is a branch of geography that studies the patterns of structure, functioning, dynamics and evolution of the geographic envelope at different territorial levels: global, continental, zonal, regional, local. The role of general geography in the system of geographical sciences is unique. The concepts of geography (zonality, integrity, consistency, endogenous and exogenous origin of a number of landforms, etc.) play a leading role in the formation of hypotheses about the structure of the outer shells of other planets in the solar system, which determine programs for their research using space means. Most of the earth sciences are based on the basic ideas of geography about the relationships between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, vegetation and relief, land and oceans, and various natural zones.

General geography is the basis of geographical education, its foundation in the system of geographical sciences. The most important task of the discipline is the study of the geographical shell, its structure and spatial differentiation, the main geographical patterns. This task determines the theoretical content of the discipline. The most common for geography is the law of geographical zoning, therefore, in the course of general geography, first of all, the factors that form the geographical envelope and its main structural feature - horizontal (latitudinal) zoning are considered. The laws of integrity, evolution, cycles of matter and energy, rhythm are considered for all spheres of the geographical envelope, taking into account environmental conditions.

The concept of geography, which developed as a systemic doctrine of an integral object - a geographical shell - mainly during the 20th century, is currently acquiring an additional basis in the form of space geography, the study of the deep structure of the Earth, the physical geography of the World Ocean, planetology, evolutionary geography, research environment, its conservation for humanity and all biological diversity. In this regard, the direction of general geography has noticeably transformed - from the knowledge of fundamental geographical patterns to the study of "humanized" nature on this basis in order to optimize the natural environment and manage processes, including those caused by human activity and its consequences, at the planetary level.

The modern direction of geoscience is the creation of a single integrated digital model of the geographic shell, similar to existing models of the climate system, oceans, groundwater, etc. The task is to model individual shells in order to gradually integrate them into a single planet model. The key to building this model, in contrast to modeling climate, oceans, glaciation, is the inclusion of human activity as the main force that changes the geographical shell and at the same time depends on the changes taking place in it. The prospect of creating such a model lies in the widespread use of computer technology, the development of geographic information systems of various profiles and purposes, the development of new principles and means of collecting, processing, storing and transmitting data. There is a need to increasingly attract new sources of information: aerospace surveys, automatic observations from ground and sea stations. The use of aerospace survey materials makes it possible to obtain new fundamental knowledge about the structure and development of the geographic envelope, to organize monitoring of geosystems of various ranks, to update the funds of topographic and thematic maps, and to create new cartographic documents of scientific and applied significance.

The ideas and models of geography that currently exist are most clearly manifested in the process of solving global problems that affect the interests of all mankind. Thus, the concepts of geography are associated with the problems of pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, including the transition of local influences into global, structural and dynamic changes occurring in the lithosphere, violation of the regulatory function of biota, etc.

Thus, the range of theoretical and practical tasks facing geography is enormous: the study of the evolution of the geographic envelope of the Earth; study of the history of interaction between nature and society; analysis of spontaneous catastrophic natural phenomena in their connection with human economic activity; development of scenarios for modeling individual shells in order to combine them into a single model of the planet, forecasting global changes, taking into account the links in the system "nature - population - economy".

The place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences

1.1. General geography in the system of geographical sciences

Geography called a complex of closely related sciences, which is divided into four blocks (Maksakovsky, 1998): physical-geographical, socio-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, regional studies. Each of these blocks, in turn, is subdivided into systems of geographical sciences.

The block of physical and geographical sciences consists of general physical and geographical sciences, particular (industry) physical and geographical sciences, and paleogeography. General physical and geographical sciences are divided into general physical geography (general geography) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographical sciences are united by a common object of study. Most scientists came to the unanimous opinion that all physical and geographical sciences study the geographical shell. By definition, N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science of the geographic shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, and spatial differentiation.

Geographic envelope (GO)- the complex outer shell of the Earth, within which there are intense interactions of mineral, water and gas environments (and after the emergence of the biosphere - and living matter) under the influence of cosmic phenomena, primarily solar energy. There is no single point of view on the boundaries of the geographic shell among scientists. The optimal boundaries of the GO are the upper boundary of the troposphere (tropopause) and the bottom of the hypergenesis zone - the boundary of the manifestation of exogenous processes, within which the bulk of the atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere with organisms living or living in them and traces of human activity are located (see topic 9 ).

Thus, geography is not a science of the Earth in general (such a task would be impossible for one science), but studies only a certain and rather thin film of it - GO. However, even within these limits, nature is studied by many sciences (biology, zoology, geology, climatology, etc.). What is the place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences? In answering this question, one clarification needs to be made. Each science has a different object and subject of study (the object of science is the ultimate goal that any geographical research strives for; the subject of science is the immediate goal, the task facing a particular study). At the same time, the subject of the study of science becomes the object of study of the whole system of sciences at a lower classification level. There are four such classification stages (taxa): cycle, family, genus, species (Fig. 1).

Together with geography earth science cycle includes geology, geophysics, geochemistry, biology. The object of all these sciences is the Earth, but the subject of study for each of them is its own: for geography, it is the earth's surface as an inseparable complex of natural and social origin; for geology - bowels; for geophysics - the internal structure, physical properties and processes occurring in the geospheres; for geochemistry, the chemical composition of the Earth; for biology, organic life.

Purpose of the course
Course objectives

The development of natural science in the ancient period of history.

It is very difficult to single out the point of origin of natural science. Already in ancient times, people tried to understand and explain the natural world to themselves. Knowledge of its laws was necessary for them, first of all, in practical terms (preparation for the change of seasons, for the seasons of drought, rains and river floods, knowledge of the signs of soil fertility, climatic features, and so on). Thus, "the need to calculate the periods of rise and fall of the waters in the Nile created Egyptian astronomy, and at the same time the dominance of the caste of priests as leaders of agriculture."

Significant knowledge was accumulated in mechanics, medicine, botany, and zoology. A special place among the sciences of nature was occupied by astronomy, which equally satisfied both the practical needs and the ideological needs of an inquisitive mind. Already in 1800 BC, under the ruler Hammurabi, an extensive catalog of stars existed in Babylon, and in the 8th century. BC. established a regular astronomical service.

The special place of astronomy was due to the fact that its tasks also included astrological divination, which had an appropriate "ideological base". The thinking of ancient peoples is characterized by ideas about the consubstantiality of all elements of the surrounding world - people, plants, animals, celestial bodies.

No less than practical needs, the origin and development of science is also due to ideological stimuli. Being no less, if not more inquisitive than now, people of distant antiquity tried to compensate for the lack of knowledge with a flight of imagination, bold conjectures, embodied in the beautiful mythologies of Egypt, Babylon and Sumer, China, India, ancient Greece. In the minds of that era, there was a bizarre interweaving of scientific observations, mythology and religion; myths, fairy tales, epos served as a receptacle for knowledge, many components of which are lost in attempts to “translate” the knowledge contained in them “into our language”.

The conditions of aristocratic Greece, with a relatively soft and humane slave system, were unique for the creation of natural-philosophical systems that comprehend and describe the world as a whole. Of course, they made up for the lack of scientific data with a flight of imagination. This path gave rise not only to the "three pillars" on which the Earth rests, but also to such conjectures as the concept of atoms.

In ancient ideas about nature, the path “from myth to logos” is clearly traced, to the search for internal patterns and mechanisms of natural phenomena, the logic of their relationships.

So if in Homer and Hesiod many natural phenomena occur according to the whims and whims of the vengeful gods, then the philosopher Anaximander already has the motive of “dominance in the world of cosmic justice, which moderates the struggle of opposites.”

A. Humboldt's law of altitudinal bioclimatic zonation (1850s)

The attention of naturalists and geographers has long been attracted by the change soil and vegetation as you climb the mountains. The first to draw attention to this as a general pattern was the German naturalist A. Humboldt. Altitudinal zonality is a natural change in natural conditions, natural zones, landscapes in the mountains.

In contrast to the plains in the mountains, both flora and fauna are 2-5 times richer in species. The number of altitudinal belts in the mountains depends on the height of the mountains and on their geographical position.

The nature of altitudinal zonality changes depending on the exposure of the slope, and also as the mountains move away from the ocean. In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. For mountains in the central regions of the mainland, treeless landscapes are typical.

Each high-altitude landscape belt surrounds mountains from all sides, but the system of tiers on opposite slopes of the ridges can differ dramatically.

Geographical law of K. Baer (1860s)

K. Baer's law is a provision according to which rivers flowing in the direction of the meridian in the Northern Hemisphere shift the channel to the right (wash away the right bank), and in the South - to the left (wash away the left bank). Formulated by K. M. Baer in 1857, who associated this phenomenon with the rotation of the Earth around its axis. It is known that a body moving translationally in a rotating system experiences Coriolis acceleration. At the equator it is zero. Its highest values ​​are at the poles. Therefore, Baer's law is more pronounced in middle and high latitudes. The effect of Baer's law is directly proportional to the mass of moving water, therefore it is most pronounced on such large rivers as the Volga, Dnieper, Don, Ob, Irtysh, Lena, Danube and Nile, which in many areas have a high right and low left bank. In the valleys of small rivers, this pattern is practically not manifested.

Natural resources.

Natural resources are components of nature that are used by man at a given level of development of civilization in economic activity.

The structure of the earth.

25. Features of the terrain plan, geographical map, globe, aerospace image, as spatial models of the Earth.

Terrain plan- a drawing of a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe terrain on a large scale and in conventional signs, built without taking into account the curvature of the earth's surface.

Geographic map- a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built according to certain mathematical laws in the system of symbols. The map shows the location of natural phenomena, their properties, relationships, man-made environment. A geographical map is not a reduced copy of the area, unlike a plan. It is possible to distort and apply only the necessary important objects.

the globe- a reduced model of the Earth, reflecting its spherical shape. The geometric properties of the depicted objects, their linear and areal dimensions, angles and shapes are preserved on the globe, the accepted scale is the same in all parts of the globe, and the degree network is built without distortion.

aerospace image - this is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remote registration of the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.

Earth's atmosphere.

Atmosphere- the gaseous shell (geosphere) surrounding the planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partially the earth's crust, while its outer surface borders on the near-Earth part of outer space. The thickness of the atmosphere is about 120 km from the Earth's surface.

Weather.

Weather- a set of values ​​of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a certain point in time at a particular point in space.

Distinguish between periodic and non-periodic weather changes. Periodic weather changes depend on the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. Non-periodic due to the transfer of air masses. They disrupt the normal course of meteorological quantities (temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, etc.). Mismatches of the phase of periodic changes with the nature of non-periodic ones lead to the most dramatic changes in the weather.

Climate.

Climate- long-term weather regime, characteristic of a given area due to its geographical location.

Climate-forming factors:

The position of the earth;

Distribution of land and sea;

Atmospheric circulation;

ocean currents;

The relief of the earth's surface.

Wind.

Wind- airflow. On Earth, wind is a stream of air that moves predominantly in a horizontal direction. Winds are classified primarily by their strength, duration and direction. Thus, gusts are considered to be short-term (several seconds) and strong movements of air. Strong winds of medium duration (about 1 minute) are called squalls. The names of longer winds depend on the strength, for example, such names are breeze, storm, storm, hurricane, typhoon. The duration of the wind also varies greatly: some thunderstorms can last several minutes, breezes that depend on the difference in heating features of the relief throughout the day last several hours, global winds caused by seasonal temperature changes - monsoons - last several months, while global winds, caused by the difference in temperature at different latitudes and the Coriolis force, they blow constantly and are called trade winds. Monsoons and trade winds are the winds that make up the general and local circulation of the atmosphere. Winds can also influence the formation of landforms, causing eolian deposits that form various types of soils (for example, loess) or erosion. They can carry sand and dust from deserts over long distances. The winds disperse plant seeds and aid the movement of flying animals, which lead to the expansion of species into new territory. Wind-related phenomena affect wildlife in a variety of ways. Wind arises as a result of an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure and is directed from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone. Due to the continuous change in pressure in time and space, the speed and direction of the wind is constantly changing. With height, the wind speed changes due to a decrease in the friction force.

Solar radiation.

Solar radiation- electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of the Sun. Solar radiation is the main source of energy for all physical and geographical processes occurring on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere. The amount of solar radiation depends on the height of the sun, the time of year, and the transparency of the atmosphere. Actinometers and pyrheliometers are used to measure solar radiation. The intensity of solar radiation is usually measured by its thermal effect and is expressed in calories per unit surface per unit of time.

Solar radiation strongly affects the Earth only in the daytime, of course - when the Sun is above the horizon. Also, solar radiation is very strong near the poles, during the polar days, when the Sun is above the horizon even at midnight. However, in winter in the same places, the Sun does not rise above the horizon at all, and therefore does not affect the region. Solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, and therefore it still enters the Earth (when the Sun is directly above the horizon). Solar radiation is a combination of the bright yellow color of the Sun and heat, heat also passes through clouds. Solar radiation is transmitted to Earth through radiation, and not through heat conduction.

Earth's lithosphere.

Earth's lithosphere- the stone shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle; extends to the atmosphere and has a thickness of 150-200 km.

It is broken by deep faults into large blocks (lithospheric plates). They move in a horizontal direction at an average speed of 5-10 cm/year. There are 7 large lithospheric plates: Eurasian, Pacific, African, Indian, Antarctic, North American and South American.

Earth's crust- the first shell of a solid body of the Earth, having a thickness of 30-40 km. The Earth's crust is separated from the mantle by a seismic division called the Mocha system.

Relief classification.

Relief classification- systematization of landforms according to a number of features. There are K. r .: 1) geotext., Emphasizing the dependence of the relief on the text. mode, i.e., the intensity and direction of the latest texts. movements (relief of platforms, areas of mountain building, geosynclinal); 2) genetic - by processes and agents of morphogenesis - denudation-tekt relief. (the highest, high, medium, low mountains and hills) and volcanic, due to Ch. arr. endogenous processes; denudation - basement, reservoir - and accumulative, formed under the influence of predominantly exogenous processes - gravity river, sea, lake, glacial, hydroglacial, permafrost, eolian, karst, biogenic, technogenic; 3) morphogenetic by relief types; 4) age - by age or stages of relief formation.

45. Factors of relief formation.

The relief is formed as a result of the interaction of internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) forces. Endogenous and exogenous processes of relief formation operate constantly. At the same time, endogenous processes mainly create the main features of the relief, while exogenous ones try to level the relief. Endogenous forces cause: movements of the lithosphere, the formation of folds and faults, earthquakes and volcanism. All these movements are reflected in the relief and lead to the formation of mountains and troughs of the earth's crust. Exogenous processes associated with the arrival of solar energy on the earth. But they flow with the participation of gravity. When this happens:

1. Weathering of rocks;
2. Movement of material under the action of gravity (landslides, landslides, screes on slopes);
3. Material transport by water and wind.

Earth's hydrosphere.

Hydrosphere- discontinuous water shell of the Earth, consisting of the World Ocean and inland water bodies; this is the main part of the Earth's surface (the area is more than 75% of the total surface - 510 million km2).

The climate on Earth largely depends on the state of water vapor in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, only solid water or individual molecules remain in the atmosphere, which indicates being in outer space; in the depths of the Earth, it passes into a vaporous state, then into a plasma state, and even deeper into a chemically bound state.

The hydrosphere contains 1554 million km3 of water.

The science that studies the hydrosphere is called hydrology:

General hydrology:

o Land hydrology (glaciers, swamps, rivers, etc.);

o Hydrology of the seas;

o Groundwater hydrology;

Regional hydrology (specific water bodies);

Engineering hydrology (methods for calculating and forecasting hydrological characteristics - ebbs and flows).

Biosphere of the Earth.

Biosphere- the shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; "film of life"

· Upper limit in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone layer, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms.

· Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of the transition of water into steam and the temperature of protein denaturation, however, in general, the spread of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters.

· The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.

·

Methodological goals and objectives of the course "Geography". The structure of geography as a natural science

Purpose of the course
To acquaint students with basic knowledge about the atmosphere, the physical and chemical processes occurring in it, which form the weather and climate.
Course objectives
To acquaint students with the structure of the atmosphere; the composition of the air, the spatial distribution of pressure, temperature, and humidity on the globe; processes of formation of solar radiation in the atmosphere; thermal and water regime; properties of the main circulation systems that determine weather changes at different latitudes.
Familiarize with the instruments and instill the skills of the simplest meteorological, gradient and actinometric observations.
Give an idea of ​​the climate system, the relationship between global and local climates, climate formation processes, climate classification systems, large-scale climate changes and modern climate warming

The subject of geography is the geographic shell - the volume of matter of different composition and state that arose under terrestrial conditions and formed a specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in geography is studied as part of the planet and the Cosmos, which is under the power of earthly forces and develops in the process of complex cosmic-planetary interaction.
In the system of fundamental geographical education, geography is a kind of link between geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. This course introduces the future geographer to a complex professional world, laying the foundations of a geographical worldview and thinking.
Geography is one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the hierarchy of the natural cycle of sciences, geography as a particular version of planetary science should be on a par with astronomy, cosmology, physics, and chemistry. The next rank is created by the Earth sciences - geology, geography, general biology, ecology, etc. Geography plays a special role in the system of geographical disciplines. It appears as if "super-science" that combines information about all the processes and phenomena that occur after the formation of the planet from the interstellar nebula. Earth science serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology - a science that assesses the current state and predicts the next changes in the geographical envelope as the environment for the existence of living organisms in order to ensure their ecological well-being. The main task of geography is the study of global changes occurring in the geographic envelope in order to understand the interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that determine the Earth's ecosystem.

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1 1 Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus Educational and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education APPROVED by First Deputy Minister of Education of the Republic of Belarus AI Zhuk Registration TD-/type. BASICS OF GENERAL EARTH SCIENCE Standard curriculum for higher educational institutions in the specialties: Biology; Biology. Additional specialty; Biology. Valeology AGREED Chairman of the Educational and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education P.D. Kukharchik AGREED Head of the Department of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education Yu.I. Miksyuk First Vice-Rector of the State Educational Institution Republican Institute of Higher Education I.V.Kazakova Expert Comptroller Minsk 2008

2 2 COMPILERS: O.Yu. Panasyuk, Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution “Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank”, Candidate of Geographical Sciences, Associate Professor; A.V.Taranchuk, Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank", Candidate of Geography, Associate Professor REVIEWERS: Department of General Geography of the Belarusian State University; V.S. Khomich, Deputy Director for Research of the State Scientific Institution Institute of Problems of the Use of Natural Resources and Ecology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Doctor of Geography, Associate Professor Tank” (minutes 12 dated April 2, 2008); Scientific and methodological council of the educational institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank" (minutes 3 of April 24, 2008); Scientific and Methodological Council for Science Education of the Scientific and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education (minutes 4 of May 19, 2008) Responsible for the issue: N.L.Strekha

3 3 Explanatory note In the system of teacher education, the course "Fundamentals of General Geography" is a kind of link between natural history knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. The accelerated development of scientific thought and the availability of new factual material require their introduction into the field of education in order to improve its content and train specialists at the modern level. New data obtained in all branches of human knowledge, the emergence and active development of the idea of ​​sustainable development of society, co-evolution (co-creation) of man and nature have led to the need to reflect these points in the process of considering the issues of the emergence and development of our planet, the existence and change of life on it. The program for the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" was developed in accordance with the educational standard "Educational Standard. Higher education. First step” for specialties Biology; Biology. Additional specialty, Biology. Valeology. The purpose of studying the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" is to study the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of the geographical shell in unity and interaction with the surrounding space at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom), to establish ways of creating and existing modern natural (natural-anthropogenic) situations and trends of their possible transformation in the future. Objectives of the discipline: study of the composition of the geographic shell (its geospheres and components); study of the structure of the geographical shell of the nature of the links between the components of the geospheres, and the processes that ensure these links; clarification of the causes and methods of formation of the structure of the geographic shell; identification of patterns of development of the geographic envelope (its components and the whole as a whole); identification of spatial patterns of formation of the structure of the geographic shell (its components and the whole as a whole); formation of knowledge about the structure, origin and modern dynamics of processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere; the study of geographical nomenclature "Fundamentals of general geography" is an integrated discipline that includes knowledge of particular disciplines, such as astronomy, geology, climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, soil science. When selecting the material, first of all, the need was taken into account to ensure the most complete disclosure of the subject of study and the tasks of this

4 4 disciplines. The main methods (technologies) of teaching the discipline are problem-based learning, communication and gaming technologies. This discipline is logically connected with other disciplines of the curriculum in the specialties of Biology; Biology. Additional Specialty. Among the disciplines, the study of which by students is necessary for the successful study of the "Fundamentals of General Geography" include special disciplines "Fundamentals of Modern Natural Science", "Botany", "Zoology". The course itself is the base for other natural history disciplines: "Evolutionary Teaching", "Fundamentals of Agriculture", "Biogeography", "Zoology", "Botany". In accordance with the requirements of the educational standard, as a result of studying the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography", the graduate must: know: the general features of the Universe and its evolution, the features of the structure and origin of the Solar System and the planet Earth, cosmic impact on the Earth; general features of the Earth as a planet, the laws of its internal structure, origin, movement, properties of the Earth and their geographical consequences; the structure of the geographic shell, the composition and properties of its main parts; general geographical patterns of development and functioning of the geographic envelope; environmental problems arising in the geographical envelope; a minimum of geographical names, concepts and terms; be able to: apply knowledge about the basic concepts, concepts, theories, patterns in relation to specific objects; explain the main natural phenomena occurring in the spheres of the geographical envelope; explain the relationship between the components of the geographic envelope and the processes occurring in it; formulate the main geographical patterns and determine the boundaries of their manifestation; analyze thematic maps, graphs, diagrams; compile, according to various sources (textbooks, thematic maps, atlases), climatic, hydrological and other natural characteristics of territories; to use literary and other sources of geographical information, to have the skills of summarizing them. In total, the study of the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" is given a maximum of 162 hours, of which 68 classroom hours (36 lectures, 24 laboratory classes, 8 seminar classes).

5 Names of sections 1. Introduction. Place of the course "Fundamentals of General Geoscience" in the system of Earth Sciences 5 Approximate thematic plan Number of classroom hours Total 2 2 including lectures laboratory classes seminars 2. Earth in the Universe Plan and map Internal structure and composition of the Earth. Lithosphere Relief of the Earth Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Geographical envelope Geographical environment and human society Total:

6 6 The content of educational material Section 1. Introduction. Place of the course "Fundamentals of General Geography" in the system of Earth Sciences Subject and objectives of the course "Fundamentals of General Geography". Earth and Universe. Modern ideas about the structure of the Universe. The Milky Way Galaxy and the place of the solar system in it. Influence of the outer space on the processes taking place on the Earth. The structure of the solar system. Influence of the bodies of the solar system on the geographic envelope of the Earth. The moon as a satellite of the earth and its characteristics. Hypotheses about the origin of the solar system. Section 2. Earth in the Universe General characteristics of the Earth as a planet. The shape of the earth and its geographical consequences. Rotation of the Earth around its axis and its consequences. Rotation of the Earth around the Sun. Change of seasons. Section 3. Plan and map Plan and map, differences between them. Degree network and geographic coordinates. Scale, its types. Symbols of the map. Relief display methods. Eye survey of the area. Ways of orientation on the ground. Section 4. Internal structure and composition of the Earth. Lithosphere Shell structure of the Earth. Earth's crust, mantle, core, their physical properties and chemical composition. Types of the earth's crust. Formation, migration and differentiation of matter. Minerals and rocks, their origin and classification. The lithosphere is an integral part of the geographic shell. Modern ideas about the lithosphere. Geochronology. The main epochs of mountain building in the history of the Earth. Theory of the latest global tectonics of lithospheric plates (neomobilism). Section 5. Relief of the Earth Energy sources and processes of relief formation. Endogenous processes, their role in the deformation of the earth's crust (tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanism). The relief-forming role of tectonic movements of the earth's crust: folding, discontinuous, oscillatory movements and their manifestation in the relief. The main types of morphostructure of the Earth. Platforms, their structure, geographical distribution. Geosynclines, their structure, evolution. Geographic distribution of mountain systems of different ages. Epigeosynclinal and revived mountains. Plains. Genetic types of plains. Geographic distribution of the largest plains. Modern tectonic manifestations. Volcanism, earthquakes. Geographic distribution and causes. Exogenous processes: weathering - physical, chemical, organogenic, denudation and accumulation. Manifestation of exogenous processes in the lithosphere. Morphosculpture. Activity of flowing waters. Forms

7 7 fluvial relief created by temporary and permanent streams. Karst and suffosion relief, conditions of its formation and forms. Relief-forming activity of glaciers. Areas of modern development of glacial relief-forming processes. Alpine landforms created by the glacier. The relief of the Pleistocene glaciation areas. Cryogenic processes, conditions for their manifestation and landforms in permafrost areas. Geomorphological processes associated with wind activity (deflation, corrosion, transportation, accumulation). Conditions conducive to the development of eolian landforms. Landforms characteristic of arid regions. Coastal processes and relief of sea coasts. Geographic patterns of distribution of exogenous relief. Relief of the bottom of the World Ocean. Anthropogenic and biogenic relief. Section 6. Atmosphere Atmosphere. Composition and structure. Solar radiation, radiation balance. Air temperature, its daily and annual course. Air humidity. Precipitation. Atmospheric pressure and its measurement. Features of the distribution of atmospheric pressure. Wind, wind speed and direction. General circulation of the atmosphere. Winds of local and general circulation. Air masses and atmospheric fronts. Weather and climate. Weather, its types. Weather forecast. Climate, factors of climate formation. Climate change under the influence of technogenic factors. Atmospheric protection. Section 7. Hydrosphere The concept of the hydrosphere as one of the shells of the Earth. The most important properties of natural water. Origin of water on earth. The water cycle in nature and its role in the geographical envelope. The World Ocean and its parts: oceans, seas, bays, straits. Physical and chemical properties of sea water: salinity, transparency, temperature, density. Sea currents and their classification. Geographical significance of sea currents. Life in the oceans. Biological and mineral resources of the ocean. Protection of sea waters. Underground waters and their classification by origin, conditions of occurrence, temperature, salinity. Sources. The role of groundwater in nature and economic activity. Groundwater protection. Rivers. Water supply of rivers and water regime. Flow rates, runoff and water discharge in rivers. Formation of the longitudinal and transverse profile of the river valley. River protection. Lakes, classification of lakes according to the origin of the water mass, lake basins, mineralization. Water and temperature regime of lakes. The evolution of lakes. The importance of lakes in nature and their protection.

8 8 Reservoirs, ponds and their role. Bogs, features of their formation. Types of swamps, their distribution. The role of swamps in the geographical envelope. Security. Section 8. Biosphere The concept of the biosphere, its composition, structure, boundaries. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere, its evolution, the noosphere. The role of living matter in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere (soil sphere). Formation of soil cover in different natural zones. Biological circulation of matter and energy in the biosphere. The role of organisms in the cycle of basic elements in the biosphere. Living communities of organisms. Systematics of living organisms. Species diversity of plants and animals. Distribution of living organisms on land and in the ocean. Characteristics of the biocenosis. Biogeocenosis. Biological productivity and biomass. Food (trophic) chains of living organisms. Ecological pyramids. Section 9. Geographical shell Representation of the origin of the geographical shell, its boundaries. The main stages in the development of the geographic envelope (pre-biogenic, biogenic, anthropogenic, noospheric). General regularities of the geographic shell: cycles of matter and energy, unity and integrity, rhythm, zoning, azonal. Sectoriality (sectoriality). Vertical explanation. Geographical zones and natural zones. Differentiation of the geographic envelope according to zonal and azonal features. General and component zoning. natural complexes. The value of a systematic approach in the study of natural complexes. The concept of landscapes as the main natural-territorial complexes. landscape dynamics. Anthropogenic and cultural landscapes. Section 10. Geographical environment and human society Geographical environment and its role in the development of society. The history of interaction between man and nature. Expansion and deepening of the process of technogenesis in the era of scientific and technological progress and its consequences in the geographical envelope. Global changes in the geographic envelope caused by natural (internal and external) and artificial (anthropogenic) factors. Negative anthropogenic changes in the natural environment (desertification, changes in land landscapes, oil pollution of the ocean, depletion of minerals, greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, the problem of acid precipitation, climate change models, the Chernobyl accident, etc.). Global problems of a regional scale (the emergence of new diseases, the destruction of coral reefs, the emergence of alien biological species, the destruction of permafrost, the melting of land glaciers, etc.). ). Environmental monitoring. Problems of conservation of biological diversity.

9 Main 9 List of main and additional literature 1. Bobkov A.A., Seliverstov Yu.P. Geography. M., Bokov V.A., Seliverstov Yu.P., Chervanev I.G. General geography. SPb., Kudlo K.K. Mazyr, Lyubushkina S.G., Pashkang K.V. Natural science: Earth science and local history. M Milkov F.N. General geography. M., Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M., 1974, Ratobylsky N.S., Lyarsky P.A. Earth science and local history. Mn., Savtsova T.M. General geography. M., Shubaev L.P. General geography. M., Additional 1. Bogoslovsky B.B. lake science. M., Voitkevich G.V., Vronsky V.A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere. M., Dolgushin L.D., Osipova G.B. Glaciers. M., Donskoy N.P. Fundamentals of ecology and economics of environmental management. Mn., Zavelsky F.S. Time and its measurement. M., Isachenko A.G. Landscape science and physical-geographical zoning. M., Kaznacheev V.P. Problems of urban ecology and human ecology. M., Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M., Kats N.Ya. Swamps of the globe. M., Leontiev O.K., Rychagov G.I. General geomorphology. M., Mavrishchev V.V. Fundamentals of ecology. M., Martsinkevich G.I., Klitsunova N.K. etc. Landscapes of Belarus. Mn., Nikonova M.A. Earth science and local history. M., Panasyuk O.Yu., E.V. Efremenko, Vagner N.M. Questions and tasks for the study of the geographical nomenclature of the map in the course "General Geography". Mn., Panasyuk O.Yu., N.M. Wagner. The relief of the earth's surface. Landforms created by endogenous processes. Mn., Poghosyan Kh.P. General circulation of the atmosphere. L., Poghosyan Kh.P., Turketti Z.A. Earth's atmosphere. M., Sladkopevtsev S.A. Earth science and nature management. M., Stepanov V.N. World Ocean. M., 1974.

10 Stepanov V.N. Planetary processes and changes in the nature of the Earth. M., Chilidze Yu.B. Ecological bases of nature management. M., Shubaev L.P. Land waters. M., Yakushko O.F. Fundamentals of geomorphology. Mn., 1997.

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Earth science will now be a fundamental science, the basis for the development of other physical and geographical disciplines, in particular, soil science, landscape science, biogeography, space geography, geology, meteorology, oceanology, climatology, and others. Earth science studies the structure of the planet Earth, its immediate environment, as well as the geographical shell - the environment of human activity. Today, there is a rapid development of negative processes in the environment, in particular, climate change, increased pollution, etc.

The problems of the relationship between human society and nature are more relevant today than ever. It is worth saying that for competent control over the ongoing processes, it is extremely important, first of all, to know the structure of our planet and the laws that govern its development. The earth is our common home, and the quality and comfort of living for our and future generations will depend on the modern actions of human society.

As a science, Earth science has passed a long way of historical development. Problems of the structure of the Earth have worried scientists since ancient times. Already in ancient China, Egypt, Do not forget that the images of the Earth's surface were compiled in Babylon. Plans of the city Do not forget that Babylon, the coast of the Mediterranean Sea have survived to this day. Land description, i.e. geography (from geo - Greek "Earth" and graphil - "description") was actively developed in ancient Greece. Many scientists of the ancient period were interested in the question of the shape of the Earth. Various ideas have been expressed, in particular, that the Earth is on three elephants, which are on a turtle floating in the ocean, and others.

Prominent ancient Greek scientist Aristotle(384-322 BC) in work "Meteorology" expressed brilliant ideas about the structure of the Earth, its spherical shape, the existence of different "spheres" that penetrate each other, the water cycle, sea currents, Earth zones, the causes of earthquakes, etc. Modern ideas of geography largely confirm his guesses.

Many scientists were also interested in the question of the size of the Earth. The most accurate measurements have been made Eratosthenes Kirensky - an ancient Greek scientist (about 276-194 BC) He laid the foundations of mathematical geography. It is worth noting that he was the first to calculate the circumference of the Earth along the meridian, and, surprisingly, the figures obtained are close to modern calculations - 40 thousand km. Eratosthenes first used the term "geography".

ancient geography performed mainly descriptive functions. A significant role in the development of the ϶ᴛᴏth direction was played by the works of the ancient Greek geographer and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy(about 90-168 BC) In ϲʙᴏem work "Guide to Geography" which includes eight volumes, he proposes to distinguish between geography and chorography. Geography deals with depicting the entire known part of the Earth and everything that is on it. Chorography deals with a detailed description of the area, i.e., a kind of local history, according to modern concepts. Ptolemy made various maps, and it is he who is considered the "father" of cartography. They proposed several new map projections. He was most famous for the idea of ​​the geocentric structure of the world, which considered the Earth to be the center of the universe, around which the Sun and other planets revolve.

It is believed that the works of Ptolemy complete the ancient period in the development of geography, which then dealt mainly with the description of newly discovered lands.

In the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries (XVI-XVII centuries), another direction appeared - analytical.

The beginning of the formation of geography as an independent scientific discipline is considered to be the publication in Holland "General Geography" by Bernhard Do not forget that Varenius in 1650. In this work, achievements in the field of astronomy and the creation of the heliocentric system of the world (N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler) are presented. Along with this, the results of the Great geographical discoveries are summarized. The subject of study of geography, according to B. Do not forget that Varenius will amphibian circle, consisting of earth, water, atmosphere, penetrating each other. At the same time, the significance of a person and his activity was excluded.

The leading idea of ​​the ϶ᴛᴏ period was analysis of relationships between different parts of nature. In the development of the ϶ᴛᴏth idea, the works Alexander von Humboldt(1769-1859), an outstanding German scientist-encyclopedist, naturalist, traveler. There is an opinion that the works of B. Do not forget that Varenius will be the beginning of the development of general geography, and Humboldt's achievements are one of the remarkable peaks. A. Humboldt traveled a lot, studied the nature of Europe, Central and South America, the Urals, Siberia. It was in his works that the significance relationship analysis as the basic idea of ​​all geographical science. Analyzing the relationship of relief, climate, wildlife and vegetation, A. Humboldt laid the foundations of plant geography and animal geography, the doctrine of life forms, climatology, general geography, substantiated the idea of ​​vertical and latitudinal zonality.
In his works "Journey to the equinoctial regions of the New World", vols. 1-30 (1807-1834) and "Space" the idea of ​​the earth's surface as a special shell is developed, where not only there is a relationship, but also the interaction of earth, air, water, the unity of inorganic and organic nature is observed. A. Humboldt for the first time uses the terms "life sphere", which, according to the meaning of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ, means the modern "biosphere", and "sphere of the mind", ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ, which means "noosphere".

A. Humboldt's book "Pictures of nature" can not leave anyone indifferent, because it combines reliable facts and highly artistic descriptions of nature. He is considered the founder of artistic landscape studies.

The founder of the first department of geography at the University of Berlin will be who lived at the same time as A. Humboldt Carl Ritter(1779-1859) In his widely known works on geography, he considered the Earth as the home of the human race, existing due to the power of Divine providence.

K. Ritter introduced the term "earth science" into science. It is worth noting that he was trying to quantify the spatial relationships between different objects.

In a multi-volume work “Land and people. General geography" E. Reclus(1830-1905) describes in sufficient detail most of the countries of the world. It is worth noting that he is considered the founder of modern regional studies.

Of the textbooks on geography published in the 19th century, it should be noted the works E. Lenz (1851), A. Richthofen (1883), E. Lenda (1851) At the same time, these authors excluded biogeography from their works.

In Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the development of geographical ideas is associated with the names of prominent scientists M. V. Lomonosov, V. N. Tatishchev, S. P. Krasheninnikov.

The materialistic approach to the study of phenomena and processes in nature was especially clearly observed in the works M. V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) In work "On the Layers of the Earth" (1763) he outlined the laws of the formation of the Earth's relief, which, in general, are in line with modern ideas.

In the XIX-XX centuries. in Russia, works on geography by P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N. M. Przhevalsky, V. A. Obruchev, D. N. Anuchin and others were published.

From the 80s of the XIX century. The Russian Geographical School was at the forefront in the field of general geography. In works V.V. Dokuchaeva (1846-1903)"Russian black soil"(1883) and A. I. Voeikova (1842-1916)"Climates of the World" The complex mechanism of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope is revealed using the example of soils and climate.

V. V. Dokuchaev at the end of the 19th century. opened the law of world geographic zoning. Material published on http: // site
It was an outstanding theoretical generalization. VV Dokuchaev believed that zoning would be a universal law of nature. This law applies to both organic and inorganic nature. The natural-historical zones existing on the globe will be the spatial expression of the ϶ᴛᴏth law. The mirror of the law of world geographical zoning will be soil, reflecting the interaction of animate and inanimate nature. The year of publication of the monograph "Russian Chernozem" - 1883 - is considered the year of the birth of a new independent science - soil science. VV Dokuchaev became the founder of scientific soil science. In his work "Russian Chernozem" it is proved that the soil is an independent natural-historical body that arose as a result of the interaction of five factors of soil formation: 1) the parent rock; 2) climate; 3) terrain; 4) living organisms (microorganisms, plants, animals); 5) the age of the country. Subsequently, another factor was added - human economic activity. V. V. Dokuchaev came to the conclusion that it is extremely important to study not only individual factors, but also the regular connections and interactions between them. It is worth noting that he showed that agricultural areas are closely connected with soil zones. From this it follows that in each zone agriculture has both features and ϲʙᴏ and methods for solving production problems.

Together with V. V. Dokuchaev, his students and followers worked independently: A. N. Krasnov, V. I. Vernadsky, G. I. Tanfilsv, G. N. Vysotsky, K. D. Glinka, S. A. Zakharov, L. I. Prasolov, B. B. It is worth saying - polynov and others. V. R. Williams(1863-1939) In his textbook "soil science" which has gone through five editions, the idea of ​​a close connection between knowledge about soils and the demands of agriculture is based. Student of V. V. Dokuchaev and botanist A. N. Beketov (Petersburg University) A. N. Krasnov(1862-1914) in 1889 organized the Department of Geography at Kharkov University, studied the steppes and foreign tropics, created the Batumi Botanical Garden. A. N. Krasnov substantiated the features of scientific geography that distinguish it from the old geography, in particular, the search for mutual connection and mutual conditioning between natural phenomena, the study of the genesis (origin) of phenomena, and the study of changing nature, and not static. It is worth noting that he created the first Russian textbook on general geography for universities. In the textbook, A. N. Krasnov develops a new view of geography as a science that studies not individual phenomena and objects, but geographical complexes - deserts, steppes, etc.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that over the centuries - from Aristotle to Dokuchaev - the subject of study of physical geography has become more complex from a two-dimensional earth's surface to a three-dimensional geographic shell with close links between its components.

In the textbook "Course of physical geography" II. I. Brounov clearly formulated the idea that the outer shell of the Earth consists of four spherical components: the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, penetrating each other: hence the task of physical geography will be to study the ϶ᴛᴏth interaction. His ideas had a significant impact on the further development of physical geography.

The idea that it is the natural shell of the Earth that will be the main subject of study of physical geography developed gradually, starting with A. Humboldt.

At the same time, what is the shell of the Earth, what components are included in it, what are its boundaries, it was not clear. These questions were first considered Andrey Alexandrovich Grigoriev(1883-1968) in 1932 in the article "The subject and tasks of physical geography".

In his ϶ᴛᴏth article, A. A. Grigoriev first proposed the term “physical-geographical shell”, in particular, he believed that “the earth's surface represents a qualitatively special vertical physical-geographical zone or shell, characterized by deep interpenetration and active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, the emergence and development of organic life in it, the presence in it of a complex but unified physical and geographical process. In 1937, a monograph by A. A. Grigoriev was published, in which he barks a detailed justification of the geographical shell as the main subject of physical geography, considers the boundaries geographical envelope and methods of its study.

Around ϶ᴛᴏ at the same time, L.S. Berg develops the doctrine of V. V. Dokuchaev about geographical zones and develops landscape teaching. A number of scientists at the end of the 1940s launched a discussion, trying to oppose the teachings of A. A. Grigoriev and L. S. Berg. At the same time, in the fundamental work of S. V. Kalesnik "Fundamentals of general geography"(1947, 1955) it was proved that these two directions do not contradict, but complement each other.

A qualitatively new stage in the study of the geographic envelope came after the launches of artificial Earth satellites, the flight of Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and the launch of numerous laboratories into near and far space. This made it possible to study the geographical shell from the outside. All astronauts were fascinated by the beauty of the Earth, observed from space, and at the same time, global human pollution of its surface became obvious. Preserving the purity of the geographical shell has become an urgent task of mankind, and the theory of protecting the human environment has become the basis of modern geography.

Today - ϶ᴛᴏ is one of the main branches in the system of geographical sciences, studying the patterns of the geographical shell, its spatio-temporal organization and differentiation; circulation of substances, energy and information; its functioning, dynamics and evolution. Modern geography explores the geospheres that make up the geographic shell, monitors their state, and makes regional and global forecasts of its development.

All these tasks of geography are solved on the basis of both traditional and new methods of geographical research (cartographic, statistical, geophysical, etc.), as well as the latest achievements in geoinformatics, remote sensing, and space geography.