International artificial languages. Quenya and other Elvish languages

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES TODAY

1.
Considering the issue of artificial languages, I would like to note that more and more languages are currently being created, and now anyone who wants to, having studied the methodological literature, can easily create their own language to their taste and color. Or, alternatively, he can take any of the languages, whether artificial or natural, and change it to his liking.

2.
The creation of languages turns into a household craft, or into an art, depending on the skill. It can be a homemade product created in one day by one person, or the work of hundreds of scientists who have worked for many years.

3.
In this regard, one gets the impression that this is not a serious occupation, and that there is no practical benefit from it. In those days, when only a few languages were known, the attitude towards Esperanto was more serious, and now, when there are many languages, these creations of thought do not seem like something great, but look ordinary.

4.
There are many opinions concerning the future of the all-language. Groups of like-minded people who speak and know at least one language have formed. They don't need to explain why. I call them "intermen".

5.
I think that the initial impetus that led to the creation of a new language was never due to the goal of creating a means of universal communication. It is, rather, an impulse of an artist, a surge of creative energy, and not a cold calculation based on the need to make all of humanity happy, and at the same time become famous throughout the world. Already further, creating a new and new language project, the creator directs himself in such a way that it is the universal language that comes out, and not a toy for his own entertainment.

6.
To put it bluntly, every new language is a toy. Some have one entertainment, others have another. What caused the need to create new languages?

7.
Speaking about myself, I have always been interested in the sound of the Russian language. As part of secondary education, this was the most interesting for me. As a result, in my certificate there is only one five - in Russian. Everything else is boring and boring. I started creating languages late, this is due to the fact that there was no one's example, and no one suggested how exactly this could be done. As a result, only in 2001, when I was 27 years old, did my first language gradually begin to emerge. In terms of its parameters, it would quite pass for an international one. While creating new projects and sketches, from time to time I created conlangs that would by no means pass for international. Knowing the method that I discovered for myself without outside help, I could have created something in 10 years. Desire was.

8.
It is caused by the imperfection of the Russian language. Russian, like other languages, is imperfect. It is possible that its ancestor, the Thracian language, was much more elegant and interesting, but it sank into oblivion of the past. I can name many shortcomings of the Russian language, and many others. But I don't think there's any need for that, because someone else could have done it already. There are also many shortcomings in Esperanto and Lideple.

9.
I would like to know where in general these 1000 languages are located, and whether they can be found on the Internet. I managed to find only about a dozen languages. Putting in the search "all artificial languages", I did not find anything that would fit under this definition.

10.
If we consider complex languages, where words from different languages are piled into one heap, then a couple of points can be noted. Usually the words there are chosen according to the principle of the greatest prevalence at the moment. If one word root occurs simultaneously in several languages selected for merging, then it is selected. But, if the fusion of languages did not occur artificially, but on its own, from the people, the choice of words could be different. And not only could, but in reality all the words are connected ARTIFICIALLY, not the way it would actually happen. Some do not care at all, and they fearlessly merge Chinese words together with French, mixing German, Hindi and Arabic into the same place. Everything looks good, and the lofty goal of bringing people together gives inspiration.

11.
The end result is a product - like nothing. Exactly with the same success, you can merge into a heap not the most popular words, but arbitrarily, everything that comes across. The result will be exactly the same, and the sound of the language will not suffer from this. Strict discipline requires that there be some kind of algorithm in the selection of words, but this will not affect the final result. All rules exist for a practical purpose, but in this case it is a rule for itself, the obligation to follow a strict algorithm so as not to lose a sense of self-importance.

12.
The language created according to the algorithm "for the sake of conscience" is considered successful, there are dozens of fans, they study it, they are crazy. But, on the other hand, would you equally enthusiastically accept a language in which words are collected without any system? The language is just as brilliant, but you don't accept it. So you don't agree that 1=1? The language, roughly speaking, is accepted only because it was worked on according to a single scheme. The work itself is recognized, not the end result. The language is no longer a work of art, like all natural languages, but a simple convention. You and I agree that this is a LANGUAGE, and you undertake to recognize that yes, this is a real LANGUAGE. But in fact, it does not matter who thinks what, who agreed on what, and what matters is only what is. If the picture is drawn not under inspiration, but on the basis of some thoughts, then this is not a work of art. And any complex language, where words from different languages are combined into one, is, as it were, not a language at all. And a fake. The sensitive subject understands this, but the crowd does not. Tell them it's art and they'll believe it.

13.
Feeling an urgent need to create something integral, and not an arbitrary bunch of rules and words, experts created "interlingua". Together with a number of other languages, this project seems to be something holistic. Someone connects Romance languages, someone Germanic. It's starting to sound like a language. But, nevertheless, as in the previous case, the problem is still the same - you cannot connect the unconnectable. It can unite by itself, if one simply mixes the peoples, but any artificial combination will be reflected in the external sound.

14.
This is how “simpls”, or simplified languages, arose. A simpl is created from one language by simplifying it. But, it should be noted that the same process of language simplification occurs in real life. But in real life, everything happens NATURALLY, and designing the language of the future is the same as designing the future itself. Not a single person, I think, is able to predict what our future will be like in 100 years. It's the same with designing languages, in this case, symbols. I would not design a Russian simple, but rather experiment with Old Russian. At the same time, one should not strive to recreate the ancient language, but to create something new, sharply distinguishable, it will be original.

26.
All languages are getting easier. The Russian language in the future should lose all its cases, and there is no need to be horrified by this. Forms that disappear do not play any role in the expression of thoughts. Lost forms can be replaced by new parts of speech, and then the language will become not simpler, but many times more complicated, allowing you to express the complex thoughts swarming in the minds of smart people. The brain, so to speak, will begin to work better, assimilating complex concepts and categories. If these parts of speech do not arise by themselves, we will create them ourselves.

15.
Now I'm trying to create a Zip-Jolzik language, which will have 38 parts of speech. This is about three times more than in Russian. If someone does not need them, he can pass what he heard past his ears, understanding only the basic meaning. Here the wolves will be fed and the sheep will be safe. The same language serves both primitive people and educated people. I would like Zip-Jolzik to become an international language.

16.
For my part, I would like to note that I prefer some of the other languages I created, for example, Grassonian. But the zip jolzik is more phlegmatic than the others, and this must be approved by people who are themselves phlegmatic. Everything is thought out in such a way as to satisfy the most average person. Other languages are more emotional and more suited to my personality. Zip jolzik is also as far as possible from resemblance to anything national. It can be noted that the Esperanto ending "-o" appeals more to Italians and Spaniards than to anyone else, and "Interlingua" is completely like a variety of Italian.

17.
Zip-Jolzik, like a paralanguage, involves more intuition than logic. But the Arahau language created by Ahanera takes a different path. On the contrary, everything is subject to logic. Intuition is only 20%. Both are good. Language must be either a product of the brain, that is, of logic, or a product of intuition. Zip jolzic is 70% intuition and 30% logic. In other languages, logic and intuition are distributed approximately equally. It remains unclear whether it is possible to create a language 100% according to the laws of logic, and whether it will sound so good that it will fit as an international language? And it is quite clear that it is impossible to create a language based only on intuition, since such a person must have 100% perfection.

18.
The Arahau language is designed in such a way that each of its words is decomposed into letters, due to which each word is a perfect product, and, moreover, can be comprehended. The price for this is the loss of external sound. For some, external sound is the main thing, and such people usually study natural language. Paralanguages and mutants involve more intuition, but intuition, as you know, is compressed logic. The brain performs thousands of logical operations per second when creating each word in a paralanguage. But some people think that since you did it yourself, it means that this is all a gag, and not some kind of art. In fact, this is not a gag, but the work of the brain. Any ingenious picture of the artist is the same “gag”, where the author cannot logically substantiate each stroke of the brush. But we put up with it, and recognize the picture, without requiring proof.

19.
Separately, the language "hammer" can be noted. He belongs to the simp - mutants. This is simplified Russian. The author did not stop at just one simplification, but used his own, original ideas, which made the language more perfect. The best of the mutant languages could also emerge in the real world, if one knew how to put people in an artificial environment where a language with given parameters could emerge. Everything here is like in jazz: on the basis of one rhythm, various improvisations are possible, and all of them will be correct.

20.
Paralanguages, in turn, require skill and powerful intuition. If any paralanguage is clumsy, then you can remember natural languages and find even more flaws.

21.
The Arahau language, created according to the laws of logic, loses a little in external sound, but it allows you to construct any kind of words. This allows you to express the most complex thought and easily create terminology. An intellectual conversation in Arahau at some point comes to the point that you generally stop hearing the language and words, and catch only one movement of thoughts. Haven't tried it yet, but I think it is. To arm the brain, you just need to give it a constructor language, and so that the complex is expressed concisely. Brevity, in fact, is a way of expressing thoughts. When it is necessary to express a long thought (in Russian), we simply refrain from doing so. If we need to speak a whole sentence, instead of one word, we choose silence. And in a number of cases, they simply do not understand us, ignoring the word that indicates the context. The text is understood as if there was no indication of the desired meaning. Starting to speak simply and in a savage way (but understandable), we do not say anything smart, and we cannot prove the correctness of our views. Personal convictions for the opponent begin to seem like stupid obstinacy. Therefore, the zip jolzik also has the tools to build a more complex thought. At the minimum level.

22.
Imagining a future in which everyone knows zip-jolzik, I would prefer to speak both Russian and zip-jolzik in it. I do not exclude Russian from my vocabulary. Some will prefer to speak only one language - either Zip Jolzik or Russian.

23.
At the moment, it is necessary that it is the intermen who come over to my side and begin to promote zip-jolzik and speak it. Then everything will go easier. If it is decided that some other language should become international, and if it is a worthy project, then I will abandon my developments and start studying this language. In this case, I will not need to create a zip jolzik until the end.

24.
If we take into account that there are more than 1000 artificial languages, then among them there may well be a worthy candidate for the role of the world. It seems strange to me that there is no such site where all these languages would be collected and categorized. I also don't know if there are any other paralanguages besides mine. Only the most popular languages are widely known. But it may turn out that some little-known language is the best. The little-known should not be ignored, but should be considered together with the popular.

25.
It may also happen that the international language will be thrown to us by aliens. Their technology has evolved over millions of years, and there may be some kind of language suitable for us. If so, even better. At least, I can say for sure that complex languages are only the first stage of evolution, and a dead end one at that. In the future, interest in complex languages and simple symbols should dry up. Both are the 20th century, the stone era of interlinguistics. Times are different now and we need to look ahead.

“Artificial language - 1. Any auxiliary language, as opposed to natural, or proper language. 2. A sign system intended for use in those areas of communication where the functioning of a natural living language is less effective or impossible” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 60].

“Natural language - 1. Language in the proper sense, human language as a natural tool of thought and a means of communication, in contrast to its artificially created substitutes. 2. Human language that arose naturally and is used in social practice” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 45]. “A substitute is the same as a substitute” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 182].

The first attempts to invent artificial languages were made in the second half of the 17th century. The main directions in the creation of artificial languages in the 17th-19th centuries were logical and empirical.

The logical direction was based on rationalistic philosophy, which criticized natural language for its inconsistency. According to the English philosophers J. Dalgarno and J. Wilkins (Wilkins - 1614-1672), there is a direct correspondence between the concept and the word, so it is possible to create a language in which the concepts and the words they denote would line up logically. According to Wilkins' theory, the division into parts of speech is not necessary for the language. Wilkins (Wilkins) suggested words as names, and verbs (i.e., words denoting properties and actions) could be formed from names using regular word-building means.

The empirical direction focused on natural language. Representatives of this trend proposed to improve any existing natural language. So, F. Labbe proposed the Latin language as the basis, I. Schipfer - the French language, Yuri Kryzhanich (1617-1674) - the all-Slavic language.

But they looked at the created languages as curiosities, did not see any practical application in them. The most practical was the language created by the priest (German pastor) Johann Schleyer in 1879 and called "volapuk" - volapuk - a distorted form of English words. Language was a means of communication for several dozen people. The language did not last long. According to researchers, the reasons for the fall of the language were the isolation of the language system, the position of Schleyer himself, who did not allow anything to be changed in the language, and discord between distributors.

One of the most famous artificial languages is Esperanto (Esperanto - "hoping"), created in 1887 by the Warsaw doctor Ludwig Zamenhof. To create the language, L. Zamenhof used Polish, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Esperanto has no nationality. Seven million people use this language for practical purposes. More than 100 magazines, about 7,000 books, textbooks are published in Esperanto.

The Esperanto language uses elements of English and German. Elements of the Latin language, Slavic languages occupy an insignificant place in the structure.

L. Zamenhof considered his goal to be the creation of an international easy language of communication. Esperanto is characterized by the absence of homonymy, the unity of writing and pronunciation, phonetic writing, the unity of the root, regardless of position. Since the first syllable is always stressed, and the words are mostly disyllabic, speech is monotonous. There are affixes in the language, but their number is small, so the language has little emotionality, it is not expressive, the semantics of the phrase is transmitted approximately.

Despite its negative qualities, the language has existed for more than a hundred years, a large amount of literature has been published in it, Esperanto circles and societies have been created in many countries, Esperanto congresses are held, but it has not become international. Esperanto is not a living language, it is monotonous, it is not expressive, it is not able to reflect all the situations in which a person finds himself.

In 1907, Louis de Beaufront created the IDO language on the basis of Esperanto, which is more logical and consistent. But this language did not become international.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, the LINCOS language (“linguistics of space”) was created. The creator of the language is the Dutch mathematician G. Freudenthal, who received for the monograph “LINKOS. Building a language for space communications” Nobel Prize. G. Freudenthal, with the help of light and sound signals going in a certain sequence, tries to state the laws of mathematics, biology, physics, morality, and ethics. Linkos is the first attempt to create a cosmic language for the exchange of information in extraterrestrial communication.

The phenomenon of an artificial language is the subject of debatable disagreements among linguists, sociolinguists, sociologists, ethnographers and many representatives of other branches of knowledge related to language.

So, M.I. Isaev opposes the term "artificial language". He writes in one of his works: “Artificial language” is a wrong term, or rather: Planned language.” M.I. Isaev writes: “The planned language (“artificial language”) is created for communication in the international arena. The term "planned language" was proposed by E. Wüster (1955). As for the name "artificial language", it is not acceptable, because suggests opposition to "natural language", which is actually not uncommon. At the same time, the last term ("natural language") is inadequate, because Language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one. It is not difficult to notice the desire of M.I. Isaev to emphasize the social nature of the language as a means of communication. But the situation with international languages, which has evolved over the centuries, indicates that there is still no “planned language” in the understanding of M.I. Isaeva: languages designed to communicate in the international arena are not created, as the author points out, but are selected from existing national languages.

The problem of an artificial language exists at the present time, it is becoming more and more relevant with the expansion of the zones of influence of the Internet.

1. Dictionary types. The role of the dictionary in the work of a translator.

2. The problem of the origin of the language. Hypotheses. Stages of development. The role of dialects in the formation of the language.

The existing types of dictionaries are very diverse. This diversity is explained, first of all, by the complexity and multidimensionality of the very object of the lexicographic description, i.e. language. In addition, the numerous needs of society in obtaining a wide variety of information about the language also complicate and expand the repertoire of dictionaries.

Exist:

· transferable

· sensible

The most important type of a monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The first proper explanatory dictionary was the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published in 1789-1794. and containing 43,257 words taken from modern secular and spiritual books.

The most important role in the history of Soviet lexicography was played by the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, and scientific literature.

· dialect and regional dictionaries

The first dialect (regional) dictionaries of the Russian language began to be published in the middle of the 19th century. These were the "Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 18011 words (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 22895 words (1858). At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. A number of dictionaries of individual adverbs and dialects were published. In Soviet times, A. V. Mirtov’s “Don Dictionary” (1929), “A Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary ...” G. G. Melnichenko (1961), “Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data” (1967) and others were published. Currently, a lot of work is being done to compile the multi-volume Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects, which includes about 150 thousand folk words unknown in

modern literary language (from 1965 to 1987, 23 issues were published - before Osset)

· slang dictionaries

· historical

The main historical dictionary of the Russian language was the three-volume "Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language according to written monuments" by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), containing many words and about 120 thousand excerpts from the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XIV centuries. (the last reprint edition was published in 1989). Currently, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the XI-XVII centuries is being published. In 1988, issue 14 was released (before Person). Since 1984, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century began to be published. edited by Yu. S. Sorokin. To date, 5 issues have been prepared (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989).

· neologisms

· etymological

In 1961, the "Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya was published, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, containing an etymological interpretation of commonly used words of the modern Russian literary language (3rd revised edition in 1975).

· winged expressions and many others

In 1890, S.V. Maksimov's collection "Winged Words" was published. The collection was reprinted in 1899 and 1955.

In 1955, the collection "Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" by N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina was published (4th edition - in 1988). The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions arranged in alphabetical order.

THE ROLE OF THE DICTIONARY IN THE WORK OF THE TRANSLATOR.

No matter how qualified a translator is, he cannot do without dictionaries. A dictionary is necessary for both a student taking the first steps in the field of translation and a professional translator.

Translation requires a variety of dictionaries and reference books. Without this, it is difficult to achieve high-quality translations quickly.

Dictionaries are used not only when they do not know the meaning or translation of a unit of foreign language, but also to select the best option from a number already known to the translator.

But dictionaries also have disadvantages:

1) Another disadvantage of bilingual dictionaries is that, as a rule, they do not include words that have entered the language relatively recently, as well as units widely used in the media, journalism and fiction of our days.

Often a translator needs to reveal certain shades of the meaning of a word, and in this case it is important that these shades are presented in the dictionary. That is why different dictionaries have different value for the translator.

2) It is even more difficult for a translator when translating the contextual meanings of words, which, as a rule, do not correspond to in a bilingual dictionary at all due to their low frequency.

An experienced translator in such cases can choose a contextual correspondence to a unit of foreign language, starting from the normative meanings of the word given in the dictionary, but this, as a rule, is extremely difficult.

3) On the other hand, TL words that more or less successfully translate certain meanings of foreign words may have their own additional meanings and shades that the corresponding foreign words do not have. And here there is a risk of transferring these meanings and shades to a foreign word.

Of particular note is the danger of using outdated bilingual dictionaries.

An outdated dictionary is the translator's enemy!

1) Another advantage of using explanatory dictionaries is their high informativeness, reliability of information and the availability of information of an encyclopedic nature.

2) The advantage of encyclopedic dictionaries is their greater information content, a greater number of citations and illustrations.

Modern encyclopedic dictionaries are published quickly and in an ever greater thematic variety, which is exactly what a modern translator needs.

The main purpose of encyclopedic dictionaries is to give a comprehensive reference about a word, concept, phenomenon.

3) Variety of dictionaries.

Problems of the origin of language.

1. The concept of the national language. Forms of existence of the national language.

2. Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon. Homonym types

The national language is called the whole set of means necessary for communication by representatives of certain nations.

National language - the phenomenon is heterogeneous, exists in its various forms. Scientists distinguish 4 forms (options) of the existence of the national language, one literary and three non-literary:

1. Literary language

2. Territorial dialects

3. Urban vernacular

4. Jargon

Language is a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargon and literary language.

Dialects - local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech, they serve for everyday communication.

vernacular - the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, kolidor, without a coat, driver).

Jargon - the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a commonality of occupations, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word slang is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo - the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.

Literary language - the highest form of the national language, processed by the masters of the word. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of the addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.

In the lexical system of the Russian language, there are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called mononymy (gr. Homos - the same + onyma - name).

For example, the key is a "spring" (cold key) and the key is "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" (steel key); bow - "plant" (green onion) and bow - "weapon for throwing arrows" (tight bow). Unlike polysemantic words, lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

The following types of homonyms are distinguished:

Full and lexical homonyms . These are words in the form of which different meanings randomly coincided.

Full homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in sound in all grammatical forms and in spelling. H: key (source of water; to a guess; a device for opening doors).

Partial homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in spelling or sound or in one or two grammatical forms. H: onion

Homophones (phonetic homonyms ) - words identical in sound composition (pronunciation), but different in letter composition (spelling): code and cat, mushroom and flu, fort and Ford, people and fierce, illuminate and consecrate;

Homographs (graphic, alphabetic homonyms) - identical in letter composition, but different in pronunciation of the word: soar - soar, horns - horns, shelves - shelves, atlas - atlas;

Homoforms (matching grammatical forms of different words or one word): summer time - it's time to go; hunting (for wolves) and hunting (desire); window glass - glass on the floor (noun and verb); frozen meat - chocolate ice cream (adj. and n.); enjoy spring - return in spring (noun and adverb); seal up a leak - flow across the floor (noun and verb).

Basic Tutorials:

1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language. - Uch. allowance. – M.: Flinta-Nauka, 2005. – 412 p.

2. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M., 1958.

3. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.

4. Girutsky A.A.. Introduction to linguistics. Minsk, 2000.

5. Grechko V.A.. Theory of linguistics. - M.: Higher school, 2003. - 375 p.

6. Golovin B.N.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1977.

7. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1979.

8. Maslov Y.S.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1975.

9. Nelyubin L.L. Essays on introduction to linguistics. - Textbook. - M., 2005. - 215 p.

10. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1999. - 536 p.

11. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Introduction to General Philology. M., 1979.

12. Sorokina E.BUT. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2013.

13. Shaikevich A.Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1995.

Additional benefits:

1. Barannikova L.I. Basic information about the language. M., 1982.

2. Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. T. 1-2. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - 390 s

3. Ganeev B.T. Language: Textbook, 2nd ed., Rev., add. - Ufa: publishing house of BSPU, 2001. - 272 p.

4. Genidze N.K. Fundamentals of modern linguistics. Proc. settlement - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the St. Petersburg State. University of Economics and Finance, 2003. - 201 p.

5. Grinev-Grinevich S.V., Sorokina E.A., Skopyuk T.G. Fundamentals of anthropolinguistics. Tutorial. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 128 p.

6. Budagov R.A. Literary languages and language styles. M., 1967.

7. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 1995.

8. Kamchatnov A.M., Nikolina N.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2000.

9. Krongauz M.A.. Semantics. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005. - 352 p.

10. Kondratov A.M. Sounds and signs. M., 1978.

11. Kondratov A.M.. The land of people is the land of languages. M., 1974.

12. Kondratov A.M.. Letter book. M., 1975.

13. Leontiev A.A. What is language. M., 1976.

14. Lakoff J., Johnson M. Metaphors we live by. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004. - 256 p.

15. Mechkovskaya N.B.. Social linguistics: A manual for students of liberal arts universities and students of lyceums. 2nd ed., rev. M.: Aspect-Press, 1996. - 207 p.

16. Norman B.Yu. Fundamentals of linguistics. Minsk, 1996.

17. Odintsov V.V.. linguistic paradoxes. M., 1976.

18. Panov M.V. And yet she is good ... M., 1978.

19. Sakharny L.V. How our language works. M., 1978.

20. Languages as an image of the world. - M .: LLC "Izd-vo AST"; St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, 2003. - 568 p.

There are more than 7 thousand languages on planet Earth. Apparently, this number was not enough for people - after all, about a thousand more artificial ones were developed by linguists!

The history of their creation began in the XVII-XVIII centuries, when Latin gradually began to lose its popularity. Most auxiliary languages were invented on the basis of living and other artificial ones, and, moreover, with a specific purpose (for communication in the fictional world of books and films, international communication, overcoming the language barrier, and so on).

In this compilation, we have collected the ten most popular artificial languages that are interesting to learn more about.

10 Lingua franca nova

This language is easily understood by those who speak Romance languages such as French, Portuguese, Italian or Spanish. After all, it was from these languages, including the medieval dialect "lingua franca", that he was formed by psychologist George Bure from Pennsylvania. The author wanted to create a convenient international language that does not require a long study of the rules and is suitable for communication without difficulties. At the moment, about a thousand people use it on their Facebook profiles.

The language has a lightweight grammar, 22 letters in the alphabet, a vocabulary of modern Romance languages and a clear word order in a sentence. But there is no grammatical gender and plural in this language!

9 Novial

This language was created by the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen on the basis of another artificial language, Ido (but later completely "departed" from it). The novial was introduced in 1928, but was largely abandoned after Jespersen's death. A surge of interest in it would have been noticed in the 1990s due to the Internet wave that took over the whole world. Now the language is undergoing evolution under the leadership of the Novial 98 project, which aims to revive and improve this language.

Novial is easiest for native English speakers to learn, as the sentence structure, syntax, and vocabulary strongly resemble English. French, German and Scandinavian languages also had a great influence on words.

8 Ido

The word "ido" in Esperanto means "descendant", and this perfectly characterizes the features of this language. It evolved from the most widespread artificial language, Esperanto, and represents its improved version. Ido was created in 1907 by the Esperanto Louis de Beaufron and the mathematician Louis Couture. It is established that 500 thousand people speak this language.

Ido uses 26 letters of the alphabet, grammar and spelling are thought out so that it is easy for anyone to learn the language, and practical use would not cause difficulties. The vocabulary was greatly influenced by words from French, German, English, Russian, Italian, French and Spanish.

7 Ro

In the early 20th century, this language was developed by the priest Edward Powell Foster of Ohio. The author described the language as a picture, which gives a hint for understanding the word. Rho is built on a categorical system, for example, the word "red" means "bofoc", "orange" means "bofod", and "color" means "bofo".

Rho, which has also been called "the language of the philosophers", contains only 5 vowels in the entire alphabet of 26 letters. Unfortunately, because of the difficulty in listening to the language, Ro was criticized. After all, two different words could differ in only one letter!

6 Slovio

Slovak Mark Guchko in 1999 began work on his own language called Slovio, combining the artificial language Esperanto and living Slavic languages. The author's goal was to simplify communication between those who speak the languages of the Slavic group as native, and those who find it difficult to learn them as a foreign language.

Guchko received a language that has simplified spelling, grammar and articulation. Most of the words in this language (verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are defined by endings. At the moment, the Slovio language is understood by about 400 million people in the world, and the work on the development of the language was completed by the author in 2010.

5 Slovianski

Due to the territorial division and the influence of other languages, most people who speak languages of the Slavic group, but live in different countries, do not understand each other. Slovianski is only a semi-artificial language designed to allow Slavs to fully communicate.

The language was coined in 2006 by a group of activists and is based on living Slavic languages. You can write on it both in Cyrillic and in Latin letters. The grammar is very simple, there are few exceptions in the language.

4 Sambahsa

The name sambahsa comes from the Malay words "sama" ("same") and "bahsa" ("language"). The language was created relatively recently, in 2007, by the French doctor Oliver Simon. Sambahsa is based on English, French and includes some words from other less popular languages.

The language has a simplified grammar but an extensive vocabulary with a huge online library of reference materials. The sambax development project is open online and available to everyone.

3 Lingua de planeta

The project to create this language was launched in St. Petersburg in 2006 by psychologist Dmitry Ivanov. He, along with a development company, wanted to create a universal language that would be communicated anywhere in the world. In his opinion, the world is already moving into the state of a global community and needs a single language.

The team decided not to create new languages, but to combine the most popular in the world. The base version, released in 2010, was based on ten of the world's most widely spoken languages - English, Chinese, Russian, French, Hindi, German, Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Portuguese.

2 Universalglot

A project for an international language "universalglot" was released in 1868 by the French linguist Jean Pirro. The language was not very popular before the age of the Internet. Now he is slowly in demand, after the publications of Jean Pirro were published in the public domain on the web.

Universalglot is based on Latin and has a rich vocabulary. The alphabet uses Latin letters except for "Y" and "W". Letters whose pronunciation differs from English are pronounced in Italian or in Spanish. The language has a well-developed structure, as well as a grammar systematized following the example of the Germanic and Romance languages.

1 Esperanto

The name of this language roughly translates as "the one who hopes", and among the artificial languages, it is considered the most popular. Esperanto is spoken by approximately 2 million people worldwide, millions of pages on the Internet, books, publications are written in it ... It is most used in Europe, South America, East Asia and parts of North Africa.

For almost a decade (1870s-1880s), Warsaw-based Esperanto author Ludwik Zamenhof spent developing a universal language that could be mastered by people anywhere in the world. In 1887, he introduced a language whose system was designed to allow people to communicate freely around the world without losing their native language and culture.

Currently, Esperanto is native to 2,000 people, and in 2016 it became known that some schools in New York even added it to the school curriculum. It is really possible to learn this language on your own - there are a lot of learning materials on the net.

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These languages were created by linguists and gave people of different nationalities the opportunity to understand each other. Let not all of them have become popular, but many have found their "carriers".

Do you think artificial languages are necessary? Would you like to learn this yourself?

Artificial language- a sign system created specifically for use in areas where the use of natural language is less effective or impossible. Constructed languages differ in their specialization and purpose, as well as in the degree of similarity with natural languages.

There are the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages and computer languages - languages for automatic processing of information using a computer.

Information languages are languages used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages of science are languages intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series "Star Trek" (see Fictional Languages).

International auxiliary languages are languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages can be divided into the following groups :

Philosophical and logical languages are languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Toki Pona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages - designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slavonic.

artificial language natural specialization

Artistic or aesthetic languages - created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages - based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages - languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental

Mixed languages - words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous :

basic english

interlingua

latin-blue-flexione

occidental

Simlian

solresol

Esperanto

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself. Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is built on the basis of Latin. All this makes Esperanto such a simple language that an unprepared person can become fluent enough in a few months of regular practice. It takes at least a few years to learn any of the natural languages at the same level. Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendant languages that lack some of the shortcomings of Esperanto. The most famous among these languages are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will be as widespread as Esperanto.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of an artificial language has one big drawback - the almost impossibility of its application in life. This is true. An article entitled "Artificial Languages" published in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia states that: "The idea of an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of declaring the transition of mankind to a single language created at least according to the type of Esperanto, such a possibility is a utopia. the inseparable connection of language with thought and society, and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society.

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages can never be replaced by "any artificially invented 'general' language". He still admits the idea of an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects for a universal, or worldwide international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses of the people who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to multilingualism - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open before all the peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn into a living, controlled developing language on all the continents and islands of the globe. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are manifold. It is also important that in these languages the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages and unacceptable in science, has been overcome. Artificial languages allow expressing certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages are unified, international.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE MOSCOW REGION

State educational institution of higher professional education

Moscow State Regional University

Institute of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication

Faculty of Linguistics

courseworkJob

ondiscipline " Linguisticsandliterary criticism"

on thetopic: " Causescreationartificiallanguages. StorycreationandfunctioningVolapuk"

Work completed

student Zhigunova Elena Dmitrievna

Scientific supervisor: Art. teacher Fedosova A.K.

Content

Introduction
1.3 Examples of artificial languages in literature and cinematography
Chapter 2. Volapyuk
2.1 History of creation
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

This topic of the course work is quite relevant at the moment, since in our time the creation of artificial languages is quite common. After all, natural languages serve as the basis for artificial languages, although there are cases when new languages are completely different from any of the existing languages.

The problem of creating artificial languages is both positive and negative, which is why I would like to consider this problem from both sides in order to find out why artificial languages are created in the presence of thousands of natural ones.

Indeed, at the moment, not every natural language has a written language, there are quite a few dead languages that no one speaks anymore, there are endangered languages that are spoken by only a few people around the world, and this makes one wonder why artificial languages attract why some artificial languages are spoken by more people than some that are considered endangered.

The main research method in this work was the study of material on various artificial languages, conducting surveys about what artificial languages people know and how they learned about them, writing short reviews about different languages after the survey, studying material about natural languages and problems of "linguistic barrier" in the modern world, as well as the negative consequences of the creation of artificial languages.

Chapter 1. Reasons for the creation of artificial languages

Since ancient times, people have experienced some difficulties due to the fact that different nationalities speak different languages and dialects, respectively, such a thing as a "language barrier" has appeared.

Since then, people began to wonder how to overcome this "barrier", because people have needed to contact each other since the emergence of states, and there was a need for trade, establishing friendly relations between states and concluding agreements.

A vivid example is the Old Russian state and Byzantium. In 907 and 911, the first treaties were concluded between the Old Russian state and Byzantium. The first treaty of 907 was of dubious nature and was rather preparatory to the treaty of 911. And the treaty of 911 determined the procedure for ransoming prisoners, restored friendly relations between states, determined punishments for criminal offenses committed by Greek and Russian merchants in Byzantium, the rules for litigation and inheritance, created favorable trading conditions for Russians and Greeks, changed coastal law (owners of the coast should have assisted in rescuing the stranded vessel and its property instead of capturing it).

People began to solve the problem of the "language barrier" in different ways. Someone began to learn other languages in order to be able to speak them and understand others, others chose one language for international communication, for example, in ancient times it was Latin, and now in most countries people understand and speak English .

Also, pidgins began to emerge - a kind of "hybrids" of any two languages. An example of such a "hybrid" is a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian languages - from the outside it seems that a person speaks Russian, but uses Ukrainian words in his vocabulary, and it turns out that both Russians and Ukrainians understand him. Although Russian and Ukrainian are very similar, such a "hybrid" is still useful for communication.

Since the seventeenth century, scientists have been thinking about creating a new, special language that would be quite easy to understand and learn, and which would become the language of international communication. Indeed, in natural languages, languages that we speak from birth, there are quite a lot of exceptions and borrowed words, complex rules, and their structure depends on historical development, in which it is very difficult to understand the logic, for example, the formation of certain grammatical forms and spelling. Artificially created languages are usually called planned languages, because the word "artificial" can cause negative associations when translated into some languages.

The most famous and widespread of the artificial languages is Esperanto, which was created in 1887 by Ludwig Zamenhof. "Esperanto", which means "hoping", is Zamenhof's pseudonym, and subsequently the language he created was called by this name.

Zamenhof was born in Bialystok, in the Russian Empire. Jews, Poles, Germans and Belarusians lived in the city - in a word, people of completely different nationalities, and relations between the people of these nationalities were quite tense. Ludwik Zamenhof decided that the reason for this enmity between ethnic groups lies in misunderstanding, and even when he was at the gymnasium, he made attempts to develop a "common" language based on those European languages that he studied. He needed to create a language that would be neutral at the same time. The structure of Esperanto was created to be simple enough to make learning and remembering the language easy. The roots of words were borrowed from European and Slavic languages, as well as from Latin and ancient Greek.

There are many organizations that devote their activities to spreading Esperanto, books and magazines are printed in this language, broadcasting channels on the Internet are created, and songs are written. There are also versions of many popular programs in the language, such as the OpenOffice.org office applications, the Mozilla Firefox browser, and an Esperanto version in the Google search engine. The language also enjoys the support of UNESCO.

In addition to Esperanto, there are quite a few other artificially created languages, both widely known to almost the whole world, and not widespread. Many of them were created with the same goal - to develop the most convenient means for international communication: the languages of Ido, Interlingua, Volapuk and others.

Some other artificial languages, such as Loglan, were created for research purposes; linguists specially developed new artificial languages in order to conduct experiments, experiments, identify patterns, etc. And languages like Vi, Klingon, and Sindarin were designed to be spoken by characters in books and movies.

We all know the Lord of the Rings trilogy, in which elves, dwarves, goblins, and orcs spoke completely different languages both in sound and spelling, and each language had its own history, as did the peoples speaking them . Also, the Na`vi language was specially developed, which was spoken by the characters of the film "Avatar", the film's director James Cameron specifically asked the linguist to develop and create an artificial language for the fictional world. After the release of the film, there were a lot of people who wanted to learn a fictional language, which became one of the means of communication between fans of the film and the book.

Unlike natural languages that developed throughout the history of mankind, eventually separated from any parent language and died, artificial languages are created by people on purpose in a relatively short time. They can be created based on the elements and structure of existing natural languages, or "constructed" entirely.

The authors of artificial languages disagree about which of the strategies best meets the goals - neutrality, ease of learning, ease of use. After all, it is impossible to guess which of these parameters will make the language the most popular and spread enough to become universal. And therefore, many believe that the creation of artificial languages does not make sense at all, since they will never spread enough to serve as a universal international language. Even a language such as Esperanto is now known to few, and English is most often used for international negotiations.

The study of artificial languages is hampered by many factors. Firstly, there are no native speakers, since these are completely made-up languages that no one has ever spoken since ancient times. The structure may change periodically as scholars often argue about how to make the language better, which rules to keep and which should be replaced. And, as a result of disagreements between theorists, an artificial language can be divided into two options, since some will decide that one option is more acceptable, and others - what should be done differently - for example, Lojban was separated from Loglan, Ido from Esperanto .

Nevertheless, supporters of artificial languages still believe that in the conditions of modern globalization, a language is needed that could be used by everyone, but at the same time not associated with any particular country or culture, and continue linguistic research and experiments.

1.1 Negative aspects of creating artificial languages

As it turned out, artificial languages began to be created in the 17th century in order to overcome the "language barrier". But is it right to create a language in which all people can communicate? Of course, it is good if people can communicate with each other without any problems and not experience any difficulties when traveling to other countries.

After all, if there is one universal language of interethnic communication, then there will be no need to learn other languages almost from infancy, there will be no difficulties with the incorrect pronunciation of words in another language, there will be no need to buy dictionaries just to go with your family to rest in another country. Ignorance of another language and another country will no longer be a problem for vacationers, travelers and tourists.

If you look from this point of view, then if a universal language of interethnic communication is ever created, then over time, after centuries, people will simply cease to need their native languages. And why, if there is one that everyone knows and understands? Now there is no "language barrier", no translation difficulties, you can freely communicate with any person anywhere in the world!

People of different nationalities will speak neutral, simple, fictional language, which not It has stories. But each of the languages, natural languages, is unique. It carries a whole historical era, the spirit of the people, because it is part of the ethnic group. Will he just be forgotten? Because people simply do not want to learn other languages in order to contact other, equally unique ethnic groups with their own history.

Perhaps the creation of an artificial universal language so that people of different nations can communicate is just an act of laziness? Many people, given the opportunity to go abroad and get higher education there, refuse the opportunity to communicate with people of another country, to study the language, and just because they simply do not want to learn another language, it seems to me wildness.

In addition, if there is only one language, after centuries, maybe even millennia, people will simply forget their native languages, they will become for them, as Latin is for us now - a dead language that exists now only as echoes of that great language, that existed before.

And what will remain for linguists? Now there are thousands of languages that are spoken, written, and they can all be studied, many dialects, neologisms, incomprehensible exceptions to the rules of languages - all this gives linguists work, knowledge, scientific discoveries, the creation of new dictionaries and the like.

But if there is not all this, if there is only one language, there will be nothing left for linguists but to delve into history and study dead languages that were once great, or create new ones for their research purposes.

1.2 Positive aspects of creating artificial languages

The creation of artificial languages also brings benefits. Undoubtedly, creating a universal language for communication is a great idea to overcome the language barrier, because if you can create one, then most likely there will be no strife between people due to misunderstanding. In some cases, an artificial language as a means of interethnic communication is urgently needed.

For example, in Papua New Guinea there are a huge number of languages that are spoken, and there the authorities literally “hang themselves” because it is very difficult for even neighboring villages to communicate with each other due to the large difference in dialects or language in principle. There are also problems with the media, because if the country does not have a national language, then it becomes unclear how to present information to people, in which language information should be distributed on radio, television, newspapers and magazines so that it reaches all residents.

Also, in India there are about 17 accepted national languages, and it is very difficult to communicate with so many differences in the meanings of words. In China, people also experience difficulties, since the Chinese language has a huge number of different characters and from this there are quite a lot of dialect branches in Chinese that are understandable only to those people who use them.

It is for such cases that the creation of a single language so that people can communicate at least within their own country is very important, because this can cause strife, difficulties in the interaction of people with each other and life in general.

Also, artificial languages are a very interesting factor for fans of science fiction, books and films in general, as many writers create their own world in which they create their own language. These languages are, as it were, native to the characters of books or films, since the authors create not only the language itself, but also think through its history, not the history of creation, or the idea that came to the mind of the author, and he decided to create a language, but the story that goes deep into the fictional world that the author writes about.

1.3 Examples of artificial languages in literature and cinema

The Klingon language spoken by humanoid warriors from the planet Khonosh in the fictional universe of Star Trek was coined by linguist Mark Okrand at the request of Paramount Studios. The language has a detailed grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and even a regulatory organization, the Klingon Language Institute, which promotes Klingon culture and translates classic literature, including the Bible and Shakespeare, into Klingon.

In addition to Klingon, there are about 10 languages in the Star Trek universe of varying degrees of sophistication, including Vulcan, Borg, Ryannsu, Andorii, Orion, Tamarian, Ferengi, Bayoran, and others.

Author J.R. R. Tolkien is known not only as a writer and author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, but also as a linguist and inventor of many artificial languages.

As a child, Tolkien and his comrades invented secret languages to communicate with each other. This passion stayed with him for the rest of his life. He developed grammar and vocabulary for a whole family of 15 Elvish languages, on which he continued to work from 1910 until his death in 1973. This group includes proto-elven, general eldarin, quenya, goldgreen, telerin, sindarin, ilkorin, nandorin, avarin.

In the film "The Fifth Element" the main character Lilu speaks the so-called ancient Divine language. (The Divine language), which, according to prehistory, spoke the entire universe before the beginning of time.

Designed by Luc Besson and Mila Jovovich, the language has just over 400 words. According to the actress, she and the director even wrote letters to each other for language practice. Some time after the film's release, Besson's inspired fans collected all the phrases from the film and compiled a dictionary.

In the world of A Song of Ice and Fire, created by George Martin, there are many different languages. In Westeros, the so-called common language is adopted, the languages \u200b\u200bof Valyria, the Dothraki and others that differ from it are also known. (dialects Volnykh Cities, language Quart, guiscar, language lhazarian, Ashshai, trade language, language Summer Islands andetc.). Most of these languages are rendered in the books of the saga by English.

We will focus on Dothraki, which Daenerys Targaryen had to learn. Especially for the series "Game of Thrones", this language was worked out in more detail, and its creator was David J. Peterson of the Language Creation Society. There weren't many guidelines for language development in the books, just a few nouns and dozens of names. They set the vector in its development.

The new language received grammatical and phonetic borrowings from Russian, Turkish, Estonian, Inuktitut (language residents extreme north Canada) and Swahili.

Several fictional languages are mentioned in the world of Harry Potter, including Gobbleduk, Runic, Water People, and Parseltang or "serpent tongue". This magical language, according to J. K. Rowling's narrative, is owned by snake-tongued magicians who speak with snakes. The people around cannot understand the conversation between the snake and the snake, since they only hear hissing. This innate and extremely rare gift is inherited or along with magical power. As a rule, the tongue is associated with the Dark Arts, but some good wizards also had this gift.

The most famous serpentine was Salazar Slytherin - one of the four founders of the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. That is why the symbol of the Slytherin faculty is a snake.

The language consists of various hissing sounds and rough letters, and the words are pronounced on the exhalation with hissing and imitation of snake sounds. Most sentences are very short and only consist of subject, object and verb. The rest of the meaning should be thought out by the listener, based on their knowledge and context. In addition, the language does not have a written form, and it is very difficult to convey its sound in Latin. The version of Parseltongue that is used in the films was developed by Francis Nolan, Professor of Phonetics, Specialist in Finnish and Estonian at the University of Cambridge.

The Star Wars universe is also filled with sort of different languages. , of which the saga mentions the highest galactic, binary droid language, Duros, Hutt, Yuuzhan Vong, and many others. The fictional languages of Star Wars, unlike Klingon or Sindarin, do not have a real grammatical system. For example, the growls of Wookiees or the signals of droids mostly only convey intonations and emotions. The language most commonly used in the films, Galactic Basic, is identical to modern English, with only a few additions of fictional idioms and isolated words. Other languages are also similar to existing human languages, although unfamiliar to most viewers.

One of the originally developed languages of the movie saga is bokke. , an artificial language used by space travelers that consists of the languages of several races.

According to the story, the language appeared in the Baobab trading platform as a means of communication between pilots, crew, and support personnel, who belonged to a wide variety of races. Although the language is not universally used, any experienced pilot and space traveler knows a few bokka phrases to communicate with other pilots.

Chapter 2. Volapyuk

2.1 History of creation

Volapuk (Volapk: vol - "world" + pk - language) is the first international language of artificial origin in history. It was created by the German priest Johann Schleyer back in 1879. As the author himself claimed, one day the Lord appeared to him in a dream and offered to create a new language that could unite all peoples.

Here it should be noted that in fact the first project to create an artificial international language was the Universalglot, created in 1868 by the French linguist Jean Pirro. However, he had no success at all. Volapyuk managed to advance a little further.

Schleyer's work was based on the classical German language, from which the author excluded the sound r, considering it too complicated for several nationalities, but left the original German umlauted vowels d, c, b.

In contrast to the deliberately simplified Esperanto, Volapuk was distinguished by a complex grammatical and word-formation system. There were several thousand forms of verbs in it alone. In addition, this language, like its progenitor, allowed an unlimited number of roots to be combined in one compound word, which led to the appearance of such monsters as klonalitakipafabldacifalцpasekretan ("secretary of the directorate of the chandelier factory"). Unfortunately, it was precisely this complexity that caused the rapid decline of Volapuk.

Volapuk artificial language international

2.2 Volapuk functioning in modern society

For twenty years since its inception, this language has been actively gaining popularity. By 1889, more than 210 thousand people in various countries had studied it, relevant literature was being created, and periodicals were being published. But in the same year there was a conflict between Schleyer and the reformers who wanted to simplify the Volapük somewhat for general use. The priest forbade any changes to his creation, and fans of artificial international languages turned their attention to Esperanto, created two years earlier.

And although in 1929 it was still somewhat transformed into Volapuk, the total number of its speakers today does not exceed 30 people. This is definitely not enough for the language to develop and spread normally.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that artificial languages were mainly created in order to facilitate intercultural communication for people, since people need to overcome the "language barrier" and speak freely among themselves without quarreling over misunderstandings.

It also turned out that a lot of artificial languages were created in connection with books and films that have their own fictional world and, accordingly, need a language to make this world look like a real one. As it turned out, these fictional languages are very popular among people, because people are interested in the worlds and their languages, and after the release of films or books, there are a lot of followers of trilogies or series of books or films. That is why some languages of artificial origin overshadow the popularity of endangered languages.

Also, artificial languages are created by linguists themselves, sometimes for research purposes, to observe processes, to compare an artificially created language with a natural one, or to develop a language for a tribe that has only a written language.

Bibliography

1. Actual problems of modern interlinguistics: Sat. in honor of the 75th anniversary of Acad. P.A. Ariste. (Interlinguistica Tartuensis - 1). Tartu, 1982.

2. Akhmanova O. WITH, Bokarev E.BUT. International auxiliary language as a linguistic problem. - Questions of linguistics, 1956, No. 6, p.65-78.

3. Isaev M.AND. The problem of artificial language of international communication. - In the book: Problems of Interlinguistics. Moscow: Nauka, 1976.

4. http://london-moscow.ru/zachem_sozdavat_iskusstvennie_yaziki

5. http://whoyougle.ru/texts/artificial-languages/

6. https: // ru. wikipedia.org

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