NETHERLANDS
Kingdom of the Netherlands, a state in Western Europe. Area 41,526 sq. km. It borders in the east with Germany, in the south with Belgium, the northern and western shores are washed by the North Sea. Often the country is called Holland, after the name of the richest and most influential of the seven provinces that were originally part of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands in the 16th century.

Netherlands. The constitutional capital is Amsterdam; seat of government - The Hague. Population - 15.6 million people (1997). Urban population - 89%, rural - 11%. Population density - 376 people per 1 sq. km. km (460 - excluding the area of ​​​​water areas). Area - 41,526 sq. km. The highest point is Mount Walserberg (321 m). The lowest point is 6.7 m below sea level. (near Rotterdam). The official language is Dutch. Predominant religions: Protestantism, Catholicism. Administrative-territorial division: 12 provinces. Monetary unit: gulden (florin) = 100 cents. National holiday: Queen's Day - 30 April. National anthem: "Wilhelmus".

The surface of the country is flat and low, so throughout its history it was necessary to fight against the elements of the sea. Over half of the country's area (including the tidal dry land) is below sea level. The Dutch conquered considerable territories from the sea and created a flourishing industry and agriculture. Thanks to its favorable geographical position, the Netherlands has become one of the largest trading countries in the world. The country has made a significant contribution to the fine arts, literature, and science. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, in addition to the main territory in Europe, includes the Netherlands Antilles and the island of Aruba in the West Indies.

NATURE
Geological structure. The peculiarities of the geological structure played an important role in the formation of the landscapes of the Netherlands. The country lies within the North Sea Lowland, which also includes parts of Belgium, northern France, northwestern Germany, western Denmark, and eastern England. These areas are experiencing a subsidence that reaches its maximum in the Netherlands. This explains the predominance of low altitudes in most of the country and the susceptibility to floods. The formation of the relief was greatly influenced by the last continental glaciation, during which sand and pebble strata accumulated in the northeast and in the central part of the Netherlands, and low pressure moraine ridges formed to the south and east of the IJsselmeer in the marginal zone of the ice sheet. At the same time, outside the glaciation area (in the south of the Netherlands), the fast rivers Rhine and Meuse deposited thick sandy strata. At times, when the sea level dropped, these rivers developed deeper channels; at the same time, river terraces and low interfluves, characteristic of the southern provinces, were formed. At the end of the ice age, sand dunes formed on the coast of the country, and behind them - vast shallow lagoons, which were gradually filled with alluvial and marine sediments; swamps subsequently arose there.
Relief. Currently, more than half of the country's territory (33.9 thousand square kilometers) is located below sea level, including almost all western lands - from the province of Zeeland in the southwest to the province of Groningen in the northeast. The Dutch began to conquer most of them from the sea as early as the 13th century. and managed to turn into productive arable land. Areas of swamps and shallow waters were fenced off with dams, water was pumped out first with the help of windmills, and later with steam and electric pumps. The levels of the country's major rivers in their lower reaches are often located above the surrounding interfluves, composed of loose sediments, and coastal ramparts, which are strengthened by dams, are natural protection against floods. From a bird's eye view, the drained areas, called polders, are a complex mosaic with numerous ditches and channels dividing the fields and providing runoff. Since 1927, the implementation of a major hydrotechnical project to drain the Zuider Zee began in the Netherlands. By 1932, the construction of the main dam, 29 km long, was completed, which crossed this bay in the section between the provinces of North Holland and Friesland. In the next five years, the IJsselmeer freshwater lake was formed above this dam, which was planned to be drained. The Wieringermeer polder in the northwest was created first, followed by the Urkerland in the northeast. In the same way, the territories of East and South Flevoland were drained. In the late 1980s, the drainage of Markervärd was completed. After the completion of the project, over 60% of the original area of ​​the IJsselmeer will be reclaimed from the sea. Another project called "Delta", completed in 1986, was intended mainly to protect the outer parts of the Rhine and Meuse delta with numerous islands from floods. This project gained particular importance after the catastrophe of 1953, when coastal dikes were destroyed during a storm in the North Sea and most of the delta lowlands were flooded. In the course of the project, all branches of the delta were blocked by dams that connected the islands. The only exception was the branch of the Eastern Scheldt, along which the sea route to the port of Antwerp (Belgium) passes. Currently, the Netherlands is considering the construction of dams between the West Frisian Islands, which border the northern coast of the country. At the same time, the shallow Wadden Sea (Wadden Sea), which stretches between these islands and the mainland, will also be drained.
In the 1990s, the strategy of hydrotechnical and land reclamation work, which had a thousand-year history, changed significantly. It is now planned to turn approx. 240 thousand hectares, or approximately 1/10 of all agricultural land in the country, into forests, meadows and lakes in order to protect the environment. A significant part of the territory of the Netherlands is located above sea level. These are sandy coastal dunes, flat and slightly hilly plains mainly in the east and south of the country, as well as a chalk plateau dissected by deep river valleys in the extreme southeast. Here is the highest point in the country, Mount Walserberg (321 m above sea level).
Climate. Due to the predominance of westerly winds blowing from the North Sea, the weather in the Netherlands is usually mild in winter and cool in summer. The average January temperature is 2°C. In winter, there are short periods with negative temperatures, alternating with thaws. It's not every year that an ice sheet forms that is safe for skating, but if it does, the Dutch are happy to go ice skating on the canals. The average temperature in July is 16-17°C. In summer periods of cool weather alternate with hot days. Although the average annual rainfall is 650 to 750 mm, there is rarely a day without rain. Often there are fogs, sometimes snow falls in winter. Soils, flora and fauna. The polders, almost completely used for agricultural needs, are composed mainly of clay and peat. In the southern and eastern regions of the country, mainly sandy soils are widespread, largely occupied by arable land. In some places, heather wastelands (short grasses with shrubs) and pine-oak-beech forests have been preserved here. The plateaus of southern Limburg are covered with loess of eolian origin. Fertile loamy soils are developed here, which form the basis of agriculture. Most of the wildlife in the Netherlands has been displaced by humans. Nevertheless, there are many birds in the country, especially waterfowl. Many rare animal species are protected in national parks and reserves.
POPULATION
Demography. In 1997, approx. 15.6 million people, i.e. population density was 460 people per 1 sq. km. km. In terms of population density, the country ranks third in Europe after Monaco and Malta. In 1996 ok. 37% of the population lived in two coastal provinces - North and South Holland, which accounted for 18% of the total area of ​​the country. The least densely populated provinces are Friesland, Drenthe, Zeeland and Flevoland, where 1/3 of the country's area is home to approx. 11% of the population. After the Second World War in the Netherlands, as in all of Western Europe, natural population growth declined sharply. The average annual population growth in the 1950s-1960s was 1.3%, in the 1970s it decreased to 0.9% and in the 1980s it reached 0.4%. Then it began to rise again and in 1990-1996 reached 0.6%. In the Netherlands, the birth rate has greatly decreased: 22 per 1000 in the 1950s, 12 in the 1980s, 12.7 in the 1990s. Due to the decline in the birth rate and the gradual aging of the population, the death rate increased: from 7.5 per 1,000 in the 1950s, 9 in the 1980s, and 8.7 in the 1990s. The median age increased from 28 in 1950 to 33.5 in 1985. Currently, in the Netherlands, 62% of the population is between 20 and 65, 25% under 20 and 13% over 65. External migrations of the population fluctuated depending on the economic and political situation. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, when the country was experiencing serious economic difficulties, emigration increased, mainly to Australia and Canada. After the independence of Indonesia in 1949, ca. 200 thousand Dutch returned to their homeland. In the 1960s, in the conditions of the rapid development of industry, it was necessary to attract workers from Italy, Spain and Turkey. In 1995 ok. 15% of the country's population was made up of persons born outside its borders or having at least one foreign parent. Most of these people came from Muslim countries. In 1996, 728,000 foreigners lived in the Netherlands.
Ethnic features and language. The population of the Netherlands has predominantly Germanic and Celtic roots. The Dutch are intermediate between northern and western (or Alpine) types, usually with blond hair and blue eyes. The population of the southern and southwestern regions is dominated by brown-haired people with brown or gray eyes. The Dutch language belongs to the Germanic language family. It was formed on the basis of the dialect of the province of Holland. This dialect supplanted the prevailing in the 17th century. Flemish and Brabant language norms. Many local dialects are still preserved in the Netherlands today. In Friesland, part of the population speaks Frisian, which is taught in primary schools. There is literature in this language.
Confessional structure. After the 1971 census, the religious affiliation of the population in the Netherlands was not registered. According to estimates for 1995, Catholics made up 33% of the population of the country, adherents of the Dutch Reformed Church - 14%, Calvinists - 7%, Muslims - 4%, Hindus - 0.5%, followers of other religions - 2%, did not indicate religious affiliation and atheists - 39%. In 1993, the number of Muslims was estimated at 600 thousand people. Before the Second World War, there was a large Jewish community in the Netherlands, almost completely destroyed as a result of deportations and executions during the German occupation. In 1941, there were 140,000 people who professed the Jewish religion in the country, and according to the 1971 census, only 6,000.
Urbanization. The Netherlands is characterized by a high level of urbanization. In 1997, 11% of the population lived in rural areas. In Amsterdam, the main economic and cultural center of the country, in 1996 there were 718.1 thousand inhabitants; in Rotterdam, the largest seaport, - 592.7 thousand; in the government seat of The Hague - 442.5 thousand; in the railway junction of Utrecht - 234.2 thousand; in the industrial center of Eindhoven - 197.4 thousand. During the 20th century. enterprises of various industries were brought to rural areas. This process was especially manifested in the agricultural regions of the old development in the center of the country. Thus, industrial cities arose in the countryside. Examples are such centers of developed cotton industry as Hengelo, Enschede and Almelo.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The Kingdom of the Netherlands includes the main territory in Europe, the Netherlands Antilles and the island of Aruba in the West Indies. Since 1954, the overseas territories have enjoyed the rights of self-government, but recognize the power of the Dutch monarch, who is in charge of defense and international relations. In both Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, the governor is the king's representative.
Political system. The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is Queen Beatrix (Dynasty of Orange - Nassau), who ascended the throne on April 30, 1980. Although the power of the monarch is limited and he must consult with the government, his opinion still plays a decisive role in the appointment of the prime minister. All political acts are performed in the name of the queen. Executive power is exercised by the queen and the government. The latter includes ministers representing the political parties of the ruling coalition. Usually each minister receives his own portfolio (there are 14 ministries in the Netherlands) or a department of the government, which is in his charge. Ministers must not be members of the parliament called the Estates General. The State Council is the highest deliberative body of the country, for whose consideration bills are proposed. The President of the Council is the Head of State. The Council also includes a Deputy Chairman and 28 members appointed for life. Control over the correctness of receipts and expenditures of public funds is carried out by the Accounts Chamber. Legislative power is exercised by the monarch and the States General. The Estates General consists of two chambers. The first includes 75 members elected for a six-year term by the states of the provinces; half of its membership is re-elected every three years. The second chamber consists of 150 people elected by direct vote for a term of four years. Half of the members of the chamber are elected from party lists on the principle of proportional representation, the other half - from regional districts. The second chamber can amend the constitution and approve laws. Both chambers can conduct consideration of any issues independently of the government, and also have the right to make inquiries to ministers about current and future policies. In the Netherlands, all citizens over the age of 18 are eligible to vote. Civil servants (529,000 in 1995) must be politically neutral and possess a high professional level. With changes in the composition of the government, even the highest administrative ranks remain in their places.
Local government. The main units of local administration are the municipalities, of which there are 647. Each of them is governed by an elected municipal council, an executive committee of the municipal council, and a burgomaster. The burgomaster is appointed for a six-year term by the government. The possibilities of municipal government are limited by the amount of funding. The Netherlands is divided into 12 provinces. Each is governed by the Provincial States, elected for four years. Executive power is exercised by four elected representatives of the Provincial States and a royal commissioner, who is appointed by the government of the country. The provincial government has the power of oversight, but has less political power than the municipalities.
Political parties. The Netherlands has a large number of political parties, reflecting a long history of political and religious conflict. Among the deputies of parliament in 1998 were representatives of 9 parties. Nevertheless, five parties traditionally have the greatest influence, three of them united in 1977 and form a single bloc. Most of the seats in the Second Chamber after the parliamentary elections in May 1998 were won by the Labor Party (PT) - a moderately socialist movement calling for gradual progress and constitutional methods of political struggle. This party advocates state planning of the economy, the nationalization of some basic industries with the payment of compensation and the expansion of social programs. The Labor Party receives broad support from both Catholics and Protestants, and workers, farmers, fishermen, merchants and intellectuals vote for its candidates. The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (NPSD), founded in 1948, took second place in parliament. The conservative agenda of the NAP emphasizes private initiative, free enterprise, law and order, and calls for lower defense spending and social reform. NPSD reflects the interests of the middle and upper strata of the urban population. Third place was taken by a large bloc of the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA). It arose in 1977 on the basis of the union of two Protestant parties - the Anti-Revolutionary and the Christian Historical Union - with the Catholic People's Party. The Catholic People's Party led the Netherlands from the end of World War II until 1971; it was supported by small and medium entrepreneurs and farmers mainly in the Catholic provinces of North Brabant and Limburg. With the addition of both Protestant parties, the CDA bloc gained the support of Protestant voters from the middle and upper classes. The CDA has evolved as a broad centrist alliance advocating moderate social reform based on free enterprise, private property and traditional moral values. Differences with the Labor Party mainly relate to the extent of state planning and control in the economy. The most important of the small parties is the Democrats-66 party, founded in 1966. It puts forward demands for the abolition of proportional representation, the direct election of the prime minister, the regrouping of parties along socio-economic rather than religious lines, and the establishment of closer ties with the countries of Eastern Europe. These demands are met with approval mainly among intellectuals and urban youth, many of whom also support the green party, which advocates for the improvement of the environment (the so-called Green Left party). The political system of the Netherlands is based on the interaction between the government and the States General. Ministers prefer to make effective political compromises, sometimes against the interests of their parties. At the same time, the deputies of the Estates General strive to uphold their party principles. Such differences in motivations often cause conflicts between the branches of government. Achieving agreement is complicated by violations of party discipline. Any deputy of the States General may vote contrary to the opinion of the party without fear of any sanctions. Sometimes such deputies create new political parties.
Legal system and judiciary. The Dutch legal system is a combination of Roman law and the Napoleonic code. Particular attention is paid to the rights of citizens. Judges are appointed by the monarch for life, but upon reaching the age of 70 they must leave their post. The Netherlands has a Supreme Court, 5 courts of appeal, 19 district courts and 62 cantonal courts. The country does not have a jury trial system. Litigation is usually conducted by one judge or a panel of three judges.
Foreign policy. In the period between the world wars, the Netherlands took an active part in the work of the League of Nations. In 1945 they became one of the founding countries of the UN. After World War II, the Netherlands firmly joined the alliance of Western countries and in 1949 joined NATO. Since the 1950s, the country has been a leading champion of European integration and advocated for Britain's entry into the Common Market. The Maastricht Treaty, concluded in 1992 in the city of Maastricht in the south of the Netherlands, contributed to the transformation of the European Economic Community into the European Union. The Netherlands has long been the center of the world's legal institutions. Back in the 17th century. Hugo Grotius, one of the founders of modern international law, lived here. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague.
Armed forces. Following the end of the Cold War, the Dutch armed forces underwent significant reforms. The conscription, which in the mid-1990s provided approx. 2/5 of the military contingent was abolished in 1997, and now the armed forces of the Netherlands consist exclusively of professional soldiers and volunteers. The Dutch formations are used primarily by NATO troops. In the mid-1990s, the ground forces of the Netherlands included 10 brigades, united in 2 divisions. Part of the troops stationed in Germany. The Air Force consisted of 9 fighter squadrons and 8 air defense missile batteries. The navy consisted of 55 ships, including 4 submarines and 18 guided missile patrol ships, and also had naval aviation and infantry formations. Both the Air Force and the Dutch Navy are trained jointly with the Belgian formations. The total strength of the armed forces in 1997 was 75.2 thousand people. In 1997, the share of defense spending was 1.91% of GDP.
ECONOMY
The Netherlands is a small country, but its gross national product (GNP) in 1998 was estimated at $365 billion. This value per capita - 23.5 thousand dollars - shows that the Netherlands is one of the richest countries in the world, ranking 12th among the 29 countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Trade has traditionally played a significant role in the Dutch economy. After the Second World War, despite the almost complete absence of raw materials, the importance of heavy industry increased. Although the country's natural conditions are unfavorable for the development of agriculture, Dutch farmers have achieved considerable success, specializing in the cultivation of high-value crops. Foreign trade is at the heart of the country's economy. The share of export earnings (51.5% in 1996) is much higher here than in France (18.8%) or the USA (8.5%). Since 1965 Rotterdam has become the world's largest port. Due to its advantageous position at the crossroads of European trade routes, the Netherlands is an important market for manufactured goods from many Western European countries. The development of heavy industry in the Netherlands was hampered by the limited mineral resource base. Only after the end of World War II did the rapid growth of industries such as engineering, energy and the chemical industry (especially oil refining and petrochemicals) begin. In the period from 1960 to 1989, the average annual growth rate of industrial output was 3.8%, but in 1990-1996 it dropped to 1.7%. The share of industry in the GDP of the Netherlands in 1998 was 23%. Despite its small size, the Netherlands, with the assistance of British capital, gave birth to a number of the world's largest trading and industrial companies, for example, Philips, Unilever and Royal Dutch Shell. Agriculture in the Netherlands, due to unfavorable natural conditions, is very selective and highly specialized. Preference is given to livestock breeding, the production of dairy products and the cultivation of vegetable and horticultural crops for export. The share of agriculture in 1998 accounted for 3% of GNP. Influence of natural factors on the development of agriculture and industry. In the eastern provinces of the Netherlands, the prerequisites for the development of agriculture are very unfavorable, since glacial deposits are widespread there, represented by sands, pebbles and clays; due to the abundance of swamps, runoff is difficult, and the climate resembles a continental one. In the western provinces, where river beds are often located above the surrounding lowlands and 40% of the territory is below sea level, there is a constant risk of flooding. Large areas here have been turned into lakes or wastelands, where highly mineralized water seeps into the alluvial soils. In these territories, agriculture is impossible without significant land reclamation work. The industry of the Netherlands works mainly on imported raw materials. Even houses and dams are built from imported stone. True, in the Netherlands there are significant reserves of coal in the province of Limburg, but during the 1960s its production was curtailed, and in 1974 it completely stopped. The transition of many industrial technologies to liquid fuels and the discovery of oil and natural gas deposits played a major role in this. Oil was discovered in the Schonebeek area in the northeast of the country in 1963, as well as in the area between Rotterdam and The Hague. In 1996, 2.2 million tons of oil were produced, which was almost twice the level of 1978. Nevertheless, only an insignificant part of the country's needs is met by local oil. The most important energy carrier is natural gas, a deposit of which was discovered in 1959 near Slochteren in the province of Groningen. This deposit is estimated as the third largest in the world. Gas fields are being developed by the Netherlands Oil Company, created by the Royal Dutch Shell and Exxon concerns. Other natural gas deposits have been discovered at the bottom of the North Sea. In 1996, the total natural gas reserves in the Netherlands were estimated at 1.8 trillion. cube m. Natural gas production in 1994 amounted to 84 billion cubic meters. m, which is ten times more than in 1978. In 1996, 2.8 million tons of gas were produced, most of which was exported. About half of the country's energy needs are met by gas (51.8% in 1996). The influence of natural factors on the development of trade. The main natural factor favoring foreign trade is the position of the Netherlands. The country has a natural outlet to the sea, since it owns the mouths of the Rhine and Meuse, flowing from the industrialized regions of Europe, including, for example, the Ruhr basin. Within the Netherlands itself, numerous natural waterways provide a low-cost connection between all parts of the country. In addition to natural factors, the construction of ports and canals contributed to the development of trade. There were no natural harbors on the north sea coast of the Netherlands, occupied by swamps and dunes. The branches of the Rhine and Meuse are very shallow. The port of Rotterdam acquired direct access to the sea only at the end of the 19th century. The water arteries of the country had to be connected by canals to ensure a direct connection between the Rhine and Amsterdam, as well as with the northern provinces.
Harbors, waterways and canals. When transporting goods in the Netherlands, a complex system of artificially created waterways of three main categories is used: the two huge ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam; canals connecting these ports with the North Sea, and canals connecting different parts of the country. Approximately 6,000 Dutch river vessels (the highest figure in the world) carry at least 2/3 of the total water freight of the EU countries. To improve approaches from the North Sea to the two largest ports - Amsterdam and Rotterdam - at the end of the 19th century. two canals were built. The Nordsee Canal provides the shortest exit from Amsterdam to the North Sea. The wide and deep channel Nieuwe Waterweh, 27 km long, connects Rotterdam with the sea, breaking through the dune belt at Hoek van Holland. Port of Amsterdam, located near a small bay in the southwest of Lake. IJsselmeer (created in 1932 after the construction of a dam across the Zuider Zee), in the 19th century. began to lose its importance, since at that time there was still no convenient access to the North Sea. In 1825 a canal was built connecting Amsterdam to Helder, but by the end of the century it had become unsuitable for the passage of large ships. Therefore, a new Nordsee Canal was built between Amsterdam and the cities of IJmuiden and Velsen on the North Sea coast. In the western part of the canal near the IJmuiden, huge locks 15 m high were erected. On the opposite side, access to the IJsselmeer was blocked, and a convenient harbor was created there. The ports of Amsterdam and Rotterdam are equipped to handle large quantities of bulk cargo quickly. In Amsterdam, the total length of the berths is 39 km, half of which is for ocean-going vessels. The port is divided into two main parts: in the east, the old port, which in the past opened to the Zuider Zee (IJsselmeer), and in the west, the new port with larger, wider and deeper backwaters directly connected to the Nordsee Canal. The giant port of Rotterdam consists of one small backwater on the northern bank of the Nieuwe-Waterweg canal and three large ones on the south. Europort, the westernmost and most modern part of the port, is located on the drained section of the North Sea. It was created to provide access to the largest ocean-going vessels, including giant tankers. Approximately 200 million tons of cargo is unloaded in Rotterdam annually. It handles about a third of all EU sea freight and is the world's largest container handling port. In terms of total area and length of berths, the port of Rotterdam ranks first in the world. The need arose in the country for the construction of canals connecting the Lek and Waal rivers (arms of the Rhine) with areas and large cities not covered by waterways. This is the purpose of the canals created between the rivers Rhine and IJssel in the east and Meuse and Waal in the northwest. The most important is the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, completed in 1952, which for the first time connected the capital of the Netherlands with the Rhine basin.
Agriculture. A Dutch proverb says: "God made the sea, but the Dutch made the shores." To this we can add that the Dutch also created soils. Polders covering approx. 2/5 of the entire territory of the country are artificially created lands reclaimed from the sea. Most of the modern North Holland Peninsula is occupied by such polders with an area of ​​161 sq. km around the lake. Haarlemmermeer. Thanks to the creation of four large polders at the bottom of the IJsselmeer, the area of ​​the Netherlands has increased by 1621 square meters. km. Most of these polders are used for agricultural land. In the early 1990s, ca. 60% of the country's territory was occupied by agriculture. Of these, pastures occupied half, crops - about a quarter, and orchards - less than 4%. In 1994, horticultural products accounted for almost 60% of gross agricultural output, and livestock - 33%. In 1994 there were over 116,000 farms in the country, of which 95,000 were fully specialized in agriculture. Due to low soil fertility and unfavorable climate in the Netherlands, it is unprofitable to grow crops traditional for Western Europe, and therefore Dutch farmers specialize in the production of high-value crops. The area under crops of rye, oats and fodder beets decreased by 90% between 1960 and 1990. These crops are grown for forage in the southwest and southeast of the country. Wheat and barley are cultivated on clay soils in the northern and western regions. In the same regions and in the south of Limburg, sugar beet crops are concentrated. Since the 1960s, the harvest of wheat and sugar beet has increased dramatically. In 1996, 1.27 million tons of wheat, 235 thousand tons of barley, 38 thousand tons of rye, 11 thousand tons of oats and 6.4 million tons of sugar beets were harvested. Throughout the Netherlands, edible potatoes and fodder crops for livestock are grown, and their yields, as well as the production of starch (8 million tons in 1996), are increasing. The yield of many agricultural crops in the Netherlands reaches record levels in the world. From industrial crops, flax is grown for fiber, rapeseed for seed and chicory. The main branches of agriculture in the Netherlands are dairy and breeding livestock, as well as specialized crop production. These industries are well adapted to soil and climatic conditions and provide valuable export products. The leading industry is livestock breeding. Meadows occupy 1/3 of the total area of ​​agricultural land. In 1996, there were 4.6 million head of cattle in the country. The famous black and white Friesian-Holstein breed, providing milk yield of approx. 18 tons per year, is in great demand abroad to improve the local number of cattle. In 1996, there were 14 million pigs in the Netherlands, as well as 1.7 million sheep, which were reared in the eastern provinces and coastal polders. The Netherlands is a major producer of meat (2.9 million tons in 1996), milk (11.2 million tons), cheese (688,000 tons), as well as butter and eggs. A large share of agricultural income comes from products such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, as well as seeds and seedlings of bushes and trees. Horticulture products are an important export item. There are two types of horticulture - natural (in the open field) and artificial (in greenhouses). The most famous production of bulbs and tulips, which in the 17th century. grown in the vicinity of Haarlem, and now in the area between Haarlem, Leiden and The Hague. Holland's greenhouses produce large crops of grapes and tomatoes, as well as flowers, mainly carnations, azaleas and orchids. Thanks to the development of floriculture in some areas, for example, in the vicinity of Haarlem, Amsterdam and Aalsmeer, a unique landscape has arisen, where a series of countless greenhouses and greenhouses stretches along small channels. Dutch farmers pay great attention to selection work, and there are numerous agricultural schools in the country. The very first advanced agricultural school in Europe was established in 1918 in Wageningen. The Dutch government and the EU control the quality of agricultural products and issue quality certificates for export products. Farms in the country are small, especially in areas where horticulture is developed. Almost 50% of all farms have plots of less than 10 hectares, but farmers can easily obtain loans from numerous cooperative and credit institutions, such as the Central Cooperative of Utrecht and the Central Agricultural Bank of Eindhoven.
Despite the small size of land plots, Dutch agriculture is characterized by a high level of mechanization. In 1988, there was one tractor for every 5 hectares of agricultural land, which was twice the corresponding figure in France. The use of fertilizers is also very high, although only in the 1980s did the transition to the predominant use of organic fertilizers begin. In 1993 there were 455 "organic" farms. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Netherlands occupied a leading position in Europe in terms of the application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash fertilizers per 1 ha. The use of pesticides in agriculture has decreased from 18.8 thousand tons in 1990 to 11 thousand tons in 1994. Almost 2/3 of arable land is being reclaimed.

Industry. The industrial sector of the Dutch economy, like other industries, has a commercial orientation and a certain specialization. Before World War II, the role of industry in the country was small. However, the development of the economy in the postwar years has shown how dangerous narrow specialization in trade, agriculture and industry. The Netherlands needed an industry that would develop with limited resources of local raw materials and at the same time be competitive in the world market. In 1996, industry in the Netherlands employed approximately 28% of the working-age population, while 67% worked in services and 5% in agriculture and fisheries. The structure of the country's industry differs significantly from neighboring Belgium, where heavy industry stands out. Metallurgical products, with the exception of steel and aluminum, are very small. Tin production developed on the basis of imports of raw materials from the former colony of Indonesia. In 1967, the Netherlands was the world's fourth largest producer of tin, but in 1972 it was completely discontinued. After the First World War, a small iron and steel works "Hohovens" was founded in Velsen, producing iron and steel. Later, new metallurgical enterprises appeared on the coast of the country, based on ores with a high iron content imported from France and Sweden. Plant "Hohovens" established links with the enterprises of the Ruhr basin, which allowed to improve their own production. Nevertheless, the volume of metallurgical production in the Netherlands is still small: in 1993, 5.5 million tons of steel and 3.7 million tons of rolled products were produced. The aluminum industry developed rapidly: the production of this metal in 1967 was 32.5 thousand tons, in 1976 - 255 thousand tons, in 1994 - 405 thousand tons. At present, the Netherlands is one of the main suppliers of aluminum to the world market. Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical industry (especially oil refining and refining), as well as the food industry, are well developed and highly specialized. Mechanical engineering, electrical industry and transport engineering are mainly export-oriented. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers. Shipbuilding and ship repair, concentrated in Rotterdam and Amsterdam, are of the greatest importance. In 1993, the Netherlands launched merchant ships with a total displacement of 163 thousand tons. Shipyards produce stationary engines, marine engines, pumps, cranes and other port equipment. Mechanical engineering enterprises also produce metal structures and equipment for the production of milk, margarine and butter. The Dutch electronic and electrical industry is represented by the world's largest Philips concern, which has its head office in Eindhoven.
In the 1960s, the capacity of oil refineries increased dramatically. Currently ok. 90% of local and imported oil is processed in Pernis near Rotterdam. In 1993, more than 2.6 million tons of oil were processed. West Holland produces plastics, mineral fertilizers, soaps and medicines, as well as synthetic fibers and rubber. The textile industry specializes in the production of cotton, as well as woolen and viscose fabrics. The Netherlands is a leading exporter of viscose. Consumer goods, especially food and beverages, account for approx. 1/4 of the country's exports. The Netherlands is the world's largest producer of margarine (209,000 tons in 1992). Products such as powdered and condensed milk, beer, chocolate, flour, biscuits and vegetable oil are also produced. In the mid-1990s, foreign investment in industry in the Netherlands declined. Most of them came from EU countries, especially from Germany and the UK. The share of American investments was 1/6, about the same was accounted for by Swiss investments.

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International trade has long played an important role in the economy of the Netherlands. In modern conditions, its development is facilitated by a dense network of roads and railways, inland waterways and huge ports. In 1994, the Netherlands entered the top eight world exporters, and in 1996 the share of this country accounted for over 4% of world trade. In 1996, the share of exports in the GNP of the Netherlands was approx. 60%. In terms of exports per capita (more than 6.5 thousand dollars), the Netherlands occupies one of the first places in the world. Almost all leading industries of the country have a clearly expressed export orientation. The main imports are oil, foodstuffs, grains, fodder, transport equipment and machinery, and the main exports are food (especially meat and dairy), chemical products, petroleum products, machinery and transport equipment. Imports came mainly from Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the USA. Exports went mainly to Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, France and the UK. Of great importance for the development of international trade is the world's largest port of Rotterdam, which in the early 1990s was twice the size of the port of New York in terms of cargo turnover. Approx. 307 million tons of cargo, or 90% of all cargo entering the Netherlands by sea. Thanks to the well-established system of cargo transportation along rivers, canals, pipelines, railways and roads, the Netherlands has become the main center of maritime communications for other European countries. Such re-exports are usually directed to Germany, as well as to France and Switzerland. The Netherlands also provides access to the sea for some of the products of German heavy industry. However, the bulk of Rotterdam's cargo turnover is made up of raw materials, especially crude oil, ores and chemical products.
Money circulation, banking and budget. The main currency of the Netherlands is the guilder, which is planned to be replaced by the euro in 2002. Coins are minted by the State Mint in Utrecht, and the state bank - the Bank of the Netherlands - has the right to issue banknotes. Dutch banknotes are considered the most beautiful and counterfeit-proof in Europe. In addition to the Bank of the Netherlands, there are six large private banks and a number of specialized banks in the country. Since the end of World War II, the Netherlands has been pursuing a prudent financial policy. The first balanced budget was achieved in 1949. During the 1950s and 1960s, expenditures slightly exceeded revenues. The budget deficit increased in the 1970s and 1980s and remained at a high level in the 1990s. In 1996 the budget was characterized by revenues of 301.9 billion guilders (149.5 billion dollars) and expenditures of 322.8 billion guilders (151.3 billion dollars). The main sources of income were income taxes, turnover taxes and social contributions. State expenditures are directed mainly to social needs (38%), healthcare (14%) and education (11%).
SOCIETY
The role of religion in the life of society. Religious differences have a spatial and geographical expression: in the south of the country mainly Catholics live, and in the southwest and northeast - Protestants. Officially, freedom of conscience was proclaimed in 1795, but in fact the Dutch Reformed Church remained an important political force throughout the 19th century. Religious strife still affects political parties, schools, trade unions, employers' unions and newspapers. Radio and television stations, sports associations and recreation clubs are organized on an ideological or religious basis. In the 20th century the number of mixed marriages between people of different faiths, contrary to expectations, has not increased, but decreased, and even acquaintances and spending time together often depend on religious beliefs. A separate group is that part of the population that stands apart from religious associations (especially those who share socialist or liberal views). The interaction of Protestant, Catholic and secular organizations is included in the so-called. "pillar" system (zuilen systeem), where representatives of each "pillar" (grouping) are members of committees to protect the interests of the population at all levels of government. This system was formed after the First World War. On the established social groups, "pillars" ("pylons"), the entire Dutch society was based, although each of them autonomously carried out its functions.
ethnic issues. In the early 1990s, people from Java, the Moluccas, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles made up approximately 5% of the country's population. The controversy intensified after 1975, when the Netherlands received several groups of emigrants from the southern Moluccas. In the 1970s, laws were passed that prohibited racial discrimination. Nevertheless, unemployment among the non-white population remains high, which largely determines the social stratification of society.
A family. The family is at the center of public life in the Netherlands. Usually this is a closed cell, including spouses, children and immediate family. Its close cohesion is essential for the transmission of traditional religious and social attitudes to the next generation. Despite the increased role of unifying events at the workplace, the Dutch prefer to relax in the family circle. Despite an active feminist movement, Dutch women still do not occupy an equal position with men. Few married women work, but their wages are lower than those of men.
Public education. Freedom of education along with freedom of religion are the constitutional rights of the citizens of the Netherlands. The state, while maintaining supervision over education in primary and secondary schools and funding it almost completely, does not interfere in the learning process. Subject to meeting a number of criteria, a school in the Netherlands can be established by anyone with the right to teach. This explains the presence of different types of schools in the country and, accordingly, the selective nature of education. At the same time, the lack of unified curricula does not interfere with following the educational process of the so-called. The school inspectorate, whose reports are closely watched by the press and parents. According to the first legislation on public education, state non-religious schools were established in 1801. Currently, in the system of primary and secondary education, all schools are divided into special (or private), regular (or public) and special. There are Roman Catholic schools, Protestant, Muslim, Hindu, Jewish, and so on. This type also includes schools based on specific teaching methods (for example, Montessori schools, etc.), as well as the so-called. "free schools". Ordinary schools provide exclusively secular education. Special schools are designed for children who experience difficulties in the learning process for one reason or another. Until 1920, when the confessional parties won government subsidies for parochial schools, most children attended free public schools (69% in 1900). In 1996-1997, only 35% of children were enrolled in public primary schools and 65% in private schools. In the higher education system, where state subsidies are limited, only 3 out of 13 higher education institutions are associated with certain faiths. In the Netherlands, compulsory free education for children and adolescents under the age of 16. Primary school is attended by children from 5 (and at the request of parents from 4) to 12 years. It has a wide variety of curricula. At the secondary school, which is mandatory for every child between the ages of 12 and 16, there is more uniformity in the educational process. There are four types of education: a four-year basic secondary, a five-year general higher type of study, a four-year professional and a six-year pre-university with a specialization in social sciences, natural sciences or the humanities. Thus, students themselves choose the type of secondary school. In 1963, the curricula of the secondary schools in the Netherlands were revised in such a way as to give students a greater opportunity to choose and move from one type of school to another type of school. In 1994 ok. 700 thousand students were enrolled in secondary education programs and about the same number - in vocational training. Dutch schools provide good training in foreign languages. Higher education can be obtained at a college (hogescholen), university or the Open University (evening or distance learning). There are 13 universities in the country (the oldest university in the Netherlands is Leiden, founded in 1575) and the Open University for adults. Higher education is usually designed for a six-year course of study, and the study of subjects in the chosen specialty begins with the first year. Until the mid-1990s, the state provided students with financial support for 6 years, but then, despite the protests of students, it began to reduce this period. It is difficult to make changes to the programs of study and specialization, often for this it is required to first pass the corresponding secondary education course. Since the 1960s, the specialized and elitist nature of the country's higher education system has been heavily criticized. It was noted that this system is outdated, not up to date and limits the opportunities for higher education for girls and boys from the lower social strata. Public universities are located in Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Limburg and Twente. Three private universities are affiliated with the church: the Catholic universities in Nijmegen and Tilburg and the Protestant Free University in Amsterdam. Other institutions of higher education include three technical universities, the Open University, the Agricultural University, the School of Business and the Institute for Social Research. The universities of Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam have excellent libraries with collections of rare manuscripts. The Royal Library in The Hague is famous for its collection of classical literature. Trade unions became important in the early 20th century, but the spread of the trade union movement was held back by separate Catholic and Protestant associations controlled by conservative political leaders of religious communities. After the Second World War, the trade unions managed to overcome confessional differences in many ways. The 45-member Socio-Economic Council now represents all employees. All major interest groups are represented on this council, and its proposals often have a decisive effect on government policy. Wages, prices and rents are regulated by the government, but labor relations are established through trade union negotiations with management. In 1993, there were 1.8 million trade union members in the country, which accounted for only 25% of all wage earners. The Federation of Dutch Trade Unions has just over 1 million members. It has 19 branches, including several Catholic unions. The Netherlands National Association of Christian Trade Unions includes 17 Protestant associations (about 300,000 members). The Dutch Federation of Managerial Employees is an association of middle managers and brings together approx. 30 thousand members. In 1985, the 38-hour work week was legalized. The law guarantees at least 15 days of paid leave, and the national average is 23 days of leave per year. Since 1992, workers over the age of 23 have been given a full salary of at least 2,000 guilders (approx. US$1,140) per month. In 1991, the state labor exchange was transferred to the control of councils from representatives of trade unions, employees and local administration.
Social politics. After the end of World War II, the Netherlands developed an effective social safety net. It is based on two principles: equivalence and solidarity. The principle of equivalence ensures that the benefits received correspond to the amount of income lost due to dismissal from work or incapacity for work. The principle of solidarity, reflected in the law on state benefits, guarantees that all people in a similar social or economic situation receive benefits of the same size. The main social security laws include the Job Guarantee Act, the Sickness Benefit Act, and various special laws such as the Widows and Orphans Act. In the 1990s, increased life expectancy, higher health care costs, and a reduction in the number of employees greatly increased the burden on social funds; 14% of the working-age population received benefits. Therefore, successive governments sought to cut social programs. Despite protests from trade unions, the measures taken by the government contributed to the growth of budget revenues and the reduction of the budget deficit.
Drug policy. A flexible drug policy, very different from that of neighboring countries, allows for the free purchase and use of various "soft" drugs, such as marijuana and hashish, within the country. The free sale of "hard" drugs such as heroin or cocaine is prohibited. Their storage and distribution is severely punished. In 1996, the number of users of "hard" drugs was 1.6 per 1,000 inhabitants of the Netherlands (in the UK and France - 2.6). The drug policy pursued by the Netherlands has been criticized by the governments of neighboring powers.
CULTURE
From the history of culture. The Dutch culture is distinguished by two features: realistic roots and eclecticism along with exposure to foreign influences. The first reflects the social structure of Dutch society; and the second - the small size of the country and its unique position at the crossroads of trade routes. The realistic orientation of Dutch culture was reflected in art and literature as early as the 15th century. and to an even greater extent in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the influence of the king and the church weakened. Dutch painting reflected the scenes of everyday life and resorted to a skillful interpretation of light and color. In poetry and dramaturgy of the 16th-17th centuries. edifying motives intensified. At the same time, the Baroque style was characterized by allegorism and a desire for sublimity. Tolerance and humanism, manifested in the work of Erasmus of Rotterdam, were in complete harmony with the moral principles of that time. Universities, for all their detachment from everyday life, had to pay attention to the practical study of international and commercial law, as well as linguistics. The high level of education in the Netherlands was crowned by the spread of almost complete literacy. Thanks to the invention of the microscope, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek and Jan Swammerdam gained fundamentally new knowledge. Literature and art of the 18th-19th centuries characterized by the borrowing of foreign patterns, mainly French. Dutch theoretical philosophy of the 19th century. mainly developed under the strong influence of German philosophy. At the end of the 19th century significant progress has been made in the arts and sciences of the Netherlands. Important discoveries were made in physics (Nobel Prizes were awarded to Johannes van der Wals, Hendrik Lorentz, Heike Kamerling-Onnes, Peter Zeeman), biology (the mutation theory of Hugo de Vries) and medicine (vitamin research by Christian Eijkman). Impressionism in art led to the formation of a special Netherlandish style in the works of painters of the Hague and Amsterdam schools (Joseph Israels, Wilhelm Maris, Georges Breitner), who influenced the early paintings of Vincent van Gogh. The manner of a realistic description of family life, traditional for Dutch literature, is enriched under the influence of French naturalism. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. the work of the founder of the modern Dutch short story, Louis Kuperus (1863-1923), unfolded. Netherlandish poetry strictly follows the principles of symbolism, while maintaining shades of intimacy. Contemporary Dutch art is moving away from realistic traditions. In this respect, the strict geometric art of the artists (Piet Mondrian) and architects (Jacob Oud) belonging to the "Style" group is typical. After World War II, manifestations of expressionism, Dadaism and surrealism intensified in Dutch literature and art.
Modern Art. Dutch art of the 20th century acquired a more experimental character, while at the same time not completely abandoning traditional realism. In the 1950s, interest in poetry revived. In the works of such writers as V.F. Hermans, G.van "t Reive, Harry Mülish, the description of the disharmonious aspects of life is intertwined with realistic traditions. All modern trends are represented in painting and sculpture, among which in the 1950s the most prominent group "Cobra" led by such a master as Karel Appel. In music, the composer Willem Peiper has gained international recognition. In all major cities there are wonderful symphony orchestras, the most famous of which are the Amsterdam and The Hague Royal Orchestras. The Netherlands Ballet is one of the best in Europe. There are many excellent museums in the Netherlands, outstanding paintings by Dutch artists are displayed in the Rijksmuseum and the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, the Boijmans-van Beuningen Museum in Rotterdam and the Mauritshuis Museum in The Hague, as well as in some major provincial museums, such as the Frans Hals Museum in Haarlem and Utrecht Central Museum Amsterdam City Museum has a large collection of art art of the 19th-20th centuries The Vincent van Gogh State Museum in Amsterdam houses more than 700 paintings and sketches by the master. The Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo also has a large collection of Van Gogh works, in addition, there is a collection of modern art.
Mass media. Television and radio play an important role in popular culture. Broadcast time on three television and five radio channels is distributed among two Protestant, Catholic, Socialist, Liberal and three neutral organizations. All of them are united in the Netherlands Corporation of Television and Radio Broadcasting, which coordinates the programs and monitors the direction of the broadcast materials. Cable television is widespread. There are many newspapers and magazines published in the Netherlands. The largest daily newspapers are Telegraph (743,000 copies), Algemein Dahblad (413,000), Volkskrant (354,000), and Binnehof (195,000).
Sport. In the Netherlands people love sports, especially football. Over 20% of the country's adult population are members of sports clubs. During the broadcasts of national football matches on television, the streets of cities are empty and life stops.
Holidays. Christian holidays (Christmas, Easter, etc.) are widely celebrated in the Netherlands. National holidays: Queen's Day (April 30), which marks the accession to the throne of Queen Beatrix, and is also the birthday of her mother Queen Juliana; and the Anniversary of Liberation from German Occupation on 5 May, when church services are held throughout the country in memory of the victims of the war.
STORY
At the end of the Middle Ages, the area located in the lower reaches of the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt, along the coast of the North Sea, began to be called "low seaside lands". Over time, this descriptive geographic term has evolved into the name of the country of the Netherlands (in translation - "low lands"). In the 19th century the name began to be attributed only to the northern part of the region - the current Kingdom of the Netherlands, which is often also called Holland, according to the two provinces that make up its historical core.
Antique period. On the territory of the Netherlands, traces of the presence of primitive man dating back to the time of the last Pleistocene glaciation have been preserved. In the post-glacial period, the inhabitants of the northern and western regions of the country suffered from frequent floods, and the first permanent settlements of pastoralists arose on the terp hills, which ensured the safety of people and animals. In the more southerly regions, where there was no threat of flooding, agriculture was the main occupation. Written information about the territory of the Netherlands first appears in historical documents of the Roman time, when the troops led by Julius Caesar, having conquered Gaul, invaded the territory of modern Germany and Great Britain. Since the route from Germany to Britain lay through the Rhine Delta, this area acquired great strategic importance for the Romans. It was then that the construction of earthen dams began to protect against floods. The Romans laid a great road that followed from the coast of France through the southern Netherlands to Colonia (modern Cologne). Many of the tribes that inhabited the Rhine Delta and its southern border were subjugated, and those who survived became allies of the Romans. From one of these tribes, the Belgians, came the name of the Roman province of Belgica (the prototype of modern Belgium). The Batavians lived on the islands of the Rhine and Meuse deltas, so the name Batavia stuck to this territory. In 69-70 AD under the leadership of Julius Civilis, an uprising of the Batavi against the Romans rose, which was brutally suppressed. Then peace reigned in the area for several centuries. Meanwhile, the power of the Roman Empire was weakening. In the second half of the 3rd c. AD Germanic tribes began to move west to the Netherlands, pushing the Romans out of the area north of the Rhine Delta. From the middle of the 4th c. the interior of the Netherlands was filled with Franks and Saxons, many of them settled on the conquered lands and took up agriculture. The Germanic language was perceived as a common language between winners and vanquished. The detachments of the Frankish conquerors moved further south, occupied Roman Gaul and called it the land of the Franks (France), changing their language to the Latin common in those places. The linguistic border ran roughly along the Boulogne-Cologne road, Germanic languages ​​were spoken to the north of it, and Latin (later French) was spoken to the south.
Middle Ages. Linguistic differences played no particular political role during the reign of the Frankish kings of the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties. The Netherlands took advantage of the political and economic reforms of Charlemagne (768-814) and were converted to Christianity by Frankish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries. As a frontier territory, the Netherlands changed hands during the constant redistribution of land by the Frankish kings (as an example, we note the division of the empire of Charlemagne between his three grandsons under the Verdun Treaty of 843). As a result of the repeated divisions that followed and the successive annexation of these lands to either the eastern or the western part of the Frankish state, approximately ca. 1000 The Netherlands formally became part of the Holy Roman Empire and remained so until 1648. Most of the Flemings (who lived north of the linguistic border and spoke the Flemish dialect) fell under the rule of the French kings, while the French-speaking regions of Hainaut and Namur became part of the Holy Roman Empire.
At the beginning of the 11th c. An end was put to the raids of the Scandinavian Vikings on the coastal regions of Europe, including the Netherlands. The northern coastal regions, especially Holland and Zeeland, and to a lesser extent Friesland, began to send fishing and merchant ships to the North Sea, competing with the wealthy cities that were part of the Hanseatic League. In the provinces of Flanders and Brabant located south of the Rhine Delta, manufacturing began to develop. There, in the cities, fine cloths and clothes were made from wool, which was imported from England and Spain. The Flanders port of Bruges became an important center of foreign trade. In the Netherlands, many rich and influential cities arose (Ypres, Ghent, Bruges, Liege), which were able to achieve privileges and self-government. In these cities, the largest system of guild organization of crafts and merchant guilds was developed in these cities: there were guilds of merchants who traded with other countries, and associations (shops) of artisans of various professions, especially those that made clothes and cloth. The gradual transfer of control into the hands of the townspeople was accompanied, however, as in the city-states of northern Italy, by violent conflicts, especially between the burghers and the artisans who worked for them. There have been several uprisings. The largest of them are the uprisings of the cloth makers, which were led in 1338-1345 by Jacob van Artevelde, and in 1382 by his son Philip. There was also fierce competition between the cities themselves, local wars were often fought, and rival family dynasties fought for power in the provinces. In the 14th century Dutch territories have become relatively independent areas. This happened at a time when the brother of the French king, the Duke of Burgundy Philip the Bold in 1384 became the ruler of Flanders and Artois, and his successors annexed Holland, Zeeland, Hainaut, Namur, Limburg and Luxembourg. The Burgundian dukes became one of the most powerful rulers in Europe, rivaling the kings in terms of the size of the army and the magnificence of the court. However, the military power and luxury of the court were paid for by taxes from the cities, which increasingly expressed dissatisfaction with extortion and violation of their privileges. Charles the Bold sought to create an independent kingdom located between France and Germany. However, only after his troops suffered a final defeat, and he himself died in 1477, did the Netherlands regain independence under his heiress, Duchess Mary of Burgundy. After the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482, the husband of the deceased, Maximilian of Austria from the Habsburg dynasty, ruled the country as regent for their minor son Philip. Not all regions agreed with this position, uprisings broke out in protest, but in 10 years Maximilian managed to cope with the opposition. In 1493 he succeeded his father on the throne of the emperor. So the Netherlands fell under the rule of the Habsburgs.
The rule of the Habsburgs and the revolution in the Netherlands. In 1496, the son of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Habsburg, Philip the Handsome married Juana, Princess of Castile and Aragon. Their eldest son Karl, born in Ghent in 1500, inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany and the Netherlands. And after the death of Philip the Handsome in 1506, his son became not only the ruler of the Netherlands, but also the king of Spain, Carlos I. In 1519, resorting to bribery, he became Emperor Charles V. When Charles was still a minor, and later during his departures to fulfill his duties King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, the Netherlands was ruled by his relatives, and then the country had to almost entirely take over the financing of the Habsburg wars against France. However, Charles V annexed several more provinces of the Netherlands to his lands through peaceful agreements and seizures: Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overijssel in 1528, Groningen and Drenthe in 1536, Gelderland in 1543. He took measures to centralize the country by establishing a Privy Council, which had large administrative and financial powers, as well as management and finance councils for the provincial states and formally united the 17 Dutch provinces and the Duchy of Burgundy in the so-called. "Ring of Burgundy" within the Holy Roman Empire. As in Germany, he tried to stop the spread of the ideas of the Reformation in the Netherlands, and more successfully, since here among the adherents of the new faith there were no princes who would defend it from the emperor. Charles V forcefully suppressed the uprising of the revolutionary Anabaptists in Ghent in 1539-1540, and the cities of the Netherlands were deprived of their historical privileges and self-government. Nevertheless, during his reign the country prospered, and Antwerp became the most important center of European trade. Protected waters, such as the Zuider Zee and the arms of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt, attracted fishermen who built small coastal towns. To protect against floods in cities, the construction of durable dams was undertaken. The lands reclaimed from the sea were set aside for arable land. When Charles V abdicated in 1555, he gave 17 Dutch provinces, as well as Spain with its colonies, to his eldest son Philip, and the Holy Roman Empire went to his youngest son Ferdinand. Philip II took an even more intransigent stance against Dutch separatism. His harsh measures to eradicate heresy increased sympathy for his victims even on the part of Catholics, many of whom, like Erasmus of Rotterdam, were supporters of religious tolerance. The Dutch nobility, both large and small, as well as the cities, were indignant at Philip II's use of the country's financial reserves for Spain's military operations against France. The king's attempts to remove them from participation in the reign caused indignation, as well as the fact that he listened to the advice of Cardinal Granvella, and not the more sensible viceroy, half-sister of Philip II, Margaret of Parma. The most powerful of the nobles, holders of the Order of the Golden Fleece and members of the Council of State, in 1562 demanded the resignation of Cardinal Granvella. For the first time, the system of government of Philip II, which was based not on the nobility, but on the Spanish army stationed in the Netherlands, was questioned. The speech of the nobles in the Council of State in 1566 was followed by a protest of the petty nobility against the policy of Philip II. 300 representatives of the lower nobility submitted a petition to the viceroy, in which they demanded the restoration of the "liberties" of the country and the softening of the "posters" against heretics. Not having sufficient forces to suppress such massive opposition, the king dismissed Granvella. However, his determination to subjugate the Netherlands did not weaken, especially after the crowds of Calvinists began to smash the Catholic churches. In 1567, Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to the Netherlands, who replaced Margaret of Parma as governor. The Duke of Alba was given the task of cracking down on the rebels and eradicating dissent. Alba arrested and executed the counts of Egmont and Horn, who led the noble opposition in the Council of State. The most prominent representative of the opposition, Prince William of Orange, later named William the Silent, fled to Germany, where he led the resistance and organized military campaigns against Alba. All of them were unsuccessful, but Prince Wilhelm did not stop the fight. His attempts to resist Alba seemed hopeless, until in 1572 a detachment of "sea geese" captured the port of Bril (modern Brielle). Soon, all of Zeeland and Holland, except for Amsterdam, were at the mercy of the "sea gezes" and their accomplices - the "forest gezes", mostly militant Calvinists. Representatives of the wealthy segments of the population of these provinces met in Dordrecht in 1572 and recognized William of Orange as their ruler - the stadtholder. Shortly thereafter, he returned to the country and led the fight against Philip II. The coastal regions, protected from the penetration of Spanish troops by the branches of the deltas of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt, turned into a stronghold of the rebels. In 1574, the inhabitants of Leiden managed to win a brilliant victory over the Spaniards, who were besieging the city. William of Orange became the recognized leader of the resistance to foreign domination. He relied on the support of the Calvinists, although he advocated religious reconciliation and religious tolerance, and also defended the traditional privileges of the provinces. His goal was to expel the Spaniards and unite the 17 provinces of the Netherlands into a single free state. Attempts by William of Orange to reconcile various segments of the population culminated in the convening of the States General in Ghent in 1576, where all 17 provinces adopted the text of the so-called. "Ghent appeasement". According to this document, the provinces were united under the leadership of William of Orange, although the supreme authority of King Philip II was recognized. The States General voted for the withdrawal of foreign troops, the introduction of a more liberal form of government, and the abolition of "placards" against heretics. However, the new viceroy Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, sent by Philip II to the Netherlands in 1578, prevented the implementation of the political course of William of Orange, declaring the prince outlaw. First, Farnese retook the French-speaking provinces of Artois and Gennegau in the extreme south, which joined the Union of Arras concluded by the breakaway southern provinces on January 6, 1579, which recognized the king and the dominant role of the Catholic religion in exchange for granting political rights to the citizens of these provinces. After that, Farnese conducted a series of brilliant military operations and captured most of the land south of the Rhine up to Antwerp, which surrendered after a long siege in 1585. Farnese pursued a softer policy towards Protestants than Philip II, but was unable to suppress resistance. Several provinces located north of the Rhine united with the cities of Flanders and Brabant and signed the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579, declaring their intention to fight to the end for political independence and freedom of religion. In 1580, Philip II declared William of Orange his enemy. In response, the Estates General of the seven northern provinces declared that they would no longer recognize Philip II as sovereign. The deposition of Philip II was signed on July 26, 1581.

United provinces. Several decades passed before the independence of the northern provinces was recognized even by their allies, England and France. Since William of Orange felt it necessary to enlist the patronage of the Great Powers to defend the country from the Spaniards, the States General appointed the Duke of Anjou as the new sovereign of the Netherlands. The search for foreign patrons continued even after the return of the Duke of Anjou to France and the treacherous assassination of William of Orange in 1584. The proposal to become sovereign of the Netherlands was conveyed to the English Queen Elizabeth, but she rejected it, sending her close Count of Leicester to the United Provinces in 1585, who was proclaimed viceroy in 1586. As a stranger, the Earl of Leicester played a double game. To the surprise and annoyance of the queen, having become vicegerent of the United Provinces, the Earl of Leicester could not earn the trust of the provincial states and understand the important role of the province of Holland and its merchants in the formation of the new state. All Lester's attempts to take a key position in the government of the United Provinces led to the fact that now the influence of the Council of State (in which two Englishmen sat) has decreased, and the role of the States General, represented by delegates from the provinces of the states, has increased. After the return of the Earl of Leicester to England in 1587, the States General ceased the search for a new sovereign, took over the administration of the country, in fact laying the foundation for the Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The decentralization of power and the strengthening of the provinces continued under John van Oldenbarnvelt, the great pensioner of the province of Holland, and Moritz of Nassau, the son of William the Silent, who became the stathouder (stathouder - first a provincial official, governor of the sovereign in the province) of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, as well as the commander-in-chief of the army in 1585. The stadtholders performed the functions of commander-in-chief of the army and navy during the war years. The defeat of the Spanish Invincible Armada in 1588 by the joint efforts of the British and the Dutch, and the brilliant military operations of Maurice of Nassau on land paved the way for the offensive of the army of the Republic in 1595, which occupied several important cities. By the end of the 16th century the independence of the United Provinces was strengthened and was recognized by the allies.

In 1609, a truce was signed for 12 years, and the Republic was actually granted independence. Over the next decade, there was a sharp struggle between the great pensioner of Holland, Oldenbarnwelt, and Moritz of Nassau. The first was a supporter of religious tolerance, the traditional autonomy of the provinces, the right of the merchant oligarchy to retain power in their hands. Moritz of Nassau sought to expand his personal power, relying on the nobility and Calvinist consistories. Thus, the stathouder's unitarism faced the unwillingness of the provinces to cede some of their power to him. But the faction of the merchant oligarchy was defeated. In 1619 Oldenbarnvelt was arrested, charged with high treason and executed. The war with Spain resumed in 1621. But its character changed, now it was about consolidating and expanding the successes of the Republic. During the reign of Moritz's half-brother and successor Prince Frederick Heinrich of Nassau (1625-1647), the territories of Flanders and Brabant south of the Rhine came under the control of the Estates General, and the important fortress of Maastricht on the Meuse was captured. The Republic did not take part in the struggle between Protestants and Catholics in Germany (during the so-called Thirty Years' War), but focused on defending its eastern borders. In 1635 France entered the war on the side of the United Provinces. The Dutch won several important naval battles with Spain, who were eventually defeated. Under the peace treaty signed at Münster in 1648, Spain fully recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This treaty, which formed part of the Treaty of Westphalia, ended what the Dutch call the Eighty Years' War. It began with an uprising in 1568 against Philip II, turned into a war for the independence of the seven northern provinces, and ultimately coincided with the end of the all-European conflict - the Thirty Years' War. The conclusion of peace with Spain, however, did not give the Republic the long-awaited peace. It even seemed that the country might again be involved in a war with Spain, when the stadtholder William II of Orange, son of Frederick Henry, tried to carry out an armed coup in 1650 to remove the supporters of the Republican Party of the Dutch merchant oligarchy, who had traditionally opposed military conflicts. After his death in 1650, when the republican opponents of the Orange dynasty again came to power, they abolished the position of stathouder, which had become hereditary since 1634. In the second half of the 17th century. The Republic was involved in wars with England (1652-1654, 1665-1667, 1672-1674) and France (1672-1678, 1688-1697, 1701-1713), which were rivals of the United Provinces in politics and trade. During the first of these wars, the British, driven by revolutionary fervor and possessing a powerful navy, inflicted a crushing defeat on the poorly prepared Dutch army and navy. The restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 instead of peace led to an even greater intensification of the rivalry between England and the Republic and another war. However, this time the United Provinces won a number of victories over the English fleet. Charles II was persuaded to form an alliance with them and Sweden in 1668 to prevent France from conquering the southern (Spanish) Netherlands in the War of Devolution (1667-1668), but the king was obsessed with revenge. In 1670 he entered into a secret alliance with King Louis XIV of France and in 1672 unleashed a new war against the United Provinces. During the period of the so-called. the first stateless government, Jan de Witt, a protege of the Dutch merchant oligarchy, entered the political arena, since 1652 he was the great pensioner (premier) of the Republic. De Witt secured the removal from power of Prince William of Orange, the son of stathouder William II, who was born a week after his father's death, and ensured the suppression of repeated Orange rebellions, including those provoked by British agents after the second Anglo-Dutch war. His highest achievement was the victory over England in this war (1666), won at sea by a well-equipped Dutch fleet. During a powerful popular uprising in 1672, which broke out after the French attack on the Republic, Jan de Witt was removed from power (later he was torn to pieces by a mob instigated by the Orangists), and Wilhelm III was elected admiral, commander in chief and stathouder. Wilhelm III continued the war with France despite strong opposition in Holland and especially in Amsterdam. In 1674 the Dutch were victorious at sea, emerging victorious from the second Anglo-Dutch war, but they had difficulty holding back the French penetration into the inner provinces of the Republic. Only the skillful foreign policy of William III and his marriage in 1677 to the daughter of the English king James II allowed the Republic to create a new alliance against France and get out of this war without loss in 1678. Having ascended the English throne in 1689, stadtholder William III managed to further rally the forces of both countries against Louis XIV. Naturally, in the wars of the League of Augsburg and in the War of the Spanish Succession, the United Provinces united with England against France. However, the victory over France, which was crowned with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, cost the Republic dearly, which, as in 1648, again found itself burdened with huge debts. Moreover, when France became the enemy instead of England, the Dutch had to fight mainly on land, losing the advantage to the British at sea.
Golden age. Despite the constant wars, the 17th century. was the heyday of the Dutch economy. Dutch merchants dominated the internal European markets, the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas, Germany and Great Britain. Having displaced Antwerp, Amsterdam became the center of European trade. Dutch fishing boats dominated the North Sea. The republic extended its influence to distant overseas territories and, thanks to the unusually enterprising East and West India companies, seized colonies in Southeast Asia (beginning with the seizure of the Portuguese possessions) and in America. The Netherlands East India Company (OIC), founded in 1602, enjoyed a monopoly of trade in the basins of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The OIC withstood competition from the British and sent large shipments of spices and other exotic goods to Europe. On behalf of the States General, the OIC had the right to declare war and conclude peace, could build cities and fortresses in the colonies, mint coins, conclude agreements with the native authorities, and appoint officials. Its colossal profits were of great importance for the accelerated economic recovery of the country. The achievements of the Dutch West India Company were more modest. Initially, she was engaged in the slave trade and privateering, i.e. capture of Spanish and Portuguese ships. The strongholds of the company's activities were in the settlements on the Caribbean Sea and in the colony of New Holland (in the place of the modern states of New York and New Jersey), which in the 1660s the United Provinces ceded to the British.

The activities of most of the Dutch were largely related to overseas trade. Building ships with mechanical saws powered by windmills, sugar production, clothing, banking, wholesale and retail trade contributed to the prosperity of cities. In the countryside, where rich dairy farms had long sprung up, cheese and butter were produced for sale to the cities and for export. Most of the grain, which remained the main food, had to be imported from the Baltic countries. Wealth allowed the United Provinces to create an unusual state structure. Political power was vested in the States General and the Council of State. With one vote in the States General and a veto, each province remained almost completely independent in its internal affairs. The provincial states, which the States General relied upon in their decisions, were in their turn dependent on the decisions of the city magistrates. Members of the magistrates were not elected, but appointed to vacant positions for life by other members. It was an openly oligarchic system. Members of the magistrates were selected mainly from wealthy families, and the appointment of the right people to profitable positions became the main source of income for members of the magistrates. Nevertheless, as organs of republican government, the magistrates were protected from the princes of Orange, who, as stathouders (representatives of the central government in the provinces) and commanders-in-chief of the army, personified monarchical power. The confrontation between the unitary monarchical force in the person of the stadtholders and the republican system, which was represented by the pensioner of Holland, existed throughout the 17th-18th centuries. Yet the princes of the House of Orange-Nassau strove to create a monarchy that would preserve both the traditional constitution and the privileges inherent in the provinces. Government policy was aimed at developing trade and navigation, as well as ensuring the security of the country. In the Netherlands, trading interests and basic philosophical principles were harmoniously combined, which favored the acquisition of personal freedom by the Dutch and was unprecedented in Europe at that time. The Dutch Reformed Church received state recognition and was not taxed. Almost all Protestant sects, including Lutherans and Anabaptists, as well as Jews, were allowed to preach, although adherents of these denominations were not usually appointed to public office. Although the activities of the Catholic Church were not officially approved, semi-closed services were allowed under the tacit patronage of the authorities. Freedom of the press and freedom of expression were not absolute, but censorship was less severe than elsewhere in Europe. In the 17th century in addition to the Dutch themselves, emigrants, such as the Huguenots, found refuge in the country, who contributed to the development of Dutch culture. At this time, such talented writers as Jost van den Vondel, Konstantin Huygens, Peter Cornelis Hooft, Jacob Kats and Gerbrand Bredero worked. In addition to the great Rembrandt, such painters as Jan Vermeer, Jacob van Ruysdael, Jan Steen and Frans Hals worked in Holland. Baruch Spinoza and Hugo Grotius became famous in philosophy. Prominent architects were Jacob van Kampen and Hendrik de Keyser. Among the prominent figures of science, we note the biologists Jan Swammerdam and Anthony Leeuwenhoek, the mathematician Simon Stevin and the physicist Christian Huygens.
Decline in 1700-1795. After the death of William III in 1702, the Netherlands entered a second period of stateless rule (1702-1747). The War of the Spanish Succession had a severe impact on the country's economy. Although the Republic was still able to maintain the economy at the level reached in the 17th century, France and especially England were already emerging in the first roles in Europe. In international relations, the Netherlands adhered to neutrality, which contributed to the stabilization of the domestic political situation in the country and gave advantages in conducting trade with the warring states. In 1723, the heir to the Orange dynasty, later known as William IV, was recognized as a stadtholder of only three provinces and the region of Drenthe. The remaining four provinces decided to adhere to the existing form of government - the power of the merchant oligarchy and regents. English diplomacy and England's desire to increase the power of the stadtholder were not popular with the Dutch regents. Pro-French sentiments were strong. In 1741 the Republic was involved in the War of the Austrian Succession (1741-1748). The deterioration of the situation in the country and the invasion of the French army into the territory of the Netherlands contributed to the rise of Orangist sentiments in the Republic, and in 1747 Prince Wilhelm was proclaimed stadtholder of the United Provinces, captain general and admiral of all the armed forces of the Republic. In 1748, stathoudership began to be inherited. The restoration of the power of Orange fell on the time of the spread of the philosophy of the Enlightenment in Europe, in which the very idea of ​​inheriting privileges was criticized. The ideology of the Enlightenment was adopted by the Netherlands in the second half of the 18th century. party of patriots. The "Patriots" were in favor of carrying out democratic reforms in the country and overthrowing the power of the statholder. In 1785, they managed to take power into their own hands, and the stadtholder, removed from business, left The Hague. Thanks to English support and assistance from Prussia, in the autumn of 1787 the stadtholder was restored to his rights. "Patriots", hoping for help from France and did not receive it, were forced to retreat.
The era of Napoleon. After the return of William V in 1787, persecution of "patriots" began in the United Provinces, and many of them fled, mainly to France. The leaders of the Dutch patriots (Dandels, Van Hoff) played an important role in the pre-revolutionary agitation there, and a few years later, together with the French revolutionary army, they returned to the Netherlands to continue the work begun in the 1780s. After the French revolutionary troops invaded the Republic in 1795, William V fled to England. In January 1795, the government formed by the "patriots" proclaimed the Batavian Republic. Instead of the Union of Utrecht, a new constitution was introduced that guaranteed more centralized government, although with some concessions to the historical provinces. The main achievement of the "patriots" party was the modernization of the country's political and social system. As a result of wars on the side of France against England, the Batavian Republic lost a significant part of its colonies. The Batavian Republic lasted until 1806, when the French emperor Napoleon turned it into the Kingdom of Holland, placing his brother Louis Bonaparte on the throne. However, the new king took into account the interests of his subjects to a much greater extent than the interests of his own brother, especially during the continental blockade, and eventually in 1810 Napoleon removed him from power. The Netherlands was annexed to the French Empire and ceased to exist as an independent state. After the defeat of Napoleon in the battle of Leipzig in 1813, the French were expelled, and in December of the same year, by the provisional government headed by Karel van Hoogendorp, the son of the last stadtholder William V, Prince William of Orange, was proclaimed sovereign sovereign of the Netherlands under the name of William I.
Kingdom of the Netherlands: 1815-1914. After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the statesmen of the European powers gathered for a congress in Vienna and, in order to create an effective defense against France, decided to unite the Netherlands with the Southern Netherlands into a single Kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of King William I (see also BELGIUM). 15 years after the Battle of Waterloo became a period of progress and prosperity for the country. Most of the colonies were returned, and industry developed rapidly. Wilhelm I played an important role in the transformation of the Netherlands into a modern state. However, the new constitution practically did not limit his power. The bicameral parliament (States General) did not actually manage the country's finances, the colonies and their administration. Wilhelm I was given the right to appoint members of the Upper House and form the government. The system of independent provinces was abolished, all power belonged to the center. At the same time, economic liberalism was combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism, which accelerated the adaptation of the Netherlands to the conditions of the 19th century. The country prospered until the crisis in relations with the southern provinces. In the southern provinces, the policy of William I met with resistance. The Walloons resisted attempts to recognize Dutch as the official language, and although some Flemings agreed with the preservation of their language in literature and popular culture, others preferred to speak French. Catholics, equal in rights with Protestants, were dissatisfied with their secondary role in the government, which was almost entirely Protestant both in composition and in spirit. Southerners expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of representation in the legislature. The opposition forces united, and under the influence of the July Revolution of 1830 in France, a revolution began in the Southern Netherlands, which demanded autonomy for Belgium (as the southern provinces were now called), and then its complete independence. Wilhelm I's attempts to re-subjugate Belgium were hampered both by the resistance of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers. Under the London Agreement of 1839, William I formally recognized the independence of Belgium. After that, 11 northern provinces remained in the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
(see also BELGIUM). In 1840 the king abdicated. His son Wilhelm II tried to continue his father's policy, but faced a powerful liberal movement. In 1848, when revolutions were raging in Europe, Wilhelm II was forced to revise the constitution. The draft of the new constitution was prepared by the liberal historian and statesman Johan Rudolf Trbeke. The new constitution limited the power of the king, the government became responsible to the States General, whose powers were expanded. Wilhelm III, who became king in 1849, appointed Thorbeke head of the government, which passed several liberal laws, including the expansion of suffrage. History of the Netherlands until the last third of the 19th century. characterized by the continuation of the struggle between the two main parties - liberals and conservatives. The most heated debate flared up when it came to the colonies. The colonies of the Netherlands in Southeast Asia (Indonesia), returned by England after the Congress of Vienna, significantly replenished the state treasury. However, under the influence of criticism of the exploitative methods of the Dutch colonial administration, there was a transition from forced payment in kind (the so-called "system of cultures") to traditional taxation. It took the Netherlands 35 years to suppress the uprising of the local population in Sumatra. At the end of the 19th century in the Netherlands, bitter disputes between church and state over education did not stop. On this basis, a new political union arose. Catholics, who had worked closely with the Liberals in previous decades, opposed them on public funding, which the Liberals insisted should only be given to schools that did not provide religious education, and joined Protestant political parties in demanding equal public aid as denominational and secular elementary schools. In the same period, especially in the 1880-1890s, the rise of national culture was noted. Great advances were made in painting, literature, music, architecture and science.
World War I and interwar period. During the First World War, the Netherlands maintained a policy of neutrality. The country's livelihood largely depended on foreign trade, but because of the naval blockade, the economy had to be restructured in such a way as to produce most of the necessary products on its territory. To prevent starvation, the government was forced to introduce a strict distribution system. Nevertheless, important political reforms were introduced during this period. Regardless of the level of well-being, all citizens of the country were guaranteed social security, and all adult men (1917) and women (1919) were granted the right to vote. The discussion about school education culminated in the adoption of the "conciliatory" law of 1917, which provided equal state subsidies for both confessional and secular elementary schools, which removed this issue from the agenda. Nevertheless, Dutch society was increasingly organized on the basis of religious and ideological foundations. Not only schools, but also trade unions, employers' unions, newspapers, sports clubs and almost all other voluntary organizations gradually divided into three "parties" - Catholic, Protestant and general, which included liberals, conservatives and atheist socialists. After the war, social and political reforms continued. However, during the economic depression that began in 1929, cutbacks in production, rising prices, and unemployment increased political tensions. The Nazi Party emerged and gained support in the circles of the bankrupt petty bourgeoisie and villagers, as well as conservatives. Ultimately, the Social Democrats united with religious parties and liberals and in 1939 created a coalition government.
The Second World War. Despite the Dutch declaration of neutrality, German troops invaded the country on May 10, 1940. Queen Wilhelmina and the government emigrated to London. At first, the Dutch resisted the Germans, but the forces were too unequal, and on May 15, the regime of occupation authorities was established in the country, headed by Reichskommissar A. Seyss-Inquart. The Netherlands were liberated on May 5, 1945. During the Second World War, about 240,000 Dutch people died in the Netherlands, Indonesia and other places as a result of hostilities or occupational measures.
post-war period. After the end of the war, the government took up the restoration of the economy, the revival of the country and the strengthening of economic ties with the countries of Western Europe. The development of heavy industry continued. The Netherlands, always famous for its cities, has now turned out to be one of the most important centers of urbanization in Europe; the whole territory from Dordrecht and Rotterdam, through Delft, The Hague, Leiden and Haarlem, to Amsterdam formed a huge conurbation called the Randstad. For the post-war Netherlands, the question of the fate of the colonies was very relevant. After the independence of the Republic of Indonesia (1945), relations between the two countries remained tense, as Indonesia insisted on the transfer of the Netherlands New Guinea (West Irian), which remained under Dutch control. Relations became even more aggravated when, in 1957, the Indonesian government began to nationalize Dutch property. This took a heavy toll on the Dutch economy, as Dutch investment in Indonesia exceeded $1 billion. In 1962, relations with Indonesia were severed, and Dutch troops were sent there. The tension was relieved only after an agreement was reached on the transfer of West Irian to Indonesia. In 1975, independence was granted to Suriname, which had been under the rule of the Netherlands since 1667. After the Second World War, the Netherlands became an active participant in the movement for the integration of Europe. In 1948, the Benelux customs union was created, which included Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. In 1960, the Benelux economic union began to operate, aimed at the complete economic integration of the three countries. The Netherlands also joined the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 and the EEC (now the EU) in 1958. In 1949 the Netherlands became a member of NATO, abandoning its traditional policy of neutrality. Political leadership in the country after the war passed to the Catholic People's Party. The Catholics entered into a coalition with the Labor Party established in 1946 and formed a government that lasted until 1958. They united with other religious parties and liberals from 1958 to 1973, when a center-left coalition led by the Labor Party came to power. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, small political parties emerged to challenge the traditional "denominational" parties. The Catholic People's Party was able to maintain electoral parity with the Labor Party by allying with two major Protestant parties. This alliance was called the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA). After the 1977 elections, the CDA became the head of the center-right coalition (which included liberals). The program of this political coalition emphasized the need to limit government spending and increase the competitiveness of Dutch goods on the world market. The CDA began to lose its influence in the 1990s, and in 1994, for the first time since 1917, Catholics did not enter the government. In 1976, the very existence of the monarchy in the Netherlands was called into question. Queen Juliana's husband, Prince Bernhard, was involved in a scandal over payments of large sums to an American aviation company for military supplies, but contrary to the wishes of some representatives of the opposition, loyalty to the queen still prevailed, and the succession of the monarchy was confirmed. In 1980, Queen Juliana abdicated at the age of 71 in favor of her eldest daughter, Princess Beatrix.
End of the 20th century. In the 1980s and 1990s, an approximate balance of four political parties was maintained. From 1977 to 1994, the CDA and the Labor Party (PT) alternately dominated the country's political scene. In 1998, the PT overtook the CDA in terms of numbers, pushing it to second place. In the period from 1977 to 1998, the CDA was represented in the government for 17 years, the PT - 14, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (PSD) - 13, "Democrats-66" - 12. Prime ministers from the CDA ruled the country for 13 years, and from the PT, 8. However, in the elections in the 1990s, the CDA lost almost half of the votes cast for the PNSD. Although the center party, Democrats 66, has always been the smallest of the four leading parties, its role has proved important because of the roughly even balance of power among its larger rivals. At the very end of the 20th century. Labor Party leader Wim Kok led a "purple coalition" of the PT, PPSD and Democrats 66. Political debate during this period took place mainly on the issues of reducing the budget deficit, social security and the environment. Discussions in the early 1980s over NATO's decision to deploy nuclear missile launchers in Europe ended when the US and the USSR agreed to eliminate intermediate-range missile launchers in Europe.

(carried out using a presentation)

Theme "The Dutch Revolution and the Birth of the Free Republic of Holland"

Lesson form: combined lesson.
Methods of teacher activity: reasoning (about the causes of the contradictions between the Netherlands and Spain), plot narrative story (about the struggle of the inhabitants of the Netherlands with Spain), personification (V. Orange, Philip II, Alba), heuristic conversation (about the results of the revolution and its significance), organizing the work of students with a document, training in solving problem-cognitive tasks. The lesson uses intra-course connections (§ 11-14) and inter-course connections with the history of the Fatherland (Peter's era).

Development of student skills: They learn to highlight the main thing, apply previously acquired knowledge to study new material, work with documents and the text of the textbook, solve problems, participate in discussions, draw up a description of a historical figure, use the knowledge gained as a result of reading fiction.

Basic concepts and terms: Stadtholder, gozes, iconoclasts, terror, union, revolution.

Sources of information: school and extracurricular: Textbook, § 15. Map "Netherlands Revolution in the 16th century." In the contour map, mark the Netherlands and Holland.

During the classes

Checking the D.Z. on the slide.

Setting goals and objectives(on slide)

Map work

The territory of what modern states was occupied by the Netherlands?

(Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, part of France)

What lands were part of the Habsburg Empire, besides the Netherlands?

(Spain, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Duchy of Milan, Silesia, American colonies)

Which of the representatives of the Habsburg dynasty do you know?

(Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, King Philip II of Spain.)

Given the geographical location, what were the main occupations of the inhabitants of the Netherlands?

(engaged in maritime trade, fishing)

The Netherlands was a densely populated region. In a relatively small area there were more than 300 cities and 6,500 villages. This region gave the Habsburgs several times more funds than all their overseas possessions. Therefore, he was in a special position. Each province of the Netherlands had its own states. The Estates General met to solve problems affecting all the provinces of the Netherlands. At the head of the administration was a stadtholder appointed by the king.

Notebook entry: Stadtholder - (viceroy) - an official who exercised state power and administration in any territory.

The contradictions are escalating.

The contradictions between the Netherlands and Charles V arose because of religious motives. Many people in the Netherlands adopted Calvinism. Charles V, perceiving himself as the main defender of the Catholic faith, established in 1525 an inquisitional court in the provinces, which sentenced many Protestants to death.

The son of Charles V, Philip II, with even greater zeal, began to strengthen the foundations of the Catholic faith in the Netherlands. It was under Philip II that the work of the inquisitorial courts intensified, the Jesuits were allowed to start their activities in this region. The Spanish government banned trade with its closest neighbor, Protestant England, and at the same time raised the price of its own wool, the most important raw material for Dutch entrepreneurs. In addition, taxes were raised sharply. As a result, dissatisfaction with the policies of Philip II grew steadily.

How do you think Philip II decided to pacify the Netherlands?

(He brought troops into the territory of the Netherlands)

The dissatisfied were led by the nobles: Prince of Orange, Count Egmont and Admiral Horn. They asked the king to withdraw the troops, abolish the court of inquisition and convene the Estates General.

The oppositionists themselves called themselves "guezes", that is, beggars, thereby emphasizing the abyss separating them from the Spanish giants. However, Philip II was not going to make concessions. As a result, in the Netherlands broke out in 1566. popular uprising that adopted the iconoclastic movement. In a matter of months, more than 5 thousand churches were destroyed, archives were destroyed, and imprisoned Calvinists were released from prisons.

Philip II went to extremes. The harsh and merciless Duke of Alba was sent to suppress the uprising. In 1567 he occupied Brussels. Spanish garrisons were sent to all cities. A "Council for Revolts" was established. Over the years of its activity, the Council issued more than 8 thousand death sentences. Among those executed were Count Egmont and Admiral Horn. Alba encouraged denunciation in every possible way, since the informer received part of the property of the executed. The reign was accompanied by a total robbery of the provinces. Alba decided to introduce the Spanish taxation system in the Netherlands, which involved a sharp increase in sales taxes.

Why did this system of taxation lead to such unfortunate consequences for the Netherlands? (The Netherlands was a region of extremely developed trade, resale was common, so imposing such a tax threatened to raise prices many times over.)

The policy of the Duke of Alba led to general indignation of the population and the actual beginning of a guerrilla war. On land, forest gyozes acted, and on the sea - sea ones. Both those and others inflicted damage on the Spanish troops.

In 1572 the war had already taken an open form.

The leader of the rebels was Prince William of Orange. A landmark event was the capture in 1572 of the port of Bril by sea geese. This was the signal for an uprising in all of the Netherlands. In the summer of 1572, William of Orange was proclaimed ruler of Holland and Zeeland by the States General. However, this did not mean the victory of the rebels. The Duke of Alba, with all his energy, began to suppress the rebellion. He managed to inflict several defeats on William of Orange.

Working with a document

Read the text of the historical source and answer what caused the inhumanly cruel attitude of the Spaniards towards the inhabitants of the country during the Spanish-Dutch War.

Letter from the Duke of Alba to Philip II.

In the middle of 1573, after a long siege by the Spanish troops, the city of Harlem was taken, after which it was given to the soldiers for plunder. The Spaniards massacred 2,300 inhabitants of the city. The Duke of Alba, however, considered that he had acted too generously with Harlem, since those citizens whose lives he spared did not express their gratitude to him. In this regard, Alba decided to take revenge on the "ungrateful" Netherlands after the capture of the next city - Alkmaar.

Your majesty, you can be sure that not a single person in the world wants to follow the path of mercy more than I do, despite my own hatred of heretics and traitors.

But if I take Alkmaar, I am determined not to leave a single creature alive. A knife will be thrust into each throat. Since the example of Harlem proved useless, perhaps the example of cruelty will make other cities come to their senses.

However, in 1573 Alba was recalled: Philip II was dissatisfied that there was no final victory and there never was. The Spanish soldiers, without receiving a salary for a long time, began to rob the local population. So. Antwerp was mercilessly robbed. The number of victims among the population reached 7 thousand people. Violence by the Spaniards gave rise to retaliatory violence.

One of the heroic episodes is the defense of the city of Leiden (at home on your own)

How could Philip II solve the problem of relations with the Dutch provinces, in addition to violence? (One way or another, he could win over the aristocracy of the Netherlands to his side.)

In part, Philip II did just that - he managed to attract the Catholic nobility with pensions and positions. In 1579, he managed to achieve recognition of his power from the southern provinces of the Netherlands.

dutch republic

In 1579, the Seven northern provinces, where the majority of Protestants, signed a union in Utrecht - an agreement on the creation of a single state - the beginning of the history of modern Holland

In 1581 the States General announced the deposition of Philip II. William of Orange became the head (stadtholder) of the new state formation. And in 1588, the emergence of the Republic of the United Provinces was announced, which was also called Holland.

1588 - the formation of Holland.

In 1609, Spain was forced to sign a truce with Holland. Spain recognized its independence, and also agreed to close Antwerp to maritime trade.

Why do you think? (Antwerp was Amsterdam's main competitor)

Calvinism became the state religion of Holland, the form of government was republican. Holland developed extremely rapidly in the 17th century. She had a huge fleet, numerous colonies. Amsterdam was the financial and commercial center of all of Europe.

In the last part of the lesson, the results of the national liberation struggle of the inhabitants of the Netherlands against Spain are summed up. Speaking about how the revolution contributed to the transformation of Holland into the most economically developed country in Europe, the teacher says:

“After the destruction of Antwerp by the Spaniards, its importance passed to Amsterdam, the main city of Holland. At the same time, the Dutch continued to trade with Spain. Even during the war, they openly or under false names delivered sails for ships to Spain, sold grain to the countries of Southern Europe, exporting it from the Baltic countries. More and more developed Dutch fishing, especially catching herring, which were sold to the Nordic countries. Meat and butter were exported from Holland. Taking advantage of their position between the northern and southern seas, the Dutch became intermediaries in European trade, "sea carriers". In the province of Holland alone, the merchant fleet numbered 10,000 ships with 250,000 people employed on them.

Dutch merchants joined in the struggle for colonies. At the beginning of the XVII century. they entered Africa and engaged in the slave trade (black slaves were brought to America).

At the beginning of the XVII century. Holland, along with England, became the leading country in the field of production and trade. Manufactories grew one after another, and Dutch cloth and Dutch linen were considered the best in Europe, they were also bought in Russia.

Freedom of religion was established in the republic. Although Protestantism became the state religion, Catholics were not oppressed. Jews also enjoyed freedom of religion. In the 17th century Holland has become a haven for European emigrants forced to flee their countries for displaying free-thinking.

Books were printed in Holland expressing a variety of points of view, but it is especially important to note that newspapers began to be published in the country - a new means of communication between people at that time. Pamphlets were also printed, touching on acute issues of European politics, which caused protests from the governments of neighboring states.

Consolidation.

The performance of the cognitive task is checked

Highlight the reasons for the liberation struggle of the Netherlands against Spain.

(High taxes to the Spanish treasury hindered the development of capitalism and trade.

Brutal suppression of the Protestant movement.

Liquidation of self-government and transfer of power to Spanish royal officials.)

Students note that the national liberation struggle in the Netherlands is a revolution, since the movement was not only for the reformation of the church, but had as its goal the destruction of national oppression and all obstacles that prevented the development of a free spiritual and economic life. People who were engaged in capitalist entrepreneurship came to power, this destroyed the old traditional relations.

Homework

Textbook, paragraph 15, notes in a notebook, assignments in a contour map.

Holland or the Netherlands? Many people will be puzzled by this question. Next, we will try to deal with this issue, as well as learn more about this country and its inhabitants.

Holland: country overview

What do you know about this state? Holland is a country of tulips and beautiful European architecture. This is the birthplace of Van Gogh and Rembrandt. Here they invented the famous and the main symbols of the country are clay pipes and wooden shoes.

After gaining independence in 1648 and becoming the Republic of the United Provinces, the state is experiencing a "Golden Age" in its development. The main role in the economic recovery was played by two provinces of the republic - South and North Holland. Outside the state, they were better known, so for many Europeans the terms Holland and the Netherlands meant the same thing, although this is not true.

In 1814, the state was renamed the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Belgium and Luxembourg left the union in the 19th century. And the name of the Netherlands was fixed for the remaining lands.

Population of Holland

In 2016, approximately 17 million people lived in the country. Recently, the population of Holland has been growing rapidly. Apart from the dwarf states, the Netherlands is the most populous European power. In the world, according to this indicator, it ranks fifteenth. per square kilometer is 405 people.

It is about 10%. The main part of the inhabitants lives in the polycentric urban agglomeration - Randstad. It includes the city of Utrecht, which is the largest railway junction in the state. It also includes the largest Dutch Eindhoven - a center of high technology, The Hague, Amsterdam and Leiden - a city of universities.

Outside the country, the Dutch mostly live in Belgium (6-7 million). About five million settled in the United States, more than two million are residents of South Africa. The rest settled in Canada, Australia, Germany, New Zealand, South America and the UK.

Ethnicity and religion

The composition of the population of Holland is characterized by homogeneity. Approximately 84% of the inhabitants are ethnic Dutch and Flemish. The composition of Holland, more precisely, among its citizens, also includes the Frisians. Among the minorities in the country, the smallest Germans are about 2%.

In recent years, the population of Holland has replenished with migrants from Africa and Asia. Residents of non-European countries now account for approximately 9%. Among them are Turks, Indonesians, Indians, Moroccans, Surinamese, people from Aruba, Antilles and others.

Protestantism and Catholicism are the main religious beliefs in the Netherlands. They are professed by more than 60% of people. Muslims make up about 7%. The rest of the population adheres to Hinduism, Buddhism and other beliefs.

Who are the Dutch really?

There are many stereotypes about the inhabitants of the Netherlands. The most persistent of them tells about the use of drugs by citizens. But, despite the fact that marijuana is legal in the country, the Dutch use it much less than many other Europeans.

In some ways, the inhabitants of the kingdom sometimes resemble the Germans. They love accuracy and punctuality, even planning a meeting with close relatives and friends in the diary. The Dutch are famous for their restraint and will never interfere in other people's affairs. At the same time, they are very honest and straightforward. If you need to evaluate something, then they will not dissemble, they will give everything as it is.

Most of the country's residents go in for sports all year round and take care of their health. The favorite transport of every Dutchman is a bicycle. True, they also love to eat delicious food. The traditional dish is herring with onions, as well as french fries with mayonnaise.

Conclusion

The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a small Western European country with a very complicated history. Probably the first to settle in its open spaces, this affected the character and lifestyle of the Dutch. Most of the population prefers to live within their own country, leaving only for countries with more favorable weather. The Dutch make up more than 80% of all inhabitants, thereby preserving their culture and language.

In the first half of the 16th century, Protestant teachings began to spread in the Netherlands, which had been part of the Holy Roman Empire since 1512, and since 1549 a hereditary possession of the House of Habsburg. This circumstance, as well as the socio-economic policy of Spain, led to the emergence of an anti-Spanish movement in the country, in response to which Spain sent troops to the Netherlands. A guerrilla war began in the country. In 1579, the country split into southern provinces loyal to the Spanish king and rebellious northern provinces, which soon declared themselves an independent republic. Until 1648, the Republic of the United Provinces, while remaining de jure Spanish territories, was de facto independent. The fighting between Holland and the Spanish-controlled southern provinces continued (with a break of 12 years from 1609 to 1621) until the signing of the Treaty of Munster between Spain and the Netherlands in 1648. This treaty was part of the European Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. The Dutch Republic was recognized as an independent state and retained control over the territories conquered in the later stages of the war.

Dutch Revolution and the formation of the Republic of the United Provinces

The Dutch revolution is called the liberation war of the Netherlands against the rule of Spain in the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. (1566-1609).

As a result of this war, the Netherlands was divided into the independent Republic of the United Provinces (Holland) and the Spanish Southern Netherlands (modern Belgium).

background

In the first half of the XVI century. The Netherlands was the richest part of the empire of Charles V (see). It has spread widely in the country. Charles of Habsburg and his son Philip II fought stubbornly against Protestantism. An important role was also played by the tax oppression and trade bans of the Habsburgs in relation to the Netherlands.

The war of liberation was at the same time a struggle for the reform of the church and against the Spanish crown.

Developments

1525- Charles V creates in the Netherlands the court of the Inquisition, which executed many thousands of people.

Philip II, who became king in 1559, increases taxes in the Netherlands and also forbids buying English wool, which is necessary for the production of cloth.

1566- A delegation of Dutch nobles demanded that Margaret of Parma close the inquisitorial courts and convene the Estates General.

1566- Iconoclastic uprising (in the southern provinces). The uprising of the townspeople, peasants and nobles. The rebellious Calvinists destroy icons and statues of saints.

1567- The army of the Duke of Alba entered the Netherlands. Alba establishes a Council for Revolts, thousands become victims of Catholic terror. An insurrectionary movement of gueuzes is unfolding in the country, receiving the support of English and German Protestants.

1572- sea goses captured the city of Brielle. The beginning of the uprising in the northern provinces.

Members

In the first half of the XVI century. Protestant creeds began to penetrate the country. Charles V issued special laws against the supporters of the Reformation and established a tribunal of the Inquisition. Dissatisfaction with taxes and religious persecution intensified, but under Charles V it did not develop into open disobedience: as part of the empire, the Netherlands had ample opportunities for trade in all parts of the world. The policy of Philip II in the Netherlands was determined solely by the interests of Spain. The Netherlands lost trade privileges in the colonies of Spain, and the Anglo-Spanish conflict paralyzed the development of trade between the Netherlands and England. Under Philip II, the positions of the Catholic Church and the Inquisition strengthened. Among the dissatisfied were many nobles, including the aristocrats Prince William of Orange, the counts of Egmont and Horn.

Rice. 2. William of Orange ()

The delegation of nobles handed over their appeal to the viceroy of the king, Margherita of Parma. Their modest dress gave occasion to one of the nobles to call them contemptuously gozami, that is, beggars. Soon she began to call all the patriots and opponents of the Spanish regime. The liberation movement began in the summer of 1566 with a mass uprising of iconoclasts. By the spring of 1567, the uprising was crushed. To pacify the rebellious Netherlands, a punitive army led by the Duke of Alba was hastily sent. The Spaniards captured all the most important cities and began to massacre the rebels. The first to lay down their heads on the chopping block were the aristocrats - Counts Egmont and Horn. This was followed by the execution of ordinary participants in the uprising. A special council in the case of insurrections, nicknamed the "bloody council", condemned 8,000 people to death. The Inquisition hunted down the Calvinists and incited them to inform on them, promising the property of the condemned as a reward to the informers. The Duke of Alba demanded huge taxes from the Netherlands. Alba's cruelty, however, convinced many that it was useless to hope for the mercy of the Spaniards, and therefore it was necessary to continue the fight against them. Terror did not bring the Netherlands to its knees. A guerrilla war began in the country. Peasants and artisans went to the forests, where detachments of "forest gozes" were formed. Fishermen, sailors, merchants and shipowners became "sea geese". They attacked Spanish ships and coastal fortresses, and then took refuge in the ports of Protestant England, who tacitly supported them.

Rice. 3. The capture of Brill by "sea geezes" ()

The oppositional nobility and cities were headed by Prince William of Orange, a cautious politician who received the nickname Silent. At first, the Silent One did not approve of the actions of the partisans, hoping to succeed with the help of the German Landsknechts and English Protestant volunteers. However, most of his enterprises were unsuccessful, while the gueuzes inflicted sensitive blows on the Spaniards. Therefore, William of Orange was forced to make an alliance with the Gozes and plan joint actions with them.

All the northern provinces revolted, cities one by one expelled the Spanish garrisons. Having freed themselves from foreign masters, the richest provinces - Holland and Zeeland - called on William of Orange and proclaimed him their ruler - the stadtholder. The Spaniards, who managed to keep the Southern Netherlands under their rule, attacked the rebellious North with all their might, but the local population was determined not to return under the Spanish yoke. When towns and villages could not withstand the siege, the Dutch opened the floodgates and flooded their lands so that they would not fall to the Spaniards.

In 1579, the Northern Netherlands, as well as the central provinces - Flanders and Brabant - signed an alliance agreement in the city of Utrecht - a union that consolidated the common goal - a war with Spain until full independence was achieved. In 1581 they declared Philip II deposed. But among the townspeople there were also many indecisive or in favor of peace with the enemy, for example, the merchants who traded with Spain, and the cloth workers who supplied their products there. The local nobility, alarmed by the scale of the guerrilla war, was also ready to recognize the authority of Philip II in exchange for some liberties and permission to profess the Calvinist faith. Such sentiments caused discord in the camp of the rebels, which ultimately led to the fall of the main city of this region - Antwerp - and to the defeat of the liberation movement in the central provinces.

The northern provinces acted more decisively, determined to achieve independence. This was explained by the fact that their trade interests were not limited to Spain, but were focused on England, Northern Germany, and Scandinavia.

Despite the fact that the liberation movement in the Netherlands was headed by representatives of the bourgeoisie, big merchants and entrepreneurs, for many years they were looking for a monarch among the princes of the blood in all neighboring powers. The throne was offered to the English Queen Elizabeth I, the French Prince of Anjou. These negotiations were led by William of Orange, who intended to remain only the viceroy of the future king. But Elizabeth I rejected the offer, the Prince of Anjou died, and in 1584 the Silent One fell at the hands of a hired killer sent by the Jesuits. Only after it became clear that there were no new claimants to the throne, the United Provinces declared themselves a republic. Spain did not recognize the independence of the new state, but in fact was forced to come to terms with it. The Catholic power did not have the same power to subjugate its former subjects again.

The liberation from Spanish rule caused a rapid economic growth of the United Provinces and, chief among them, Holland. At the beginning of the XVII century. along with England, she became a leader among European countries in the field of production and trade. Thanks to their high quality, Dutch cloths were popular throughout Europe, from Russia to Italy. One after another, manufactories grew here, new shipyards, banks, and insurance companies opened. The merchant fleet of the United Provinces consisted of 4.5 thousand ships and was the largest in Europe. The Dutch port of Amsterdam became the largest center of international trade and banking, while the volume of trade operations of Seville, Lisbon and Antwerp, controlled by the Spaniards, was declining.

The Dutch quickly made up for lost time during the Age of Discovery. They joined the struggle for colonies and the division of spheres of influence in the world. At the beginning of the XVII century. Dutch merchants penetrated into Africa and launched a widespread trade in slaves with America. Competing with the British, they founded the East India Company for trade with India, the Spice Islands, China, which brought great profits. In 1642-1644. Dutchman Abel Janson Tasman was the first European to explore the coast of Australia, New Zealand, as well as many islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, one of which was named Tasmania in his honor.

Rice. 4. Colonial possessions of Spain ()

Bibliography

1. Bulychev K. Secrets of the New Age. - M., 2005

2. Vedyushkin V. A., Burin S. N. General History. History of the New Age. 7th grade. - M., 2010

3. Koenigsberger G. Europe of the Early Modern Age. 1500-1789 - M., 2006

4. Solovyov S. Course of New History. - M., 2003

3. History of Ukraine and world history ()

Homework

1. Why did the Netherlands rebel against Spanish rule?

2. What segments of the population of the Netherlands participated in the fight against Spain?

3. What are the reasons for the rapid development of Holland?

- an ancient and beautiful country, 40% of which, reclaimed from the North Sea, are below its level. Hence the name of the country - the Netherlands (Lowlands). This is the uniqueness of the situation, there is simply no other country like it. I invite you to visit this extraordinary country.

Thousands of kilometers of dams protect these lands from the water element. In coastal areas, large areas are occupied " polders"- artificially reclaimed plots of land, crossed by many dams, rivers and canals. The landscape of the Netherlands is decorated with windmills, the so-called windmills. They were not built to grind flour. These are pumping mills. They pump out water when the sea comes to land.

The brave inhabitants of this country constantly protect their lands from the attacks of the sea. The royal motto, written on the coat of arms of the state, is "Je maintiendrai" ("I will stand").

The Netherlands is often called Holland. For many Russians, these words are synonyms. Holland is actually two of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands. Two provinces - North and South Holland, but what provinces! The two most developed provinces and the most famous outside of the Netherlands. All major cities - Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague are located on their territory. All the rest of the Netherlands in terms of its economic, social and tourism potential is not worth even half of Holland. Therefore, in many languages, the whole country was often called Holland.

So what is this amazing country - the Netherlands, often called Holland?

Official name - Kingdom of the Netherlands. This is a state in the north-west of Europe with an area of ​​​​42 thousand square meters. km. with a population of over 16.5 million people.

In the north and west it is washed by the North Sea. In the south it borders with Belgium, in the east with Germany. In addition to the Western European part, the kingdom includes 6 more territories in the Caribbean: Aruba, Curacao and Sint Maarten have the status of a self-governing state entity, and Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba- a special community. Relations between members of the kingdom governs Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands c, adopted in 1954.

The coat of arms of the kingdom is a blue shield topped with a golden crown, which is supported from the sides by two heraldic lions. On the shield is a rearing crowned lion with a sword in its paw; below the shield is the royal motto: Je maintiendrai ("I will stand").

The national flag is tricolor (red, white, blue horizontally). The anthem is "Wilhelmus" ("The Song of Wilhelm").

According to the constitution, the official capital of the state is Amsterdam. However, the parliament, the government, the residence of the queen, most of the embassies of foreign countries, as well as 150 international organizations are located in The Hague, which is the actual capital of the state.

The official language is Dutch (Dutch), the second official language is Frisian. The Dutch language is close to German, although its pronunciation is quite noticeably different from it. There are many borrowings from French in his vocabulary. But if you do not know Dutch, it is still better to speak English. Almost everyone here knows him. French and German are also in use.

State structure

The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. The ruling dynasty is Orange-Nassau, an ancient surname with roots in the Duchy of Burgundy. King Willem-Alexander is officially the head of state. However, his power is significantly limited. The Netherlands was one of the first countries in Europe to make the transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. A significant part of the royal rights transferred to the government and parliament - States General. The States General consists of two chambers: in the first, 75 deputies elected for 4 years by the provincial states, in the second, which has the main power, 150 deputies, elected by direct vote. The functions of the first chamber are reduced to the ratification of bills already developed and adopted by the second chamber.

The monarch of the Netherlands also has a lot of responsibilities. Among the many functions of the King as head of state is the annual Speech from the Throne, which he delivers at the beginning of the parliamentary year on Princes' Day, which falls on the third Tuesday in September. The Speech from the Throne sets out the government's plans for the coming year.

The monarch also plays an important role in the formation of the government, and in the appointment of royal commissioners in the provinces. New Ministers are appointed by Royal Decree and sworn in by the King. Otherwise, the monarch almost does not interfere in political life, limiting himself to official ceremonies.

In the history of the Netherlands since 1890, only women have been on the throne. It is not uncommon for a monarch, upon reaching old age, to abdicate in favor of an heir. So quite recently, in 2013, Queen Beatrix, who has been on the throne since 1980, abdicated in favor of her son Willem-Alexander.

According to the constitution, the Dutch can participate in elections from the age of 18, and be elected to parliament from the age of 21.

The largest revision of the constitution took place in 1983. Since that time, the inhabitants of the country have been guaranteed not only political, but also social rights: a ban on the death penalty, the right to a living wage, protection from discrimination (based on religion, race, gender, political beliefs and other reasons). The government is now obligated to protect the environment, as well as to protect the population from unemployment.

Administrative division

The total territory of the Netherlands is divided into 12 provinces

The last twelfth province of Flevoland was created on the drained territories in 1986. The provinces are in turn divided into urban and rural communities. Three special communities in the Caribbean are part of the Netherlands: Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius.

At the head of the provinces are Provincial States is a self-government body elected for four years. The provincial states are headed by a royal commissioner.

The communities are led by the Council, which is elected by the residents for four years. The executive body of the Council is the collegium of the burgomaster and municipal councillors. At the head of the board is the burgomaster, appointed by the king. Members of the First House of the States General are also elected from the provinces.

Country Features

The Netherlands is the most populous country in Europe (excluding a few dwarf countries)

The lifestyle of the Dutch is characterized by a high tolerance for unusual behavior, which is often condemned even in neighboring European countries. On April 1, 2001, the Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage. Even earlier, in 2000, prostitution was completely legalized. In 2002, euthanasia was legalized, but requires strict medical supervision. Abortions are possible in the first 24 weeks of pregnancy. The sale and consumption of marijuana and hashish in specially designated places is not prosecuted here, while hard drugs (opium, cocaine, crack) and chemicals are prohibited, as in all countries.

The Dutch are very reserved and tolerant of other people's opinions, their politeness is proverbial. Local residents, entering the premises, always greet everyone present, and this applies not only to business offices, but also to public places, railway compartments and shops. It is not customary to dance in restaurants; there are many discos and dance halls for this. At festivities, official receptions and parties, a plentiful table with drinks and snacks is not accepted. One of the traditions here is considered to be payment in the restaurant by each of those sitting at the same table, even if they are friends, only their share in the general feast.

Bicycles are loved in the Netherlands. Perhaps this is the only country in Europe where there are all conditions for cycling. There are special bike paths next to the pedestrian paths. In the mornings, crazy cyclists rush along these bike paths. They in no way confirm the widespread opinion about the degree, slowness and poise of the Dutch.

They say about a bicycle here: “round legs”. Everyone rides bicycles in this country: a priest, a boy, and old men with old women on the trunks of motor scooters, and a Dutch woman with a baby in a wicker basket, and peasants with a load in the trunk. In many places, next to the parking lots for cars, there are special parking lots for bicycles. Blue shields with a white image of a bicycle are hung everywhere. This means: bicycles are allowed. And at night the bikes are right on the streets.

A special place in the Netherlands is given to tulips. Plantations of bulbous flowers stretch along the entire Dutch coast. Almost half of the entire flowering surface is occupied by tulips. In April and May, the entire area is covered with a multi-colored carpet covering an area of ​​more than 17,500 hectares. In total, about 7.5 billion flower bulbs are grown in the country.

The Netherlands is the world's largest cheese exporter and is primarily famous for its Edam and Gouda cheeses.

The country is famous for its artists. Hieronymus Bosch created his works in the 16th century. Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Stein lived here in the 17th century… Later, in the 19th and 20th centuries, Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondrian lived here.

The philosophers Spinoza and Erasmus of Rotterdam lived in the Netherlands, and in this country all the main works of Descartes were completed.

Netherlands photo

The Netherlands is especially beautiful in spring.

Netherlands spring photo