The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (private) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.

The grammatical category combines grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of the case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings of nominative, genitive, etc. cases; the grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.

Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a number of words or syntactic constructions and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.

In a word, grammatical meanings are an obligatory addition to lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:

a) lexical meaning is inherent in a particular word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.

b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, features, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) the relation of the content of the utterance to reality (mood, tense, face); 3) the attitude of the speaker to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categorical / presumptiveness).

c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with an empty lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives at the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. In this case, the word girl does not mean age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.

The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is a stream - a river - a lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.s.); neuter gender of animate nouns - Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, heap ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).

The grammatical form is the external (formal) side of the linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. The grammatical form is a representative of the grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the form of the genitive case, a verb in the form of the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.

Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways - synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method, there are different means of expressing grammatical meanings.

Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (s.p.) - mothers (s.p.); run (infinitive) - ran (past tense); did (non-sov. view) - did (sov. view).

2. Stress - hands (ip, pl.) - hands (r.p., singular).

3. Alternation at the root (internal flexion): collect (non-common view) - collect (owl view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.

4. Reduplication - doubling the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical means (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic means). In Malay, orang ‘person’ is oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication - Tagalsk. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.

5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another stem: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form of ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation at the root - τρέφ / τροφ.

Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: to teach - I will read (bud. time); fast (positive degree) - faster (comparative degree) - fastest (superlative degree).

2. A means of syntactic links - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns, as a rule, belong to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: malicious tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).

3. Functional words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (s.p.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - drive onto the highway ( v.p.) - turn around on the highway (p.p.); learned (indicative mood) - would have known (subjunctive mood).

4. Word order - grammatical meanings are determined by the position of the word in the sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second as its passive role (object): ) - The mouse sees the horse (mouse - ip, subject horse - ch, addition).

5. Intonation - the expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓Money went to the phone: 1) with a logical stress on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase "Money spent on buying a phone"; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase "You need to put money on the phone."

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What is grammar?

2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?

3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?

4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?

More on the topic § 2. Grammatical category. grammatical meaning. Grammar form.:

1. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GK), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).

The words act as the building blocks of language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be linked into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.

The section of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.

Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.

Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its change.

Syntax- a section of grammar that studies word combinations and sentences.

In this way, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of the word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.

Grammar, on the other hand, studies the word from the point of view of generalizing its features and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house and smoke, table and chair, then for grammar, all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same forms of cases and numbers, have the same grammatical meanings.

Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.

For example, words smoke and house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it; smoke- aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.

Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.

Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical tool. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.

Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.

Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).

Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meanings in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): was reading- the verb is in the past tense.

When the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with an official): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.

Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values ​​are combined into a system of number values. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.

Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.

The paradigm is:

universal– all forms (full);

incomplete- there are no forms;

private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.

Lexical and grammatical meanings are in interaction: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in both its grammatical meaning and form. For example, the adjective voiced in the phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: voiced, louder, most voiced). It's the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.

And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, the verb run away in the meaning of "move quickly" is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite some time until he collapsed completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning - the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.

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Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word

MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR

Subject of morphology

Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of which is the grammatical meaning and the forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are a phrase and a sentence, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e., individual forms of a particular word (table, table, table etc.).

Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.

Morphology also includes the doctrine of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.

Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules for their inflection.

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of the word with the reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), which is necessary mainly to link this word with other words in the text.

The lexical meaning of a word is concrete and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, the words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.

An indicator of lexical meaning in a word is the basis of the word, and for grammatical meaning - special indicators: ending (window- about, handsome- th, rast- ut), formative suffix, prefix (the game- l, bel- her, With-do), stress (neg e zat- cut a t), phoneme alternation (sl ag at- sl oh it), official word (will play, about coat) and etc.

Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I read- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective form, indicative mood, present tense, etc.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and particular. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - for a noun, an attribute of an object - for an adjective, action as a process - for a verb, etc.). Private grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, time, etc.).

The general grammatical meaning of a word is made up of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of particular grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case. In other words, if a word has meanings of gender, number, and case independent of the words combined with it, then it has the meaning of objectivity and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.

The carrier of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of both one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (the noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

The word is one of the basic units of grammar. The word combines its sound matter and its meanings - lexical and grammatical.

Grammatical meaning -a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, which finds its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, tense of the verb, etc.

The grammatical meaning is opposed to the lexical meaning, which is devoid of a regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.

Criteria for distinguishing between lexical and grammatical meanings:

2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), while GL is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, noun singulars.

3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GP changes in different forms of the word.

4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.

A characteristic feature of grammatical meaning is also recognized standard, regularity of the way of expression. In most cases, the meanings traditionally referred to as grammatical are indeed directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.

Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).

Grammar category– a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.

The concept of grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a number of forms).

a) inflectional - appear in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, case and number of Russian nouns, gender and number of French adjectives, mood and tense of the verb);

b) classification categories are inherent in the given word in all its forms and refer it to the class of similar words.

The members of the classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of the gender of nouns in Russian 'stol' is masculine, 'desk' is feminine, 'window' is middle. genus.

33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.

I. Synthetics

1. Affixation consists in using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books-y; read-l-and; mäktäp-lär. Affixes are auxiliary morphemes.

2. Supletivism. Suppletivism is understood as the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), man - people (GZ pl.), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.

Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. LZ they have one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.

3. Reduplication(repetition) consists in the complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang-' human' , orange-orange -'people' .

4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. sound changes. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘to collect – to collect’; ‘sing-sang’.

II. Analytical tools -

GCs get their expression outside the main word, often in other words.

1. Service words can use for express.GZ: I will read (bud. time), I would read (conventional inclination).

We went to a cafe (V.p.). - We went from a cafe (R.p.).

2. Word order.The house (I.p.) covered the forest (V.p.). - The forest (I.p.) blocked the house (V.p.).

It is especially important, for example, for isolating languages.

The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmented, i.e. can be superimposed on a segment chain.

3. Emphasis: hands (I. and V. p. pl.) - hands (R. p. singular).

4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?

So, in the adjectives of the Russian language, we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter. This gives us reason to assert that the grammatical category of gender is characteristic of the adjectives of the Russian language.

The grammatical meaning (content plan) and the formal indicator of this meaning (expression plan) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. grammeme– component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.

A gramme can have multiple meanings.

The gramme of the plural of nouns in Russian has the following meanings: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sands'.

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes, and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account

the following criteria:

The presence / absence of the corresponding grammatical category;

The number of grammes of the grammatical category;

Ways of expressing the grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;

The digits of words with which this grammatical category is associated

34. Methods of linguistics

General scientific methods.

Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help to reveal the hidden specificity of the object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.

Method- the way and way of knowing the object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.

In linguistics, there are:

common methods- generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, language research methods associated with a certain linguistic theory and methodology,

private- separate techniques, methods, operations - technical means of studying a certain aspect of the language.

Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.

General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.

Observation carried out in natural conditions on the basis of sensory perception of the objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena, its results may be random and not reliable enough.

Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object under study.

Induction and deduction are intellectual methods of cognition. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of the experiment are systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.

Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its constituent parts or the separation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for the knowledge of the general through the individual. Synthesis- a mental or experimental connection of the constituent parts of an object and its properties and the study of it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected, mutually conditioned.

Private methods of linguistics.

Comparative historical method- the scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;

The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that make it possible to prove the relationship of certain languages ​​and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders are F.Bopp, J.Grimm, R.Rask, A.Kh.Vostokov.

Descriptive Method- a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of a language at a given stage of its development; it is a method of synchronous analysis.

comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two compared languages ​​and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.

In modern linguistics, considerable attention is paid to the study of linguistic phenomena. statistical methods of mathematics.

The most important and basic for grammar is the concept of grammatical meaning (in other words, grammes).

grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and having its own regular and standard expression in the language. It can be said in another way - this is a formally expressed value.

In morphology, this is the meaning of objectivity, indicativeness, procedurality, indicativeness, etc. (that is, general categorical meanings inherent in certain parts of speech), as well as more specific meanings of words and word forms, such as, for example, the meanings of tense, person, number, gender, case, etc.

In syntax, this is the meaning of predicativity, subject, object, qualifier, adverbial, semantics of theme-rhematic relations in a simple sentence and relations between predicative units in a complex sentence.

Unlike lexical meaning, grammatical meaning is characterized by the following features:

1) the highest degree of abstraction. For word grammar house, city, closet- just items the words at home, city, closet, seventh, reading, his- are united by the same meaning of R.p., which is not related to the lexical meaning of these words. If the lexical meaning is individual for each word, then the GZ is common for entire groups and classes of words.

2) The CG is not necessarily correlated with an extralinguistic referent. Many GCs are only of a linguistic nature. For example, nouns lake, body of water have different generic meanings, although they are similar in lexical terms. The optional connection of the GP with the extralinguistic referent is evidenced by the fact that the GP of words that have the same referents do not always correspond in different languages. For example: Ukrainian - dah ( chol.r.) - Russian. roof(female); Ukrainian - language(zh.r.) - Russian. - language(m.r.), etc.; The same situation can be described in different ways: student reading a book(GZ activity) – The book is read by the student(GZ of passivity).

3) GC is characterized by the regularity of its expression. Each CG has a limited set of ways to express it. For example, the meaning of the perfect form of a single action is expressed by the suffix - -well- (knock, shout), the value of D.p. nouns are expressed with the ending -y (table), -e(spring), -and (rye), i.e. different morphemes. In contrast to the lexical meaning, which is relatively free, i.e. it can be chosen by the speaker at his discretion, the grammatical meaning is not chosen, it is given by the grammatical system if any word is chosen (for example, snowstorm from a synonymous series), then it should be framed as a masculine noun. with the help of appropriate endings, i.e. his GP of the kind must be objectified in a certain way. GCs are given by the language system.

4) PPs are characterized by binding. This feature is related to the previous one, i.e. with regularity.

GZ are those without which it is impossible to use a certain class of words. For example, a noun cannot be used without the GZ of gender, number, case. The obligatory nature of the PG expression is a universal, language-independent criterion for determining grammatical phenomena.

In the GP system, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified - through a system of concepts: for example, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly revealed in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more particular categorical meanings inherent in the verb (time, type, pledge, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the GZ of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); various relations of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the PG system, expressed by case forms and prepositions.

There are referential (non-syntactic) CGs that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality, for example, quantitative, spatial, temporal values, tools or a producer of an action, and relational (syntactic) CGs that indicate the connection of word forms in phrases and sentences (connective, adversative meanings allied constructions) or on the connection of bases with the composition of compound words (connective, derivational meanings). A special place is occupied by PGs that reflect the speaker's attitude to what is being discussed or to the interlocutor: subjective modality, subjective assessment, politeness, ease, etc.

It is necessary, of course, to distinguish between lexical and grammatical meanings, but one cannot assume that there is an abyss between them. In the same language, the same meaning can be conveyed both lexically and grammatically (the perfect aspect can be conveyed with the help of a formative prefix, the imperfect aspect - with the help of a suffix, suffix exchange, etc.; or in a suppletive way: take - take, catch - catch, i.e. lexically); temporary value can be expressed lexically ( I'm going home yesterday and I think... I was going home). In the lexical expression of the CG, we have syntagmatic convenience, because we use one word with an undivided expression of the lexical and CG (there is a simplification, shortening of the text, i.e., language economy), but at the same time there is a paradigmatic inconvenience, because the number of language code units increases. With grammatical expression, the opposite is true.

Before talking about GC, it is necessary to define grammatical form (GF). GF– in the broad sense of the word, this is a sign in which a generalized, abstract GZ finds its regular (standard) expression.

A specific word in its specific morphological form is called a word form. So, for example, the same morphological form of I.p. plural nouns are represented in Russian by different word forms ( tables, windows, walls...). All forms of the modified word constitute its paradigm.

GC- this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. (GK of the tense of the verb combines - the form of the present tense (GZ of the present tense) + the form of the past tense (GZ of the past tense) + the form of the future tense (GZ of the future tense). degrees of comparison, verbs - aspect, voice, mood, tense, person The number of opposed members within the CC is different: the category of gender - three rows of word forms, the category of number - two rows of word forms, the category of case - six rows of word forms.

GC is characterized by two features:

1) opposition to the GC;

2) has a formal expression. The presence or absence of a formal expression is the main criterion for distinguishing between grammatical and conceptual categories. For example, the conceptual category of gender is inherent in all speakers, regardless of what language they communicate in: everyone distinguishes between male and female. Such a division is based on non-linguistic reality, therefore the conceptual categories are universal, international. In contrast to the conceptual category of gender, the grammatical category of gender exists only in those languages ​​where it has a formal expression (Slavic, Baltic, German, Romance) - special endings (or articles). And for example, in English, Turkic languages ​​there are no such indicators, therefore, there is no such category as gender.

GCs are not immutable. In the process of historical development, the language may lose or acquire the Civil Code, or change its structure. For example, the GC of time in the Old Russian language consisted of 3 members (singular, dual, plural), and in modern Russian it consisted of two members (singular and plural).

All GCs can be divided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological categories include gender, number, case, species, tense, mood, person. The boundaries of the use of the concept of GC in the syntax have not yet been fully defined. Obviously, this can include the category of communicative orientation (narrative, interrogative, incentive), the category of activity and passivity, the category of affirmativeness and negativity, the category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood, which form the paradigm of the sentence.

Classification - these are those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word. For example, number, case, tense, mood, person, degree of comparison are inflectional categories (i.e., those whose members can be represented by different forms of the same word, within its paradigm); gender in adjectives is an inflectional category, and in nouns it is non-inflective (i.e. classificatory), because nouns do not change by gender.

It is necessary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories (categories) from grammatical categories. These are such groupings of words that are characterized by the similarity of lexical meaning and at the same time have certain features in the formation of forms and in the expression of morphological categorical meanings. These categories of words are distinguished within one or another part of speech and are directly related to a certain grammatical category or categories. So, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished; abstract, real, collective, specific, and these oppositions are associated with the features of the expression of the category of number. Among the names of adjectives, categories of qualitative and relative are distinguished, of which qualitative adjectives have a specific category of degree of comparison, form short forms and have a number of other features. In a verb, aspectual categories (modes of verbal action) are directly related to the category of aspect and the expression of aspect pairs, the categories of reflexive verbs - with the category of voice, the category of impersonal verbs - with the category of person; all of them have features from the point of view of the verbal paradigm. The categories of quantitative and ordinal numbers, semantic categories of pronouns, categories of qualitative and circumstantial adverbs also have their own grammatical features.

The morphological description of each of the significant parts of speech includes consideration of its lexical and grammatical categories, morphological categories and paradigmatics (inflection). Service parts of speech and interjections are characterized in terms of their functions and structure.