The fate of the Russian nobility in connection with the peasant reform was devoted to a brochure by K.D. Kavelin "The nobility and the liberation of the peasants" (1862). Kavelin admitted in it that the reform plunged the nobility into a miserable state, both economically and morally. The majority, materially upset and embittered against the government, is confronted with the question: “What will become of the nobility now?” “The position of this class is indeed now critical,” Kavelin wrote. “It undergoes an abrupt upheaval such as it has never experienced before. This is not about a momentary frustration, but about the continued existence and fate of the estate, which until now has always been at the head of education and every success in Russia. At the same time, the reform also had a huge positive significance, for it placed the nobility in conditions that promised them the happiest future. The situation of February 19 averted the catastrophe that threatened from below—this is, first of all. Secondly, the reform gave the nobility the opportunity to "correct old mistakes, link their interests with the benefits and benefits of other classes, take a firm and honorable social position in the country and return their former, now weakened influence on the life of the state."

Kavelin had no doubt that the Russian nobility, if desired, would be able to strengthen their first place among other classes. The very fact of the existence of class inequality did not seem reprehensible to him. “Natural properties and property,” he believed, “are the ineradicable, eternal source of the inequality of people and the difference between higher and lower classes in all human societies, at all times, at all stages of development.” The reason for the class struggle that filled the history of peoples was not the presence of upper classes in society, but the short-sightedness of their behavior. Exclusivity, privileges, selfishness - these, according to Kavelin, are the pitfalls on which the upper classes in most states collapsed.

The peasant reform made inevitable the transition of the nobility from the position of a privileged, hereditary and closed estate to a class of landowners, enjoying the same civil rights as the other estates. Only large land ownership will remain an essential feature, a characteristic difference of the nobility. Small landowners of noble origin will therefore draw closer to the owners of small landed property from other estates and in time will form one estate with them. Large landowners, non-nobles, will join the ranks of the nobility in the same way.

The new grouping of estates according to property and land ownership, which opened up the possibility of transition from one estate to another, should have linked them into one whole and prevented disastrous disunity. “As a result of this,” Kavelin wrote, “the whole people will make up one organic body, from which each will occupy the highest or lowest rung of the same ladder; the upper class will be the continuation and completion of the lower, and the lower will serve as a nursery, foundation and starting point for the higher. What the whole world marvels at in England, what constitutes the source of her strength and greatness, what she is so justly proud of before other peoples, is precisely the correct, normal relationship between the lower and upper classes, the organic unity of all national elements, opening up the possibility of an endless peaceful development through gradual reforms, which makes the revolution of the lower classes against the upper classes impossible - all this will be with us, if only the nobility understands its current position and prudently takes advantage of it.

Kavelin tried to instill the idea that the liberation of the peasants with land, which caused the indignation of the nobility against the government, placed the class of large landowners in ideal conditions. The allocation of land to the peasants created, in his opinion, an unprecedented type of social relations. “The vast majority of the people, with the most insignificant exceptions, the whole people,” wrote Kavelin, “we will be involved in the good of landed property. In this way, we get rid of the hungry proletariat and the theories of property equality inextricably linked with it, from irreconcilable envy and hatred of the upper classes and from their last result - the social revolution, the most terrible and inevitable of all, shaking the people's organism in its very foundations and in in any case disastrous for the upper classes. No successes in industry and trade in Russia could change its agrarian, agricultural character, create, in contrast to the landowning classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Landowners will forever remain the dominant class.

History, thus, contrary to the will of the nobility itself, prepared exceptionally favorable conditions for it. “Giving land to all the peasants gave him a granite, indestructible foundation, communication with other classes will make him the legitimate representative of the country; and the predominance of landowning and agricultural interests will bind him inextricably ties with the majority of the population having the same interests, and will forever preserve for him the importance of the upper class.

The nobility could take advantage of the advantages bestowed by history and preserve itself as the upper class only if it meekly accepted the foundations of the peasant reform, showed a sincere desire to get closer to the other classes and tried to gain the greatest possible influence on the course of local affairs and local government. The program defined by Kavelin in the article “The Nobility and the Emancipation of the Peasants” demanded, in addition, that the nobility seriously take care of preserving their estates.

According to Kavelin, one of the “most capital” conditions for the revival of the Russian nobility was its resettlement from cities to their estates. This step promised many good consequences. “The permanent stay of the majority of the nobles in the estates would open up the opportunity for the nobility to keep them for themselves, would give him a sensible direction and useful activity; at the same time, from such a resettlement, the provinces would revive in all respects: they would be filled with decent, enlightened people, the habits and requirements of education would spread in them, local social life and local interests would develop, the absence of which Russia suffers so much.

Already after the death of Herzen, Kavelin in the 70s was forced to drastically change his initially optimistic assessments of the reform of 1861 and the prospects for the rebirth of the nobility. In correspondence and oral statements on these issues, Kavelin, as it were, revives the formulas and words that were previously used by the publishers of Kolokol. “The whole system of orders and habits among the peasants and landowners,” he wrote in 1876 from the village of K.K. Grotu, - purely feudal, which is only scraped off the outside by the Regulations of February 19, but firmly sits in morals. The fortress system is slowly eroding. Actually, the labels have changed, not the essence of the matter. Reporting in October 1881 D.A. Milyutin about buying up landowners' lands by peasants "little by little on a huge scale", Kavelin has already compared the future of the Russian upper class with the fate of the chronicles: "No one will notice how it will disappear from the face of the earth, drown in the rising waves of the Russian nation." The nobility now seems to him "a kind of raid, which for so long hindered and now continues to hinder the development of the masses."

In a series of articles published in the journal Vestnik Evropy in 1881, and then published as a separate book entitled The Peasant Question. A study on the importance of the peasant business in our country, the reasons for its decline, measures to improve agriculture and the life of the villagers, ”Kavelin focused on the analysis of“ the peculiar features that distinguish our social and state life from the life of the rest of Europe. Calling Russia a “peasant kingdom”, he believed that this definition “very aptly designates Russia by its most characteristic feature ...” It is important to emphasize that, according to Kavelin, “an unprecedented and unprecedented type of rural rural state” is not so much a historical reality how much opportunity "for realizing in reality this new combination of social elements".

Thanks to the reforms of the 1860s, "the vast majority of the population of the empire, for a long time, wiped out and overshadowed by a thin layer of the ruling classes, grew out of the ground to a human and civil existence." But, according to Kavelin, this was only the beginning of a long and complex process of “developing, providing for and raising the peasantry among us, since the present situation and the future fate of the Russian state and the Russian people depend most of all on its material contentment, mental development and moral state ...

Without its improvement, - Kavelin warned, - everything that we do will be built on sand, the first wind will blow away like houses of cards everything that we worked on, no matter how much living strength, skill, talent and dedication we put into our work. » .

The composition of the Provisional Government was determined by the evening of March 2. It included: Minister-Chairman Prince G. E. Lvov, Cadets P. N. Milyukov, A. A. Manuilov, N. V. Nekrasov, Octobrists A. I. Guchkov and I. V. Godnev, and other bourgeois politicians. A.F. Kerensky was the only socialist there.

In domestic feature films, he built a film factory in Moscow, a number of cinemas. Among the first feature films were ʼʼThe Queen of Spadesʼʼ and ʼʼFather Sergiusʼʼ directed by Ya. A. Protazanov.

Russian architecture at the beginning of the 20th century. is experiencing the last - short, but bright - period of its heyday, associated with the advent of the Art Nouveau style. Its creators sought to take into account the possibilities provided by new building structures and materials (concrete, steel, glass), and at the same time to comprehend them aesthetically, to give them artistic expressiveness. In the case of the successful implementation of these ideas, the buildings turned into real works of art. These include the buildings of the Azov-Don Bank in St. Petersburg (architect F. I. Lidval), the Kazansky railway station in Moscow (A. V. Shchusev) and a series of buildings in Moscow by the recognized master of modernism F. O. Shekhtel: the Yaroslavsky railway station, Ryabushinsky mansion, etc.
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In addition to architecture, Art Nouveau has spread in arts and crafts (interior design, furniture, lamps, small plastic, dishes, etc.). Here, such features inherent in Art Nouveau as decorative flexible flowing lines and a stylized floral pattern looked especially stylish.

In general, Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. impresses with its brightness, wealth, abundance of talents in various fields. And at the same time, it was the culture of a society doomed to death, a premonition of which was traced in many of her works.

□ 1. In which educational institutions in Russia would you like to receive secondary and higher education? Why? 2. How did political changes in Russia contribute to the development of mass media and book printing? 3. Attracting knowledge of general history, determine what was the contribution of Russian scientists to world science. 4. Having independently identified the criteria, compare the two trends in literature and art at the beginning of the 20th century. (realism and modernism). Use the knowledge gained while studying the MHC course. 5. Consider reproductions of paintings by M. Dobuzhinsky, V. Serov, A. Lentulov, K. Petrov-Vodkin on a color insert. What art direction would you attribute these works to? What events or processes of the beginning of the XX century. help to understand the intention of each artist more clearly? 6. Describe your favorite piece of architecture or painting from the early 20th century.

Questions for section 1

1. Summarize the results of the development of industry and agriculture in Russia by 1913 ᴦ. Suggest your own ways of solving problems (resolving contradictions). Systematize your reasoning in the form of a table ʼʼModernization in Russia at the beginning of the 20th centuryʼʼ:

2. What were the prospects for the existence and development of the nobility, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the proletariat in the conditions of modernizing Russia?

3. Confirm with facts or refute the characterization of the domestic policy of Nicholas II as a maneuvering policy. 4. Depict graphically the development of the revolutionary movement in Russia in 1900-1917. 5. Analyze the role of political parties in the history of Russia in the first decades of the 20th century. 6. What politicians, in your opinion, had the greatest influence on the historical process in the first decades of the 20th century. in Russia? 7. Do you agree with the above statements: ʼʼRevolution is just as little satisfactory way to resolve human disputes as warʼʼ (JI. Andreev); ʼʼThe weakness of the supreme power is the most terrible of national disastersʼʼ (Napoleon); ʼʼ Is it really possible in Russia without coercion, and even strict, to do and approve anything? ʼʼ (K. Leontiev); ʼʼAutocracy is an obsolete form of government that can meet the requirements of the people somewhere in Central Africa, separated from the whole world, but not the requirements of the Russian people, who are more and more enlightened by the general education of the whole world ʼʼ (L. Tolstoy )? Write an essay on one of the topics using the material covered in section 1.

Great Russian Revolution. Soviet era

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Russia in the revolutionary whirlwind 1917 ᴦ.

A common problem. Why the revolution of 1917 ᴦ. brought victory to the Bolsheviks?

On the path of democracy

Problem. What is the strength and weakness of Russian democracy after February 1917 ᴦ.?

Remember the meaning of the concepts: amnesty, the Provisional Government, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, dual power, coalition government. Answer the questions. 1. What are the reasons for the revolutionary explosion in Russia at the beginning of 1917 ᴦ.? 2. What problems had to be solved in revolutionary Russia?

The beginning of the revolution. General dissatisfaction with the tsarist government led to a revolutionary explosion in the capital of Russia - Petrograd. February 23, 1917 ᴦ. A city-wide strike was announced at the factories, which soon involved more than 80% of the Petrograd workers. Nevsky Prospekt was filled with unprecedented mass demonstrations. Οʜᴎ were held under red flags and the slogan ʼʼDown with the king!ʼʼ. All attempts by the authorities to restore order failed. On February 27, the soldiers of the reserve regiments stationed in the capital began to go over to the side of the revolution. The few defenders of the old system were forced to lay down their arms.

The February events were spontaneous.
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At the same time, in the course of them, new authorities arose, which were to reorganize Russia. On the morning of February 27

Queue in Petrograd. Autumn 1916 ᴦ.

To create a Provisional Committee of the State Duma. The Committee saw its primary task in establishing contacts with government agencies and normalizing the situation in the capital. At the same time, the members of the Committee by no means claimed to take full power into their own hands. On the contrary, such a possibility rather frightened them. They hoped that they would finally be able to force the tsar to make concessions, inclining him to cooperate and form a Cabinet of Ministers responsible to the Duma.

At the same time, the Committee, which relied mainly on the liberal strata of society, did not have real power to carry out its plans. This became obvious against the background of the vigorous activity of another body created by the revolution and immediately received mass support - the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies elected from factories and factories. Its first meeting took place on the evening of February 27, and on March 1 it was replenished with representatives from the capital's garrison. During the elections to the Petrograd Soviet (and then in other Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies that arose throughout Russia), the moderate socialists, the Socialist-Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks, had a strong majority.

I

Moderate socialists immediately put forward the idea of ​​"civil

worldʼʼ, the consolidation of ʼʼall classes and elements of the peopleʼʼ, ʼʼthe final consolidation of political freedom and public administration in Russiaʼʼ. And the working masses gave their sympathy to them, and not to the Bolsheviks with their frightening peaceful inhabitants, with their call to continue the struggle until the formation of the "Provisional Revolutionary Government" in the country and the transfer of this struggle to the international arena - in alliance with the "proletariat of the warring countries" against the "oppressors and enslavers" her, against the tsarist governments and capitalist cliques ʼʼ (Manifesto of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) of February 27, 1917 ᴦ.).

The SR-Menievist leaders of the Soviets believed that the revolution that had begun was bourgeois and should be led by the bourgeoisie. Based on this, they launched their activities in two directions:

Attempts by liberal politicians to preserve the monarchy by giving it constitutional forms were blocked. Nicholas II, under strong pressure from revolutionary Petrograd and the army command, abdicated on March 2 in favor of his brother Mikhail. But Michael, having assessed the mood of the masses, on March 3 refused to accept the royal crown;

At the same time, the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, headed by its chairman, the Menshevik N. S. Chkheidze, entered into negotiations with the Duma committee, proposing that it form a Provisional Government.

At the same time, the leaders of the Petrograd Soviet did not at all want to completely get rid of the real influence on events that they had gained in the days of the revolution. In their opinion, the task of the socialist Soviets should be to control the activities of the Provisional Government and to put pressure on it in case of deviation from the democratic course. As early as March 1, a step was taken to decisively ensure the conditions for such control: the Petrograd Soviet issued Order No. 1 on the capital's garrison, which immediately became widespread in the army. He limited the one-man command of officers, ordered the creation of elected soldiers' committees in military units subordinate to the Soviets, and forbade the execution of orders that contradicted their orders. The army actually passed under the control of the Soviets.

In the current situation, the official Provisional Government had to coordinate its every action with the Petrograd Soviet. After the fall of the autocracy, dual power was established in Russia.

Political parties about the present and future of Russia. The famous poet V. Ya. Bryusov conveyed the feelings that gripped him in the first days of the revolution in the following way:

Age-old dreams have been embodied Of all the best, all living hearts: Transfigured Russia has become free at last!

And these emotional words of the poet were in tune with the moods of tens of millions of Russians. Tsarism collapsed. Russia became the freest of all the warring powers. The people rejoiced. Many believed that the victims, the shed blood, the suffering were left behind. The whole country protested violently, as if in a hurry to make up for what had been lost during the long centuries of forced silence. Rallies were held throughout Russia in cities and villages, in factories and factories, in barracks and concert halls. Newspapers were full of reports about the convening of meetings, people inexperienced in politics and social activities rallied along the parties.

The February events led to a noticeable regrouping of political forces. The extreme right - the Black Hundreds-monarchist associations (the Union of the Russian People, the Union of Michael the Archangel, etc.) - were swept away by the revolution, their activists went into the shadows for a while, hid. An acute crisis was experienced by the right-wing liberal parties of the Octobrists and Progressives, closely associated with the former regime.

The largest bourgeois-centrist party of the Cadets (up to 70 thousand people) turned from opposition into the ruling party: its leaders occupied key positions in the Provisional Government and began to determine its policy. Passed in March 1917 ᴦ. The party congress abandoned the demands of a constitutional monarchy and proclaimed that "Russia should be a democratic and parliamentary republic." The most important tasks of the party were declared: ensuring the autocracy of the Provisional Government and creating conditions for the continuation of the war ʼʼuntil complete and final victory over the enemyʼʼ.

After February 1917 ᴦ. the number and influence of the moderate socialist parties, the Socialist-Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks, increased sharply. Οʜᴎ prevailed in the Soviets, trade unions and other mass public organizations. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party then numbered 800 thousand people, the Menshevik Party - 200 thousand people.

The moderate socialists, as we know, hastened to declare their support for the Provisional Government. Readiness for cooperation with the bourgeois parties was also expressed. In an effort to avoid conflicts with them, the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks postponed the fulfillment of their program requirements for cardinal reforms in the field of national-state building in Russia, agrarian relations (including the elimination of landowners' land ownership), and labor legislation until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. In foreign policy, the socialists defended the principle of "revolutionary defencism", that is, the continuation of the war with the German bloc in order to protect the revolution and democratic freedoms.

The left flank of the political spectrum included various groups of Russian anarchism (they called for the immediate overthrow of the Provisional Government by force of arms and the establishment of a "powerless society") and the Bolshevik Party, which was wary of extreme anarcho-radicalism. She came out of the underground weakened and small (about 24 thousand people). Declaring herself in opposition, she advocated the completion of the bourgeois-democratic revolution and the creation of a revolutionary government that expresses the interests of the workers and the entire peasantry, and at the same time showed a willingness to "conditional support" of the Provisional Government.

The political fever that engulfed the central regions of Russia could not bypass the national outskirts (the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, Central Asia), where many liberal-bourgeois and socialist parties of the regional level arose. So far, their main slogan has been the demand for autonomy within Russia.

The first actions of the Provisional Government. The government proclaimed a course towards broad democratization of the country and preparations for general elections to the Constituent Assembly. The death penalty was abolished, penal servitude and exile were abolished, an amnesty was declared to ʼʼall the sufferers for the good of the Motherlandʼʼ. A law on freedom of speech, assembly and association is adopted.

ʼʼIn its current activities, the Cabinet will be guided by the following grounds: 1. Full and immediate amnesty for all political and religious matters, including: terrorist attacks, military uprisings and agrarian crimes, etc. 2. Freedom of speech, press , unions, meetings and strikes, with the extension of political freedoms to military personnel within the limits allowed by military technical conditions. 3. Cancellation of all class, religious and national restrictions. 4. Immediate preparations for the convening of a Constituent Assembly on the basis of a general, equal, secret and direct vote, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ will establish the form of government and the constitution of the country.

Leaflet from the archive. Declaration of the Provisional Government of March 3, 1917 - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Leaf from the archive. Declaration of the Provisional Government of March 3, 1917." 2017, 2018.

In this paper, the issue of the crisis in science and technology, as an integral part of the level of the limiting development of civilization, is considered. To reveal this topic, an analysis of the futuristic ideas existing in the last century and the achievements realized at the moment is carried out, as well as modern concepts of the future are considered. An analysis of the latter reveals the shortcomings of individual projects, on the basis of which a variant of introducing ideas into the life of society through a new concept - iissiidiology is proposed.

Innovative difficulties of science and technology

The beginning of the 21st century turned out to be completely different from the forecasts of fifty years ago - there are no intelligent robots, flying cars, cities on other planets. Humanity has not come close to such a future, which was predicted by many futurists of the middle of the last century. The iPhone, Twitter, and Google appeared, but they still use the operating system that appeared in 1969. One gets the impression that technological progress is strongly stalled. Gadgets are changing every month like clockwork, and more significant problems, the solution of which seemed close, have not yet been resolved.

Writer Neil Stevenson tried to articulate these doubts in the article "Innovation Dwindling": "One of my earliest memories is sitting in front of a bulky black-and-white TV watching one of America's first astronauts go into space. I saw the last launch of the last shuttle on a widescreen LCD panel when I was 51 years old. I have watched the space program decline with sadness, even bitterness. Where are the promised toroidal space stations? Where is my ticket to Mars? We are unable to repeat even the space achievements of the sixties. I'm afraid this indicates that society has forgotten how to cope with really difficult tasks.

His opinion is shared by Peter Thiel, the founder of the Paypal payment system. An article he published in the National Review is titled "Future's End": "Technological progress is clearly lagging behind the lofty hopes of the fifties and sixties, and this is happening on multiple fronts. Here is the most literal example of progress slowing down: our movement speed has stopped increasing. The centuries-old history of ever-faster modes of transport that began with sailing ships in the 16th and 18th centuries, continued with the development of railways in the 19th century and the advent of automobiles and aviation in the 20th century, was reversed when the Concorde, the last supersonic aircraft, was scrapped in 2003. passenger plane. Against the background of such regression and stagnation, those who continue to dream of spaceships, vacations on the moon and sending astronauts to other planets of the solar system seem to be aliens themselves.

There are many arguments in favor of the theory that technological progress is slowing down. Its supporters offer to look at least at computer technology. All fundamental ideas in this area are at least forty years old: Unix will be 45 years old in a year, SQL was invented in the early seventies, the Internet, object-oriented programming and the graphical interface appeared at the same time.

Economists estimate the impact of technological progress by the rate of growth in labor productivity and GDP. Changes in these figures during the 20th century confirm that growth rates have been falling for several decades - in the United States, the impact of technological change reached its peak in the mid-thirties of the 20th century. If labor productivity in the United States continued to grow at the rate set in 1950-1972, then by 2011 it would have reached a value that is one third higher than in reality.

In 1999, economist Robert Gordon published a paper in which he suggested that the rapid growth of the economy, which is usually associated with technological progress, was in fact a burst of time. R. Gordon believes that the surge was caused by a new industrial revolution that took place during this period. The end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw electrification, the spread of internal combustion engines, breakthroughs in the chemical industry, and the emergence of new types of communication and new media, in particular cinema and television. Growth continued until their potential was used up to the end.

From the point of view of R. Gordon, electronics and the Internet have affected the economy to a much lesser extent than electricity, internal combustion engines, communications and the chemical industry, and therefore are much less important: “The Big Four was a much more powerful source of labor productivity growth than all that has appeared recently. Most of the inventions that we see now are "derivatives" from old ideas. VCRs, for example, brought together television and cinema, but the fundamental impact of their introduction cannot be compared to the effect of the invention of one of their predecessors. The Internet, too, basically leads to the replacement of one form of entertainment by another - and nothing more.

Peter Thiel agreed with this: the Internet and gadgets are not bad, but by and large they are still small things. We dreamed of flying cars, but got 140 tweets. We can send photos of cats to the other side of the world using our phones and watch old movies about the future while we are in a subway built a hundred years ago. We can write programs that realistically simulate futuristic landscapes, but the real landscapes around us have hardly changed in half a century. We have not learned how to protect ourselves from earthquakes and hurricanes, travel faster or live longer.

The latest worldview of iissiidiology

Many see that the development of science, technology and social order in the form that it is now has already come to a certain point (this can be judged even from the pictures above - they are all 50-60 years and since then no radically new ideas, that would have been put into practice were not expressed). All investors want to invest only in what can bring profit in the short term, and, moreover, most of the new products that appear are purely for entertainment. To move to the next stage of development, something radically new is needed - new thoughts, new understanding, new ideas and principles that would more deeply reveal, describe and explain both the fundamental principles of the universe and social life. One of the brightest sources of new ideas and ideas is the knowledge of iissiidiology.

From the point of view of iissiidiology, the whole reality around us is very much dependent on and interconnected with our internal psycho-mental activity and activity. As soon as we can stably stay in states free from manifestations of various negativisms, irritability, aggression, anger, and positive thoughts, calm intellectual prudence and manifestations of altruism will come to replace this, then the quality of the world around us will immediately increase. In more positive states per unit of time, we will be able to process more information, and the speed of implementation of the decisions we make will increase, people will be able to achieve their goals much faster than it is happening now.

It can be hoped that the change of generations during the evolution of mankind ensures the development of fundamental qualities inherent in man, such as intelligence, altruism, empathy, compassion, responsibility, and many others, as opposed to a decrease in the activity of qualities inherent in many other living beings - aggression, anger, revenge, passivity, ardent concern for survival. Perhaps, thanks to this development, all our life hematopoietic, genitourinary, digestive, endocrine and respiratory systems. When self-consciousness is in a state of high mentality and high sensuality, this automatically leads to the manifestation of the ability to predict possible future options, to the development of intuition and clairvoyance.

creativity will also become qualitatively different - conscious and based on highly spiritual, noble and large-scale goals. If all peoples, regardless of their traditional religions, sincerely strive only for positive interchange and active creative cooperation, a global and large-scale reunion of all spiritually aspiring people will begin, which will inevitably lead the human community to the need to form a single world form of statehood, not divided by either religious or national, economic, territorial or any other selfish interests.

To do this, you need to stop thinking about sex as the most desirable pleasure and the highest pleasure, you need to stop hating someone or being jealous, envying, using hypocrisy and lies in relationships with each other. As long as these states are of interest to us, one can only dream of favorable development prospects. However, it will become possible to avoid depressive states by cultivating such qualities as spiritual initiative, openness, honesty and responsibility. Thanks to these qualities, we will find a deep explanation and reason for the events, including those that cause apathy, indifference and lack of initiative. And only when this happens, we will naturally reach such creativity that the greatest minds of today's humanity are not able to imagine even in the most daring and optimistic forecasts.

The principles and methods of psycho-mental activity, which depends on hormonal activity, will depend less and less on biological conditions in future people, as a result of which the pattern of DNA genetic activity will also change significantly. Due to a significant increase in the number of synthetic amino acids in human DNA, an additional pair of chromosomes will appear. In biological organisms, the nervous, vegetative, The information in Iissiidiology says that being altruistic is very beneficial. Before iissiidiology, no one could convincingly and logically answer the question of why it is necessary to help even those whom you do not know or, perhaps, will never see. Iissiidiological concepts clearly answer it: thanks to a consistently manifested altruism, the quality of existence is continuously increasing due to the fact that there are purposeful shifts to more and more favorable conditions for the implementation of further life creativity. In this case, the self-consciousness of humanity will increasingly manifest people who consciously strive for unity with everything, and such concepts as responsibility, tolerance, mercy, sympathy, and others will actively enter the lives of all people on the planet.

Prospects for science and technology in the near future

Among the most famous modern concepts of the future are: transhumanism, posthuman and posthumanism, the Raelite movement, the technocratic project of the future "Venus", Russia-2045.

Transhumanism uses the advances of science and technology to improve the mental and physical capabilities of a person in order to eliminate those aspects of human existence that transhumanists consider undesirable. In the concept of a posthuman, a hypothetical image of a future person is developed, who abandoned the usual human appearance as a result of the introduction of advanced technologies: computer science, biotechnology, medicine. Posthumanism is based on the notion that human evolution is not complete and can be continued in the future.

The Raelites believe in a super-civilization of extraterrestrials that can be contacted through special spiritual practices. The Raelites see the achievement of human immortality by means of science as one of their main tasks, the main hopes are associated with cloning. This is similar to the Strategic Public Movement "Russia 2045", which has a transhumanist orientation and stands for human development, including through the acceleration of technological progress and the integration of modern technologies, for resistance to the further growth of the "consumer society" and the exploitation of the natural environment.

The Venus Project is aimed at achieving a peaceful, sustainable, constantly and steadily developing global civilization, through the transition to a global resource-based economy, universal automation, the introduction of all the latest scientific achievements in all areas of human life and the application of scientific decision-making methodology.

After a brief analysis of the various concepts by the predominance of one or another feature (although it is impossible to categorically distinguish), two categories can be distinguished:

The predominance of ideology in the concept (that is, documentary projects that describe the spiritual sphere of the life of the population, the change in society and its structure);

The predominance of materiality (that is, projects of the cities of the future, their organizational structure).

Along with ideological concepts, there are also real experimental projects of the cities of the future, such as Auroville in India, Masdar in the UAE, Great City in China, eco-villages in different countries and many others. In addition, forecasting the development of existing large cities based on the principles of ecological construction is practiced. There are also futurological projects of floating cities (Lilypad, by Vincent Callebaut), underwater cities (Sub Biosphere), recycling waste (Lady Landfill), stations for ocean and underwater research (Underwater Skyscraper), flying cities, space stations (Kalpana One, by Brian Verstieg, Bernal Sphere, underground cities (Sietch) Such ideas, having a real embodiment or a detailed project, are more related to the material sphere.

Many projects of the cities of the future contain the idea of ​​changing some principles of thinking, a certain way of life. For example, Auroville is called upon to realize the unity of people by creating an international society that lives outside politics and religious preferences. However, in my opinion, in this project, with proper sensual content, it lacks an intellectual component that allows it to benefit not only the people who have accepted this idea, but also those who live outside the city.

Jacques Fresco's project "Venus" is somewhat technocratic, that is, with the predominance of intellect (which made it possible to create a new model of cities and society), there is a lack of a sensual component that would be embodied in new human values ​​and interpersonal relationships. As well as in the social movement "Russia-2045" and the movement of the Raelites. In these projects, the intellectual component also predominates, and the scenario for the development of mankind in the material sphere is strictly described without taking into account the development of spirituality, that is, the need to develop the self-awareness of each person, which opens up new abilities and transforms the world around, is not taken into account.

Having analyzed the concepts described above on the basis of the presence of two components in them - intellect and altruism - one can observe their inferiority for implementation in such a future option, which is based on both of these features. The obligatory joint presence of these qualities is explained by the fact that the absence of one of them (that is, a bias in the mental or sensual side) entails devastating consequences, both for the individual and for all of humanity as a whole.

However, not everything is so bad. Progressive ideas that can help in the harmonious, balanced and creative development of human civilization can still be found among those that already exist. From my point of view, this is the iissiidological concept, which harmoniously combines these two features.

What prospects await us in the near future in accordance with the information of iissiidiology?

By making psycho-mental efforts in order to constantly make only the highest quality choices, you thereby automatically shift to more and more favorable conditions for the manifestation of vital creativity. And in the near future, where interpersonal relations are approaching lluuvvumic features (highly intellectual Altruism and highly sensitive Intelligence, supplemented by immune Responsibility and humanitarian Freedom), science and technology will become so highly developed that the need for both material accumulation and monetary relations will no longer exist in society.

One of the tasks, the solution of which will serve as a powerful stimulus for the development of the scientific and technical base, will be a deep study and development of the interior of the moon. This will entail establishing close contacts with other intelligent races and space civilizations. At the moment, humanity is militantly tuned in to the manifestations of everything extraterrestrial and is not ready for such bilateral contacts. But when people are freed from the animal fear of the unknown, then contacts with extraterrestrial civilizations will become possible.

This will stimulate the development of terrestrial technologies in all areas, from space exploration to meeting daily industrial and social needs, the development of various biochemical, biological, genetic and microfield quantum processes.

In parallel with this, contacts are possible with other terrestrial races that live in the depths of the oceans and seas, having formed unique intelligent communities there. There will be technologies for obtaining a large amount of various cheap raw materials, chemical, industrial and food resources from the marine environment.

It will become possible to merge land and ocean civilizations by carrying out simple surgical operations to implant synthetic gill-like structures or by activating those genes in certain parts of human chromosomes that are responsible for the functions of supplying oxygen to the body in whales and dolphins. The differences that exist between us and representatives of aquatic civilizations are the result of gene mutations that have occurred in biological organisms due to long-term existence in different habitats. Perhaps one of the conditions for such a community will be the procedure for deactivating aggression genes in DNA.

Stationary research centers will be built at great depths of the oceans, in which thousands of specialists in various fields of science and production will be able to live and work for a long time. Together with them there will be enterprises for the extraction and processing of minerals and bottom vegetation.

On the surface of the seas and oceans, thousands of floating cities will slowly ply, in which those who want to study and develop the water resources of the Earth can comfortably live and work fruitfully.

Many civilizations have not come into contact with us and do not yet come into contact with us due to the lack of an intellectual-sensual platform for mutual communication and associative understanding with us. But in the future, devices will be created that will make it easy to communicate at the level of converting thoughts into associative form-images adapted to the specifics of various self-consciousnesses. First, there will be devices that can directly translate your words into thoughts and vice versa. Then special sensors located in the temporal part of the head will be used to read thoughts. At the same time, the sounds and words uttered by someone may remain incomprehensible to you, but it will be absolutely clear to you what it is about.

In the future, a huge number of shaping manipulations with photons, the creation of unique varieties of "intelligent matter" in genetic engineering, cybergenetics, cyberbionics and astrobiology are possible. Almost everything needed will be made from artificial materials and polymers. The metal will be used only in some industrial and scientific technological equipment, for example, in the creation of ultra-precise devices and space technology.

Many new technologies will appear in architecture thanks to materials that combine the strength of metals and the softness of silk. One of the construction mechanisms in the future is similar to how a spider spins its web. First, the builders make the base of the required configuration, install guides on it, after which robots are launched along these fibers, the design of which contains the program and weaving mechanism, and in a few hours the vast areas of the premises turn into high domes with the required number of interfloor ceilings with ready-made partitions. This results in powerful reinforced structures that are able to withstand incredible loads.

Huge commercial and public buildings will be built on areas of several tens of square kilometers, which will be located under transparent domes with beautiful superstructures, with many levels of transparent and bright floors towering one above the other. It will be easy and fast to move in them not only on countless escalators, but also with the help of silent air-cushioned panel devices that are freely attached to the soles of shoes.

There will also be lifting and levitation structures that can create stable anti-gravity effects around themselves, which will make it possible to manipulate huge masses, moving them effortlessly to any distance. If they form the body of a spacecraft, then it will be possible to set a speed approaching 300 km / s, and at the same time be able to carry out maneuvers of any complexity. This discovery alone, in combination with the means of radical rejuvenation of the biological organism already invented by that time, will become a powerful stimulus for the beginning of the era of mass space travel.

And over time, it will become possible to fly without any ingenious devices and devices. In our DNA, separate genes are responsible for unlocking the ability to levitate. When this gene is identified by scientists, then just a slight adjustment in the genotype will allow anyone, even a child, to acquire these abilities. This will massively begin to occur in parallel with another trend that has spontaneously arisen among millions of people - to make genetic corrections for the development of the water expanses of our Planet. There will be those who, along with levitation abilities, will also want to have increased capabilities for a long stay in the water. For this, too, there will be no restrictions, since everyone is free to choose for their creative realizations whatever he or she wants.

In the near future, holography will be widely developed. It will affect everything, and, first of all, cinema, painting, media, Internet resources. With its help, it will be possible to arrange any room, for example, to form a "piece" of a forest, lawn, field, ocean at home. To accommodate high-speed holographic objects, areas and volumes corresponding to their real sizes will be needed, since they can only temporarily be encrusted into the general dynamics of all objects of the surrounding reality.

But all these future achievements of mankind described in iissiidiology will not happen without a radical change in the paradigm of thinking of our entire civilization. Only by changing ourselves, our consciousness, we will be able to change the world around us, those technologies and objects of materiality that surround us.

Examples of recent achievements

Which of all these unimaginable future achievements that Iissiidiology speaks of have already begun to appear in our lives thanks to the latest achievements of science?

For example, a NASA team led by Harold White began developing a space warp engine capable of moving objects faster than the speed of light. With it, scientists intend to cover the 4.3 light-years separating us from Alpha Centauri in two weeks. The project was named "Speed". The warp drive compresses the space in front of the ship and expands behind, which keeps the ship moving.

A big breakthrough has occurred in medicine, which is trying to keep people alive as long as possible, thereby bringing us closer to one of the analogues of immortality - regardless of whether it is biological, digital or cybernetic immortality. Already developed technologies contribute to this: the production of artificial blood (red blood cells of the universal O-type, which can be transferred to anyone without complications), the cultivation of body parts in laboratories from patient cells, the treatment of paralysis (electrical impulses in the nervous tissue of the spine allowed scientists to restore the ability to move people who would remain paralyzed for life), reversing the aging process (one chemical has been identified that was responsible for this age-reversing effect), printing a new heart (using fat cells and collagen in 3D printing).

Conclusion

The crisis of science, technology and social order in its present form is obvious to everyone. To move to the next stage of development, radically new thoughts, ideas, principles and concepts are needed that would more deeply reveal, describe and explain both the fundamental principles of the universe and social life.

Having made a short digression into history and having studied the current state of the concepts of the future, we can conclude that iissiidiology is a concept that can provide a new stage in the development of human civilization, bring new ideas for further progress based on the harmonious development of both mental and sensual components.

Thanks to the information presented in iissiidiology and actively applied in the practice of everyday life, each person in the very near future will be able to experience new technologies that will fundamentally rebuild not only the world around us, but with it the entire habitual physiology of the human body, reprogramming its thousands of years of active and creatively productive existence. With the help of iissiidiology, we are able to integrate and unite the now fundamentally separated concepts about our emotions and the material world, about life and death, about academic science and spiritual views. And the activation of intuitive levels of consciousness opens up grandiose prospects for cosmic creativity!

Human perspective.

Among the numerous socially significant problems facing the peoples on the threshold of the third millennium, the main place was occupied by the problem of the survival of Mankind and all life on Earth. Human existence is threatened by self-destruction. This circumstance, as well as ecological, scientific, technical and other points, has been repeatedly interpreted by thinkers of the most diverse worldview orientations. Man has become, as President of the Club of Rome A. Peccei believed, an Achilles' heel for himself, he is a starting point, "in him are all beginnings and ends." From his point of view, it is important to understand the situation in which a person finds himself. Why did his path lead to disaster? Is there still time to turn off it, and if so, where? Which way to choose? What values ​​do you prefer? The consequences of anthropogenic activity, which have sharply manifested themselves in recent years for nature and man himself, make us take a closer look at the system of environmental relationships and think about the problem of their harmonization. Why should we talk about the harmony of man with nature, and why is it not enough to talk, for example, only about their unity? The fact is that, due to its objective dialectic, the contradictory unity of man with nature takes place even at those stages of their relationship when these relations are aggravated, as, for example, at the present time. At the same time, the need to get out of the current crisis situation necessitates the formation of a special form of unity between man and nature, which would ensure this. This is the harmony of man with nature.

Man, like all life on Earth, is inseparable from the biosphere, which is a necessary natural factor of its existence. Nature is a prerequisite and natural basis for human life, and their full life is possible only in adequate natural conditions. A person can exist only in a fairly definite and very narrow framework of the natural environment, corresponding to the biological characteristics of his organism. He feels the need for the ecological environment in which the evolution of mankind took place throughout its history.

J. Liner notes that "All representatives of the Homo Sapiens species are able to show the necessary plasticity of reactions in response to changes in external conditions." Mankind as a living substance is inextricably linked with the material and energy processes of a certain geological shell of the Earth, with its biosphere. It cannot physically be independent of it even for a single second. In other words, a person, as a biosocial being, needs not only a high-quality social environment, but also a natural environment of a certain quality for full life and development. This means that, along with material and spiritual needs, there are objectively ecological needs, the totality of which is affected by the biological organization of man. Ecological needs are a special kind of social needs. Man needs a certain quality of his natural habitat. Only if the proper quality of such fundamental conditions of human existence as: air, water and soil is preserved, their full life is possible. The destruction of even one of these vital components of the environment would lead to the death of life on Earth.

Today it is clear to everyone that a healthy environment is no less important than material and spiritual needs. It would be a big mistake to believe that the ecological crisis can be dealt with by economic measures alone. The ecological crisis is caused by the "arrows" that directed the movement of our technocratic civilization towards specific values ​​and categories, without correcting which it is impossible to start radical changes. With the reorientation of categories, the concept of nature must become central, so that the very relation of man to nature will be different from what it was before. The final conclusion of the philosophers dealing with this problem is rather cruel: "Either he (man) must change, or he is destined to disappear from the face of the Earth."

It should be noted that this problem, despite all its relevance, is far from new. The question of the responsibility of Reason before nature was raised as early as the 19th century. in. current of the so-called Russian cosmists, developed in the works of Fedorov, Vernadsky and others.

For the first time, people realized that humanity is capable of destroying itself by analyzing the consequences of a possible nuclear conflict. The threat was gone and everyone breathed a sigh of relief. Meanwhile, the energy of the explosion of all thermonuclear charges is less than the energy generated by the power plants of the world in just a year. Every year, gigantic masses of matter move and transform, huge areas of the virgin land surface are disturbed, plant and animal species disappear, and the radioactive background increases. The environment is changing rapidly, and the old stereotypes still dominate our minds, although they have long passed into the category of incorrect information. We believe that we are able to create a social system in which humanity can not limit its numbers and at the same time improve its standard of living while preserving the environment.

So far, all efforts to protect the environment are made within the generally accepted paradigm of mismanagement and the possibility of technological solutions to emerging problems. The main mistake of many researchers of this problem is that they proceed from the assumption that the deformation of the environment is a kind of smooth process, although nature usually demonstrates the presence of thresholds, beyond which there are landslide destruction processes. At what stage are we today: is this the beginning of the path, a pre-crisis state, or already a catastrophe?

In recent decades, huge amounts of money have been spent on the greening of production, but the desired result has not been achieved: global changes continue, and their pace is accelerating; the situation in 1996 is worse than it was in 1986. This indicates either that the efforts and funds spent are not enough, or that the chosen approach is incorrect, or both.

Truly gigantic sums are required to improve the state of the environment. For example, in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 50% in the United States, which is much more than others, by replacing coal-fired power plants with nuclear ones, it will take at least 50 trillion. dollars. At the same time, one reactor will have to be installed every 2.5 days for 38 years. It is estimated that in Western Europe the control and treatment of industrial waste in 1992 required 120 billion dollars, and in the United States in 1994 - 20 billion. The costs are clearly unrealistic. But that's not even the point. Artificial maintenance of a stationary state of the environment in some local area is an additional energy consumption, which means deterioration in the rest of the biosphere. All the measures taken today in the field of ecology are nothing more than "sweeping rubbish under the bed."

There is no other source than the biosphere and its resources to sustain life. Now our economy within the biosphere is a special system of synthesis and decomposition of matter, and man has assumed only the functions of synthesis (production), and has left the functions of decomposition to nature, relying on its assimilating capacity. But a significant part of the produced substances is alien to nature and cannot be decomposed, moreover, the assimilating capacity of the biosphere has undoubtedly been exhausted.

Another stereotype that prevents us from realistically assessing our situation: the waste of our life is what we, roughly speaking, throw into the landfill. What about the dissipation of thermal energy by any industrial, transport or utility facility? And what about water, which is used in almost any technology? And, most importantly, any final product produced? After all, this is nothing more than a delayed departure. Everything will go to the landfill in a day or several centuries.

Man as a biological species is a consumer. He consumes the products of biota (the totality of all plants and animals), and his technologies are a tool with which a person manages to consume much more biota products than he is allowed by natural laws. And thus the balance in nature is disturbed.

It has been established that the basic principle characterizing the stability of the biosphere is as follows: the rate of net carbon uptake by biota is proportional to the increase in carbon in the environment. Since the beginning of the last century, the land biota has ceased to absorb excess carbon in the atmosphere. Moreover, she herself began to throw it away, increasing, but not decreasing, changes in the environment as a result of industrial activity, i.e. biota and the environment have lost stability.

The biosphere, apparently, can compensate for any disturbances produced by man, if the consumption of primary biological products (photosynthesis) does not exceed 1% (the current share of human consumption is 10%). It does not matter whether 1% of the land is exploited, on which the biota is completely distorted, or 10% of the land, where the biota is distorted by 10%.

The mechanism used by the biota to stabilize itself and the environment is competition. (So ​​the market economy is by no means an invention of scientists, but a principle inherent in nature itself.) As long as this mechanism was used within the framework of natural energy flows, everything was in order. But when man created a new, additional flow, an ever greater part of the biota's production began to be consumed in the interests of only one species - homo sapiens - to the detriment of the rest.

The entire history of the biosphere shows that it has developed in the direction of ever greater stability. Apparently, the biota has mechanisms for the displacement of those species that violate this stability. It is unlikely that a person is an exception ... The data on the growth of genetic diseases, primarily mental and congenital disorders, testify to the disintegration of the human genome. Perhaps this is the reason for the spread of alcoholism and drug addiction, the decrease in the immune status of the human body, the emergence of new diseases. It is likely that what is commonly referred to as environmental disease and directly associated with environmental pollution is just the tip of the iceberg. The underlying mechanisms leading to the decay of the human genome are much more dangerous, but so far invisible and imperceptible.

At the end of the 20th century, mankind faced a shortage not of food or technological resources, as is commonly believed, but of an ecological resource that ensures the stability of the environment, a resource of the economic capacity of the biosphere. Developed countries, with the exception of Canada, have long destroyed their natural ecosystems, which, along with industry and transport, are sources of pollution resulting from their destruction. The latter is usually not considered or taken into account when discussing emerging problems. Moreover, this factor is not taken into account when concluding international agreements concerning payment for certain violations of the natural environment. But the states that have completely violated their habitat are alive and well and have not disappeared from the face of the Earth. Why? Only because the disturbances they produce are partially (not completely) assimilated by the ocean and those areas of land where natural communities of organisms have been preserved. These areas serve as sinks for greenhouse gases and other pollutants. And they survived only in Russia. Canada, Australia, Brazil, China and Algeria. So it turns out that everyone else lives at the expense of these countries, at the expense of their ecological resource. Moreover, the most effective in this sense are the territories of Brazil, with a huge piece of tropical forest in the Amazon, and Russia, with its largest array of forests and wetlands (swamps and waterlogged lands) in the world.

There is no need to explain to the Russians that the centralized management of the national economy does not ensure environmental safety. But the fact that the market economy behaves no better in relation to the environment, many have not yet realized. Meanwhile, the example of the United States, where nature was destroyed much faster than in Europe, testifies to this. At the beginning of the 20th century, the environment of the United States was already destroyed. If we exclude Alaska, then only about 4% of the territory remained intact /

It is the market economy that ensures the maximum speed and efficiency in the use of natural resources, and hence the speedy destruction of the environment. And the developed countries should bear the brunt of the blame for the current situation. The EEC, the USA, Canada and Japan produce more than 2/3 of the world's gross product, provide 2/3 of world trade, are the largest consumers of resources, especially energy, and produce 3/4 of the mass of global pollutants. 15% of the world's population living in these countries ("golden billion") consume 1/3 of fertilizers, 1/2 of the energy produced in the world, 2/3 of all metals, half of food and more than 2/3 of commercial timber. And yet, the market economy continues to focus on economic growth, although such a strategy leads to an ecological dead end.

Meanwhile, 23% of the world's population are classified as absolutely poor, among them 400 million do not have a home. The absolute number of disadvantaged people in the world is constantly growing. In order to somehow improve their situation, it is necessary to increase the extraction of raw materials, the production of products, and the delivery of fresh water by an order of magnitude. Mahatma Gandhi spoke about the reality of solving this problem when he was asked whether India, having achieved independence, would reach the standard of living of Great Britain. He replied: “Britain needed the resources of half the planet to achieve its prosperity. How many planets will be required for a country like India?“ The great thinker was right: there is every reason to believe that the Earth alone cannot cope with such a task.

The value of untouched nature in the context of the ecological crisis is rapidly increasing. In the near future, it will exceed all other values ​​by several orders of magnitude. That's when Russia, if it leaves part of its territories not destroyed, will be richer than all other countries in the world.

In our difficult time, we should never give in to the temptation to get a momentary benefit, we must preserve our natural fundamental potential. It is unlikely that the development of new territories will increase the well-being of the people; rather, it will only make a very small group of people even richer. It should also be remembered that there are no low-value areas of undeveloped nature. They all play a role in stabilizing the environment, cleaning it up and restoring it.

The word "development" should be excluded from the lexicon and acceptable moral norms in the same way as the words "war", "robbery", "murder". It is necessary to adopt laws in which calls and actions leading to the further development of the North, Siberia, and the Far East would be regarded as one of the most serious crimes against the peoples of Russia. It is necessary to overcome the syndrome of plundering nature, which was inherent in almost all developed countries and is repeated with frightening constancy in countries that are rapidly becoming among the “advanced”. And in the word “advanced” we put quotation marks, because these countries come forward on the ruins of their own natural environment.

Since mankind has already crossed the threshold of sustainability, in a sense we need to go back. But this does not mean at all that this is a call for regression. Progress is a biological feature of a person associated with the characteristics of his brain and psyche. Therefore, progress with or without economic growth will always accompany a person. Today, more and more scientists are coming to the idea of ​​development without economic growth. The disturbed biota is not restored immediately after the cessation of economic activity. Natural communities take hundreds of years to form, but the ability to regulate the environment seems to recover much faster - within a few decades. So, even while maintaining the energy consumption that supports the life of the modern population, it is possible to stop global destruction if the developed land area is reduced first to about 40%, and then to 20% (excluding Antarctica).

This program is quite feasible if we introduce a large international tax comparable to the GNP (and we will touch on the GNP itself a little later) for states that are unwilling or unable to reduce the developed areas. And states that have or are ready to provide the necessary percentage of virgin nature should be paid large subsidies.

Of course, in this case, a reduction in the population of the Earth will become inevitable, the number of which should not exceed 1-2 billion people. This process does not have to be painful, because it can be stretched over several centuries. A person is obliged to ensure the sustainability of the environment by changing stereotypes, the goals of the economy, the nature of behavior, and ethics. If he fails to do this, then the biota, using its powerful defense mechanisms, will do it itself, most likely destroying part of itself along with humanity. And if a person disappears as a species, then he will never reappear again: paleontology shows that a species that has disappeared is not reborn...

Water and air may seem like inexhaustible natural resources, but some environmental groups see them as a threat in the future. These groups are in favor of banning the sale of certain aerosolized drugs because they can potentially harm the ozone layer in the atmosphere. And with water in a number of regions of the world, problems have already arisen today.

The use of renewable resources such as forests and food requires attention. In order to conserve the soil and ensure enough timber to meet future demand, logging firms must re-plant the cleared areas. Food supply can become a major problem as agricultural land is limited and more land is being reclaimed for housing and commercial use.

A serious problem arises in connection with the depletion of such non-renewable resources as oil, coal and other minerals. Today, it seems, there is already a shortage of platinum, gold, zinc and lead ... By the end of the century, even with rising prices, silver, tin and uranium may become scarce. If current levels of consumption are maintained, by 2025, reserves of other minerals may also be depleted.

Even with the availability of raw materials, the activities of firms using scarce minerals can be complicated and costly. And shifting these costs onto the shoulders of the consumer will probably not be easy. R&D firms can alleviate some of the problem by discovering valuable new sources of raw materials and creating new materials.

The most serious problem of ensuring economic development in the future has arisen in connection with one of the non-renewable types of natural resources - oil. The economy of the world's leading industrialized countries is largely dependent on oil supplies, and until economically viable substitutes for this energy carrier are found, oil will continue to play a dominant role in world politics and the economy. The high cost of oil (which jumped from $2.23 per barrel in 1970 to $34.00 per barrel in 1982) spawned a frantic search for alternative energy sources. Hard coal has become popular again, and research is underway to find practical ways to use solar, nuclear, wind and other types of energy. In the field of solar energy alone, hundreds of companies offer equipment for heating residential premises and other purposes.

Industrial activity almost always harms the state of the natural environment. Consideration should be given to the disposal of waste from chemical and nuclear industries, dangerous levels of mercury in the waters of the seas and oceans, the content of DDT and other chemical pollutants in soil and food, as well as contamination of the environment with bottles, plastics and other packaging materials that do not biodegradable.

Public concern opens up a marketing opportunity for responsive firms. A large market is emerging for pollution control products such as scrubbers and recycle units. The search for alternative ways to produce and package goods without harming the environment begins.

The management of the marketing service must keep all these problems in view in order to be able to obtain the natural resources necessary for the activities of the company without harming the environment. In this sense, entrepreneurial activity will certainly be under strong control both from the side of state bodies and from influential groups of the public. Instead of resisting all forms of regulation, business should be involved in finding acceptable solutions to the country's resource and energy supply problems.

A person is obliged to ensure the sustainability of the environment by changing stereotypes, the goals of the economy, the nature of behavior, and ethics. If he fails to do this, then the biota, using its powerful defense mechanisms, will do it itself, most likely destroying part of itself along with humanity. And if a person disappears as a species, then he will never reappear: paleontology shows that a species that has disappeared is not reborn. Mankind faces a choice, the result of which is the resolution of the question of its own survival and further development. It's about choosing a path.

From the most rigorous calculations, we already know today that no waste-free technologies and other environmental actions, with all their absolute and vital necessity, are not capable of solving the problem of the saving relationship between Man and Nature. Probably much more is needed. With the current imbalance of production and consumption with the natural cycles of the biosphere, such measures will only help buy some time for a more radical restructuring of the entire system as a whole, and to the greatest extent - human consciousness.

So, the path has been named: it is a restructuring, first of all, of human consciousness in relation to nature, the development of fundamentally new foundations for the interaction between Man and Nature, a fundamentally different path for the development of civilization. And such a restructuring cannot be started without a sufficiently holistic philosophical concept of what we call the place of Man in the Universe.

80 years before Peccei and Forrester, undeniably remarkable people, N Fedorov wrote: “So, the world is coming to an end, and man, by his activity, even contributes to the approach of the end, for a civilization that exploits, and not restores, cannot have a different result. "In the understanding of Fedorov, power over nature is not at all identical with the installation of the conquest of nature by F. Bacon. It means such an ability to interfere in the natural course of natural and social processes that will ensure humanity's future. In other words, we need not blind obedience to circumstances and a statement of facts, but attempts to constructively resolve emerging conflicts and difficulties, attempts to understand the general planetary order that is necessary for the continuation of the history of civilization. result.

Despite the emergence of ideas about the unity of Nature and Man, their interdependence, these two worlds in the minds of scientists of the 19th century were not yet interconnected. Such a link was the doctrine of the noosphere, which began to form V.I. Vernadsky at the beginning of this century. By 1900 he summed up the experience of many years of research. As a result, a new scientific discipline emerged: biogeochemistry. In a book with the same title, Vernadsky launched a broad program for the evolution of the biosphere from its inception to the present. The creation of biochemistry naturally raised a new question - the question of the place of Man in this picture of planetary development. And Vernadsky gave an answer to it. Already in the first years of the XX century. he began to say that Man's influence on the surrounding nature is growing so rapidly that the time is not far off when he will become the main geological force. And, as a consequence, he will necessarily have to take responsibility for the future development of nature. The development of the environment and society will become inseparable. The biosphere will one day pass into the sphere of reason - the noosphere. There will be a great unification, as a result of which the development of the planet will become directed - directed by the power of the mind.

With the term "noosphere" not everything is so simple: there is no unambiguous interpretation of it. In general, it is customary to call the part of the biosphere that is under the influence of man and transformed by him. From this, some authors conclude that the transition of the biosphere into the noosphere means only the gradual development of the biosphere by man. However, it should be noted that such a transformation of the concept is not legitimate. Vernadsky's noosphere is such a state of the biosphere when its development is purposeful, when the Mind has the ability to direct the development of the biosphere in the interests of Man, his future.

Vernadsky's next proposition about the auto-evolution of Man follows logically from this. An important way of human development is the way of his self-development. Expanding and deepening the biosphere, expanding the boundaries of the known world, man himself endlessly develops and improves. Otherwise, a deadlock situation would have developed: having reached the limit of the inherent possibilities, humanity would have stopped in its development, and if it had stopped, it would have perished. This position of Vernadsky about the possibilities and necessity of human self-development is also an important part of his doctrine of the noosphere. As a result of the realization that the global nature of the impact of human activity on the natural environment has become a sad reality, it was recognized that the uncontrolled influence of anthropogenic factors on nature has reached the threshold of its self-defense, and the idea of ​​conscious control over the evolution of the biosphere arose (N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, N. N. Vorontsov, A. V. Yablokov, N. V. Lazorev, D. Bernal, etc.). To resolve the contradictions of technological progress, programs of practical actions began to be created, such as the programs "Club of Rome", "Global change", "Geosphere-biosphere", etc. Each of these programs, regardless of its initial assumptions, faced the problem of the correlation of evolution natural environment and human culture.

So, on the threshold of the 3rd millennium, mankind is looking for a worthy answer to the "environmental challenge" that has arisen before the civilization of the 20th century. If in the 70s there was an awareness of the specifics of the relationship between society and nature in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, and in the 80s tactics were developed to mitigate the socio-ecological situation and "extinguish" acute "ecological fires" on a local and regional scale, then in the 90s humanity must, in order to survive ecologically , develop and begin active implementation of a unified global strategy for global development that ensures the quality of the environment for the civilization of the 21st century.

This is all the more important because at all times the relationship between man and nature has been one of the most important factors determining the status of civilization in the history of mankind, the spiritual climate of the era. And each era added, as it were, its own touch to the interpretation of the environmental problem, to attempts to identify and use effective ways to solve it. Where is the way out of the situation when, breaking away from nature in the process of its technical, scientific or spiritual development, civilization reaches the dangerous verge of a complete break with it.

No less dangerous is the other polar position of the so-called "deep ecologists" who speak of humanity in terms of disease. According to their views, people are pathogens, a kind of viruses, a type of global cancer that threatens the very existence of the Earth. There is only one way of treatment: to erase humanity from the face of the Earth. In other words, they believe that "the world is afflicted with cancer, and this cancer is man himself."

Such is the picture of the spread of opinions today: from the apologetics of permissiveness to recipes for the total destruction of mankind for the survival of the Earth. However, these are extreme points of view, and the search for an answer to the exciting questions of our time, obviously, lies somewhere in the middle. Today it is already clear that the question of the widest possible greening of public consciousness has urgently appeared on the agenda. Environmental education and upbringing plays a paramount role in the formation of a high ecological culture. The goal of environmental upbringing and education is the purposeful formation of deep and strong environmental knowledge, holistic ideas about the biosphere, understanding of the organic relationship and unity of mankind and the environment, the role of nature in the life of society and man, the need and importance of its protection in every person at all stages of his life and rational use of resources, fostering personal responsibility for the state of the environment.

The ultimate goal of such education is to enable the population to understand the complexity of the environment and the need for all countries to develop in a way that is consistent with the environment. Such education should also promote human awareness of the economic, political and environmental interdependence of the modern world, in order to increase the sense of responsibility of all countries, which will be a prerequisite for solving serious environmental problems at the global level.

Probably, before proceeding with the development of new moral imperatives and norms of the relationship between man and nature, it is necessary, figuratively speaking, to "clear a place for them" by critically reviewing and analyzing the old (that is, modern) dogmas of ecological consciousness. And this is also one of the tasks of philosophy at this stage. Without pretending to be an exhaustive description, we can single out the following most important dogmas of modern mass ecological consciousness.

Dogma 1. The first priority is to preserve nature. However, the only radical way to preserve nature would be the destruction of mankind. By his material-productive activity, man transforms nature, that is, he changes it not for the sake of curiosity, but by virtue of the essence of his being. Change, not preservation, is the way of human life. Another thing is that in order to maintain normal conditions of existence, a person must constantly compensate for his destabilizing effect on nature with other transformations. The primary task of humanity is to ensure the stability of its development, the dynamic balance of the "Nature - Society" system. Moreover, as one develops, a person is forced to increasingly take control of the state of nature, since its natural forces can no longer compensate for the anthropogenic influence.

Dogma 2. Ecological problems are a product of the modern world; even in the recent past, relations with nature were harmonious. This understanding gives rise to the idealization of the past way of life, underlies the slogan "back to nature." The reason for the emergence of this dogma is an uncritical attitude to history, a poor knowledge of its real facts. Throughout its existence, mankind has faced and more or less successfully solved environmental problems. The difference of our period of history is that these problems have assumed a global character.

Dogma 3. In the future, environmental problems can be completely solved. This optimistic position was formed under the influence of advertising of the achievements of the scientific and technical progress, its potentialities. At the same time, it is overlooked that any achievement of technology, along with a beneficial effect, also gives a side effect, the environmental impact of which is initially unpredictable. For example, even the cleanest energy - solar - gives a by-product in the form of thermal pollution, therefore it also has ecological limits to its development.

Conclusion: the destruction of the dogmas of ecological consciousness, the formation of a scientifically verified ecological imperative in the thinking of every person is a necessary condition for the survival of mankind.

All of the above, in essence, means posing the problem of the need for a qualitatively new type of civilizational development, which should replace modern civilization and the further development of a planetary strategy for its implementation. Do not "hide" in anticipation, abandoning all the achievements of scientific and technical progress, not "return to nature" in the primitive meaning of this call, but rise to a qualitatively new level of relations between nature and society, ensure their stability, balanced mutual development.

Let us now formulate some main conclusions that can be reached as a result of the analysis of the above material. The main one is that overcoming the existing environmental difficulties is in principle possible. It follows both from the analysis of the history of the relationship between man and nature, and from the potential of the current stage of these relationships, the possibilities of science, technology, culture in the broad sense of the word. However, in order to overcome the existing environmental difficulties - and this is the second conclusion - significant changes are needed in the development of science and technology (reforming the existing disciplines of global ecology, etc., developing new methods and approaches to studying the relationship between man and nature, etc.), as well as production and management.

Harmonization of the relationship between man and nature is valuable not only in the proper ecological sense. It is also important for solving other problems. Environmentally justified solutions are at the same time socially positive, insofar as the person himself and society as a whole are part of nature in the broadest sense of the word.

The task of harmonization belongs to those still distant stages in the development of human interaction with nature, when, in contrast to the current deep conflict with nature, a real basis for the unity of man with nature will be created. But we have no right to neglect even a distant prospect, to leave it unattended for the sake of today's urgent problems. And here there is something to say to the philosopher. He, in contrast to the previous ideas of "fighting with nature," can put forward, if not programs for harmonizing relations with all living beings on Earth, then at least well-thought-out ideals of morally mature, spiritually meaningful relations with the world; philosophy can make a significant contribution to the preparation of the intellectual and psychological climate for the adoption and implementation of such ideals, to stimulate the creative search for conflict-free forms of interaction with nature and the gradual softening of existing rigid attitudes towards nature.

The breadth and diversity of the problem raised, as well as the volume of this work, did not allow an analysis of all its aspects. However, as a result of a general review of various positions and opinions that directly or indirectly affect the philosophical aspects of the relationship between man and nature, it is clear that the further development of a strategy for the development of relations in this system, determining the place of Man in the Universe is one of the most important tasks of our time. And no half-measures can solve this problem.

The history of world civilization teaches that the way out of the ecological crisis is to creatively respond to the challenge of the current situation and radically change the social production technology and the basic forms of the relationship between man and nature. The main ideological principle of the relationship between man and nature should be the principle of harmony between man and nature as two relatively independent and developing each according to its own laws, but at the same time internally inextricably linked parts of a single system.

Philosophically, the future is ultimately a vulnerable and evolving present. Consequently, the current pace of development is what can be called a kind of "abuse carried over into the future", which will be reflected tenfold in our descendants. Those who justify the destruction of nature by the need to improve the welfare of society must remember that the improvement of the individual is impossible at the expense of nature, but must be accompanied by the improvement of nature itself.

Determining the further strategy for the development of mankind and civilization, new moral and philosophical priorities in relations with nature, it should be remembered that the biosphere existed before the appearance of man on Earth, and can exist without him. But a person cannot exist without a biosphere - this is an axiom. This means that the implementation of the principle of joint development, ensuring the co-evolution of the biosphere and society requires from a person a certain regulation in his actions, certain restrictions.

Will our society be able to put its development within a certain framework, to subordinate it to certain conditions of the "ecological imperative"? Only history can answer this question.

Questions for self-examination.

1. The main reason leading to the death of mankind in the II millennium.

2. President of the Club of Rome and his activities.

3. Sciences that study the future of man.

4. Ways to overcome environmental difficulties.

5. Consideration by well-known scientists of the topic of the survival of mankind.

6. Economic, foreign policy and ecological situation on Earth.

7. Humanity lives in a pre-crisis state and in anticipation of a catastrophe. Justify your opinion.

8. Evidence of environmental pollution.

9. Problems of shortage of natural resources at the end of the twentieth century.

Bibliography.

1. Gore L. Land on the scales. - M: PPP, 1993.

2. Girenok F.I. Ecology, civilization, noosphere. - M.: Nauka, 1990.

3. Zhibul I.Ya. Ecological needs: essence, dynamics, prospects. - Minsk: Science and technology, 1991.

4. Ivanov V.G. Conflict of values ​​and solving environmental problems. - M.: Knowledge, 1991.

5. Kravchenko I.I. Ecological theory in modern theories of social development. - M.: Nauka, 1982.

6. Kobylyansky V.A. Nature and society. Specificity, unity and interaction. - Krasnoyarsk: Publishing house Krasn. un-ta, 1985.

7. Kulpin E.S., Pantin V.I. Decisive experience. M., 1993.

8. Los V.A. The relationship between society and nature. - M.: Knowledge, 1990.

9. Moiseev N.N. Man and the noosphere. - M.: Young Guard, 1990.

10. Moiseev N.N. Man, environment and society. - M.: Nauka, 1982.

11. Safonov I.A. Philosophical problems of the unity of man and nature. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg University, 1992.

12. Hesle V. Philosophy and ecology. - M.: Nauka, 1993.

13. History of interaction between society and nature (Abstracts of the conference) - M., 1990, part 1-3.

14. Man and nature - problems of socio-natural history (materials of a scientific conference) - M., 1994.

Conclusion.

The question of the emergence of man and society, being an “eternal” subject of theoretical knowledge and self-knowledge of mankind, inevitably causes reflection on how and why a person arose, gives rise to historically specific ideas: what is he like and what is the mechanism of his “inclusion” in the world around him .

An important ideological significance of the study of anthroposociogenesis also lies in the fact that the problem of the origin of mankind - the subject of historical action - in methodological terms acts as a connecting link between the dialectics of nature and the dialectics of society.

The beginnings of the scientific study of man were laid in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine. The knowledge of nature, the material world surrounding man, and the knowledge of man, who stands out from nature and opposes it, but at the same time is one of its most striking phenomena, have always developed interconnectedly. Anthropomorphism and its various modifications in biology gradually became obsolete, with the accumulation of knowledge about plant and animal organisms, on the one hand, and the understanding of a certain place, man himself in organic nature, on the other. The identification of man as a species of Homo sapiens in the order of primates by K. Linnaeus, who determined the place of man in the general systematics of living nature, was an important turn in the process of overcoming anthropocentrism in natural philosophy and the general system of natural science. The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, genetically explaining the formation of Homo sapiens in the general process of the evolution of life through natural selection, united various natural sciences in the study of man as a product and peak of the evolutionary process. Although anthropology dates back to ancient times, it acquired a strictly scientific character on the basis of evolutionary theory. But this theory is not enough to explain the anthropogenesis, since the origin of man as a biological species cannot be explained without a scientific understanding of the origin of society with its production of the material life of people. The theory of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis completed the formation of the scientific concept of man as a species.

The prehistory of the theory of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis is connected not only with natural science, but also with philosophy and history, political economy and sociology. Consequently, the significance of these areas for the development of anthropology as a special natural science of man cannot be ignored, given that paleoanthropology, which studies anthropogenesis, is associated with archeology, one of the historical sciences; comparative ethnology and other social disciplines. The role of these sciences in determining the place of man as a biological species in the system of living nature is very significant. Consequently, the formulation of the problem of Homo sapiens in a strictly scientific sense is the result of the progress of many areas of natural science, socio-historical sciences and philosophy.

Knowledge of the origins of human history is internally dialectical. From an epistemological point of view, the logical relationship between the analysis of the initial and higher stages of the development of sociality is of interest. On the one hand, the modern era opens up new opportunities for a thorough and detailed penetration of science into the contradictory essence of the process of anthroposociogenesis. On the other hand, an ever more adequate knowledge of the patterns of the origin of society, the "beginning" of history, allows a deeper and more detailed analysis of the driving forces and trends of modern social development, as well as the historical perspectives of mankind.

The composition of the Provisional Government was determined by the evening of March 2. It included: Minister-Chairman Prince G. E. Lvov, Cadets P. N. Milyukov, A. A. Manuilov, N. V. Nekrasov, Octobrists A. I. Guchkov and I. V. Godnev, and other bourgeois politicians. A.F. Kerensky was the only socialist there.

Go of the world", the consolidation of "all classes and elements of the people", "the final consolidation of political freedom and people's government in Russia". And the working masses gave their sympathy to them, and not to the Bolsheviks with their frightening appeal to civilians to continue the struggle until the formation of a “Provisional Revolutionary Government” in the country and the transfer of this struggle to the international arena - in alliance with the “proletariat of the warring countries” against the “oppressors and enslavers , against the tsarist governments and capitalist cliques" (Manifesto of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) of February 27, 1917).

In domestic feature films, he built a film factory in Moscow, a number of cinemas. Among the first feature films were The Queen of Spades and Father Sergius directed by Ya. A. Protazanov.

The attention of society is also attracted by the problems of physical culture of the population, the development of sports. The first sports clubs (fencing, skating, swimming, sailing and rowing) appeared in large Russian cities as early as the middle of the 19th century. But they were closed, noble and elitist in nature. Only from the end of the century, sports societies began to emerge that were accessible to the general population, gymnastic classes for young people. All-Russian unions in various sports were established and the first championships began to be organized. Russia was among the 12 countries that in 1894 at the congress in Paris made a historic decision to revive the Olympic Games and create the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The national team of the country began to participate in these games since 1908 and immediately acquired the first domestic Olympic champion - figure skater N. A. Panin-Kolomenkin. In 1912, the All-Russian Football Union was formed in St. Petersburg, which became part of the International Football Federation (FIFA, established in 1904). Chess player M. I. Chigorin won a number of brilliant victories in international tournaments, thus laying the foundations for the famous Russian chess school in the future. The glory of the great Russian wrestler I. M. Poddubny thundered throughout the country.

Early 20th century was marked by the intensive growth in Russia of the periodical press and book business. The manifesto of 17 October 1905 introduced, albeit incompletely, freedom of the press. It was exempted from prior censorship, retroactively subjected to legal and administrative prosecution for publications of an anti-government nature. Although the concept of "anti-government" was interpreted by the authorities extremely broadly, nevertheless, the prospects for publishing activities have now become much more attractive than before.

If at the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published in the country, then in 1913 - more than 1000. The number of magazines by this time had reached an even larger figure - 1263. At the same time, along with the traditional "thick" magazines designed for the educated segments of society, more "thin" ones began to appear - purely entertaining, "for family reading", women's, for children and youth, etc. Some of them were very popular and came out in mass editions.

The production of books expanded significantly: in terms of the total amount of published literature, Russia at that time took third place in the world (after Germany and Japan). A noticeable phenomenon in Russian culture is the activity of many book publishers, among which I. D. Sytin, A. S. Suvorin and

A.F. Marx. Sytin became famous for publications available to the general reader: popular prints, various brochures, school textbooks. Suvorin and Marx acted in the same vein, publishing mass editions of works by Russian and foreign writers, books on art, and popular science works. There are publishing houses, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Russian science is moving to the forefront. In its various fields at this time, scientists appear whose discoveries change traditional ideas about the world around them. In the field of natural sciences, such a revolutionary role was played by the works of the physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new method for studying living organisms. For discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion, Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Another Russian naturalist, I. I. Mechnikov, became a Nobel laureate for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

B. I. Vernadsky.

Ahead of their time, scientists who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science worked. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics. In 1902, under his leadership, a wind tunnel was built - one of the first in Europe, in 1904 the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was created. The brightest phenomenon not only in Russian but also in world science was the work of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid the foundations for the theory of rocket propulsion and theoretical astronautics.

The revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics, the humanities, history, philosophy, economics, and law. These sciences from "cabinet" turned into publicistic, a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov, acquires special significance. With extraordinary force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E N. Trubetskoy, S. JI. Frank and others

At this time, a number of striking works appeared related to various areas of historical research: “Essays on the History of Russian Culture” by P. N. Milyukov, “Peasant Reform” by A. A. Kornilov, “History of Young Russia” by M. O. Gershenzon. More and more attention of historians is attracted by problems of an economic nature. Serious studies on the history of the Russian economy were created by the "legal Marxists" M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. An original indicator of the high level of domestic historical science was the brilliant lecture course on Russian history by Moscow University professor V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the 20th century.

The names of Russian linguists F. F. Fortunatov, A. A. Shakhmatov, N. V. Krushevsky are associated with the development of a number of fundamental issues of general linguistics and the birth of linguistics as a science. In literary criticism, the most prominent figure was A. N. Veselovsky, one of the founders of the comparative historical school, who worked on comparing the monuments of different eras and peoples.

Literature and art. Literature of the late XIX - early XX century. existed and developed under the powerful
the impact of the crisis, which covered almost all aspects of Russian life.

The great realist writers of the 19th century, who were finishing their creative and life path, managed to convey their sense of the tragedy and disorder of the Russian life of that time with great artistic power: JI. N. Tolstoy (“Resurrection”, “Living Corpse”) and A.P. Chekhov (“Ionych”, “House with a Mezzanine”, “Seagull”, etc.). Continuers of realistic traditions I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, JI. N. Andreev, A. N. Tolstoy, in turn, created magnificent examples of realistic art. However, the plots of their works became more and more disturbing and gloomy from year to year, the ideals that inspired them became more and more obscure. The life-affirming pathos that was so characteristic of the Russian classics of the 19th century, under the yoke of sad events, gradually disappeared from their work.

To a certain extent, similar features were also inherent in the works of M. Gorky, the most popular realist writer at that time. A sensitive observer, he extremely expressively reproduced in his stories, short stories, and essays the dark sides of Russian life: peasant savagery, philistine indifferent satiety, unlimited arbitrariness of power (the novel Foma Gordeev, the plays The Petty Bourgeoises, At the Bottom). Far less creatively convincing were attempts to find a force capable of resisting this life, first among the tramp rebels (the story "Chelkash"), then among the revolutionary proletariat (the novel "Mother").