To maintain and streamline the domestic market in 1719, the College of Commerce was created. Later, the Main and city magistrates were established, whose functions included all kinds of assistance to the merchants, their self-government, and the creation of guilds.

In order to improve trade routes, the government for the first time in the history of the country began the construction of canals. So, in 1703-1709, the Vyshnevolotsky canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga (1718) canal, completed shortly after the death of Peter, the Volga-Don (1698) canal, the construction of which was completed only in 1952, began. Land roads were very bad, during the period of rains and mudslides they became impassable, which, of course, hindered the development of regular trade relations. In addition, there were still many internal customs duties in the country, which also held back the growth of the all-Russian market.

It should be noted that the development of domestic trade was held back by "money hunger", the country still experienced an acute shortage of monetary metals. The money turnover consisted mainly of small copper coins. The silver kopeck was a very large monetary unit, often it was chopped into several parts, each of which made an independent turnover.

In 1704, Peter I began a monetary reform. Silver ruble coins began to be issued, or simply rubles, which until Peter the Great remained only a conditional counting unit (the ruble did not exist as a coin). The silver thaler was taken as a weight unit of the ruble, although the silver content in the ruble was less than in the thaler. A portrait of Peter I, a double-headed eagle, the year of issue and the inscription "Tsar Peter Alekseevich" were stamped on the ruble. Kolomiets A. G. History of the fatherland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.326.

The new monetary system was based on a very simple and rational decimal principle: 1 ruble \u003d 10 hryvnias \u003d 100 kopecks. By the way, many Western countries came to such a system much later. Fifty kopecks were issued - 50 kopecks, half-fifty kopecks - 25 kopecks, nickels - 5 kopecks. Later, altyn - 3 kopecks and five-altyn - 15 kopecks were added to them. The minting of coins became a strict and unconditional monopoly of the state, a ban was announced on the export of precious metals abroad. Pushkarev S.G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.161. In the same period, the search for domestic silver deposits in Transbaikalia, in the Nerchinsk region, was crowned with success. The strengthening of the monetary system was also facilitated by an increase in exports and a positive foreign trade balance.

Under Peter I, gold coins were also issued: Caesar's rubles and chervonets. The first of them were often used as a military award to the lower ranks - soldiers, while the ruble was hung like a medal around the neck. Chervonets, on the other hand, mainly served foreign trade turnover and had almost no circulation inside the country.

Initially, the Peter's ruble was quite valuable and was equal to 8 1/3 spools of pure silver (1 spool = 4.3 g). Later, as a result of negative economic changes in the country, the ruble gradually "lost weight", first to 5 5/6, and then to 4 spools. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.327.

Peter's reforms also affected foreign trade, which began to actively develop due, first of all, to access to the Baltic Sea. The purposeful policy of mercantilism pursued by the government contributed to the strengthening of the foreign trade orientation of the Russian economy. One of the ideologists of mercantilism was the Russian thinker-economist I.T. Pososhkov, who in 1724 published The Book of Poverty and Wealth. In it, he emphasized that the country needed to create technically advanced enterprises based on domestic raw materials in order to be able to confidently enter the foreign market.

Supporters of mercantilism believed that the country should achieve an active foreign trade balance, i.e. excess of income from the export of goods over the costs of importing goods into the country. For example, in 1726, export from Russia through the main seaports - St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Riga - amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and import - 2.1 million.

An obligatory element of mercantilism is the establishment of strict customs barriers to protect domestic producers from foreign competitors. So, in 1724, a customs tariff was established, according to which a duty of up to 75% of their value was established on the import of such foreign goods as iron, canvas, silk fabrics in order to stimulate their production in their own country. Up to 50% duty was set on Dutch linen, velvet, silver and other goods, up to 25% - on those goods that were produced in Russia in insufficient quantities: woolen fabrics, writing paper, up to 10% - on copper utensils, window glass, etc. .d.

High export duties were imposed on raw materials necessary for domestic entrepreneurs so that they would not leave the country. The state kept basically all foreign trade in its hands through monopoly trading companies and farming out. The main currency used in foreign circulation was still the silver thaler (yefimok). Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.160.

Significant changes also took place in the structure of foreign trade. If at the beginning of the 18th century mainly agricultural products and raw materials were exported, then by the mid-1720s, manufacturing products began to occupy a larger share: Ural iron from the Demidov factories, linen, ropes, canvas. In imports, as before, the largest volume was occupied by luxury goods for members of the royal family and nobles, as well as colonial goods: tea, coffee, spices, sugar, wines. Thanks to the energetic actions of Peter, Russia from 1712 for the first time in history stopped buying weapons in Europe.

During the first decades of the 18th century, the geography of Russian foreign trade centers also changed. If in the 17th century Arkhangelsk played the main role in trade with the West, then St. Petersburg soon took its place, and later - Riga, Revel (Tallinn), Vyborg, Narva. Trade relations with Persia and India were conducted along the Volga through Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea, with China - through Kyakhta. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.328.

Together with your classmates, prepare a presentation on the topic "Russian merchants and their trade routes under Peter I."

Answer

Development of trade

Peter also paid attention to trade, to the better organization and facilitation of trade on the part of the state, for a very long time. Back in the 1690s, he was busy talking about commerce with knowledgeable foreigners and, of course, became interested in trading European companies no less than industrial ones.

By a decree of the College of Commerce in 1723, Peter ordered “to send the children of merchants to foreign lands, so that there would never be less than 15 people in foreign lands, and when they are trained, take back and in their place new ones, and order those who have been trained to teach here, in honor of all it is impossible to send; why take from all the noble cities, so that this could be done everywhere; and send 20 people to Riga and Revel and distribute them to the capitalists; these are both numbers from the townspeople; besides, the collegium of labor has to teach commerce certain of the noble children.

The conquest of the sea coast, the founding of St. Petersburg with the direct appointment of it as a port, the teaching of mercantilism, adopted by Peter - all this made him think about commerce, about its development in Russia. In the first 10 years of the 18th century, the development of trade with the West was hampered by the fact that many goods were declared a state monopoly and were sold only through government agents. But Peter did not consider this measure, caused by the extreme need for money, to be useful, and therefore, when the military alarm calmed down somewhat, he again turned to the thought of companies of trading people. In July 1712, he gave an order to the Senate - "immediately try to make the best order in the merchant's business." The Senate began to try to arrange a company of merchants for trade with China, but the Moscow merchants "refused to take this trade into the company." As early as February 12, 1712, Peter ordered “to set up a collegium for the correction of the trade business, in order to bring it into a better condition; Why is it necessary for one or two people of foreigners who need to be pleased, so that they show the truth and jealousy in that with an oath, so that it is better to show the truth and jealousy in that with an oath, in order to better arrange order, for there is no doubt that their bargaining is incomparably better ours". The collegium was formed, worked out the rules of its existence and actions. The collegium worked first in Moscow, then in St. Petersburg. With the establishment of the College of Commerce, all the affairs of this prototype of it were transferred to the new department of trade.

In 1723, Peter ordered a company of merchants to trade with Spain. It was also planned to arrange a company for trade with France. To begin with, Russian state-owned ships with goods were sent to the ports of these states, but this was the end of the matter. Trading companies did not take root and began to appear in Russia no earlier than the middle of the 18th century, and even then under the condition of great privileges and patronage from the treasury. Russian merchants preferred to trade personally or through clerks alone, without entering into companies with others.

Since 1715, the first Russian consulates appeared abroad. On April 8, 1719, Peter issued a decree on the freedom of trade. For a better arrangement of river merchant ships, Peter forbade the construction of old-fashioned ships, various boards and plows.

Peter saw the basis of the commercial significance of Russia in the fact that nature judged her to be a trading intermediary between Europe and Asia.

After the capture of Azov, when the Azov fleet was created, it was supposed to direct the entire trade movement of Russia to the Black Sea. Then the connection of the waterways of Central Russia with the Black Sea by two channels was undertaken. One was supposed to connect the tributaries of the Don and the Volga, the Kamyshinka and the Ilovley, and the other would approach the small Ivan Lake in the Epifansky district, Tula province, from which the Don flows on one side, and on the other, the Shash River, a tributary of the Upa, which flows into the Oka. But the Prut failure forced them to leave Azov and give up all hopes of mastering the Black Sea coast.

Having established himself on the Baltic coast, having founded the new capital of St. Petersburg, Peter decided to connect the Baltic Sea with the Caspian Sea, using the rivers and canals that he intended to build. Already in 1706, he ordered the Tvertsa River to be connected by a canal to the Tsna, which, forming Lake Mstino with its expansion, leaves it with the name of the Msta River and flows into Lake Ilmen. This was the beginning of the famous Vyshnevolotsk system. The main obstacle to connecting the Neva and the Volga was the stormy Lake Ladoga, and Peter decided to build a bypass canal to bypass its inhospitable waters. Peter planned to connect the Volga with the Neva, breaking through the watershed between the rivers Vytegra, which flows into Lake Onega, and Kovzha, which flows into Beloozero, and thus outlined the network of the Mariinsky system already implemented in the 19th century.

Simultaneously with the efforts to connect the Baltic and Caspian rivers with a network of canals, Peter took decisive measures to ensure that the movement of foreign trade left its former habitual path to the White Sea and Arkhangelsk and took a new direction to St. Petersburg. Government measures in this direction began in 1712, but the protests of foreign merchants, who complained about the inconvenience of living in a new city like Petersburg, the considerable danger of sailing in wartime on the Baltic Sea, the high cost of the route itself, because the Danes took a fee for the passage of ships , - all this made Peter postpone the abrupt transfer of trade with Europe from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg: but already in 1718 he issued a decree allowing only hemp trade in Arkhangelsk, all the grain trade was ordered to move to St. Petersburg. Thanks to these and other measures of the same nature, St. Petersburg became a significant place for holiday and import trade. Concerned about raising the commercial importance of his new capital, Peter is negotiating with his future son-in-law, the Duke of Holstein, regarding the possibility of digging a canal from Kiel to the North Sea in order to be independent from the Danes, and, taking advantage of the confusion in Mecklenburg and wartime in general, he thinks to establish himself more firmly near the possible entrance to the projected channel. But this project was carried out much later, after the death of Peter.

The subject of export from Russian ports were mainly raw products: fur goods, honey, wax. Since the 17th century, Russian timber, tar, tar, sailcloth, hemp, and ropes have been especially valued in the West. At the same time, livestock products - leather, lard, bristles - went intensively for export; from the time of Peter the Great, mining products went abroad, mainly iron and copper. Flax and hemp were in particular demand; trade in bread was weak due to lack of roads and government bans on selling bread abroad.

Instead of Russian raw materials, Europe could supply us with the products of its manufacturing industry. But, patronizing his factories and plants, Peter, with almost prohibitive duties, greatly reduced the import of foreign manufactured goods into Russia, allowing only those that were not produced in Russia at all, or only those that Russian factories and plants needed (this was a policy of protectionism)

Peter also paid tribute to the enthusiasm characteristic of his time to trade with the countries of the far south, with India. He dreamed of an expedition to Madagascar, and he thought of directing Indian trade through Khiva and Bukhara to Russia. A.P. Volynsky was sent to Persia as an ambassador, and Peter instructed him to find out if there was any river in Persia that would flow from India through Persia and flow into the Caspian Sea. Volynsky had to work so that the Shah would direct the entire trade of Persia in raw silk not through the cities of the Turkish Sultan - Smyrna and Aleppo, but through Astrakhan. In 1715, a trade agreement was concluded with Persia, and Astrakhan trade became very active. Realizing the importance of the Caspian Sea for his broad plans, Peter took advantage of the intervention in Persia, when the rebels killed the Russian merchants there, and occupied the coast of the Caspian Sea from Baku and Derbent inclusive. In Central Asia, on the Amu Darya, Peter sent a military expedition under the command of Prince Bekovich-Cherkassky. In order to establish themselves there, it was supposed to find the old channel of the Amu Darya River and direct its course to the Caspian Sea, but this attempt failed: exhausted by the difficulty of the path through the desert scorched by the sun, the Russian detachment fell into an ambush set by the Khiva, and was all exterminated.

It is difficult to disagree with the well-known historian Immanuel Wallerstein, who argued that the Muscovite state (at least until 1689) should undoubtedly be placed outside the framework of "European Europe". Fernand Braudel, author of the brilliant monograph Time of the World (Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 1979; Russian edition, Moscow, Progress, 1992), who agrees with Wallerstein, nonetheless asserts that Moscow has never been absolutely closed to European economy, even before the conquest of Narva or before the first English settlements in Arkhangelsk (1553 - 1555), Europe strongly influenced the East with the superiority of its monetary system, the attractiveness and temptations of technology and goods, with all its power. But if the Turkish Empire, for example, diligently kept aloof from this influence, then Moscow gradually pulled itself towards the West. To open a window to the Baltic, to allow the new English Moscow company to settle in Arkhangelsk - this meant an unambiguous step towards Europe. However, the truce with the Swedes, signed on August 5, 1583, closed Russia's only exit to the Baltic and retained only the inconvenient Arkhangelsk port on the White Sea. Thus, access to Europe was difficult. The Swedes, however, did not prohibit the passage of goods imported or exported by Russians through Narva. Exchanges with Europe also continued through Revel and Riga. Their positive balance for Russia was paid in gold and silver. The Dutch, importers of Russian grain and hemp, brought sacks of coins, each containing between 400 and 1,000 riksdaler (the official coin of the Netherlands after the Estates General of 1579). In 1650, 2755 bags were delivered to Riga, in 1651. - 2145, in 1652 - 2012 bags. In 1683, trade through Riga gave Russia a positive balance of 832,928 riksdaler. Russia remained semi-closed in itself not because it was allegedly cut off from Europe or opposed to exchanges. The reasons were rather in the moderate interest of the Russians in the West, in the unsteady political balance of Russia. To some extent, the experience of Moscow is akin to the experience of Japan, but with the big difference that the latter, after 1638, closed itself to the world economy through a political decision. Turkey was the main foreign market for Russia in the 16th and early 17th centuries. The Black Sea belonged to the Turks and was well guarded by them, and therefore, at the end of the trade routes that passed through the Don valley and the Sea of ​​Azov, goods were reloaded exclusively on Turkish ships. Equestrian messengers regularly ran between Crimea and Moscow. The capture of the lower reaches of the Volga (the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan in the middle of the 16th century) opened the way to the south, although the waterway passed through weakly peaceful areas and remained dangerous. However, Russian merchants created river caravans, uniting in large detachments. Kazan and, to an even greater extent, Astrakhan became the checkpoints of Russian trade heading to the Lower Volga, Central Asia, China and Iran. Trade trips captured Qazvin, Shiraz, the island of Ormuz (which took three months to reach from Moscow). The Russian fleet, created in Astrakhan during the second half of the 16th century, actively operated in the Caspian. Other trade routes led to Tashkent, Samarkand and Bukhara, all the way to Tobolsk, which was then the frontier of the Siberian East. Although we do not have exact figures expressing the volume of Russian trade exchange between the southeast and west, the prevailing role of the markets of the South and East seems obvious. Russia exported raw hides, furs, hardware, coarse linen, iron products, weapons, wax, honey, food products, plus re-exported European products: Flemish and English cloth, paper, glass, and metals. To Russia from the eastern states spices, Chinese and Indian silks in transit through Iran; Persian velvets and brocades; Turkey supplied sugar, dried fruits, gold items and pearls; Central Asia provided inexpensive cotton products. It appears that Eastern trade has been positive for Russia. In any case, this applies to state monopolies (ie, to some part of the exchanges). This means that trade relations with the East stimulated the Russian economy. The West, on the other hand, demanded only raw materials from Russia, and supplied them with luxury goods and minted coins. And the East did not disdain ready-made products, and if luxury goods made up some part of the commodity flow going to Russia, then along with them were dyes and many cheap consumer goods.

• January 17, 2015 at 02:16 pm, Alexander Akimov

Under Peter I, copper smelters were built in the Olonets region - Petrovsky and Povenetsky (1707), Kongozersky (1707). N. Demidov is building 13 iron foundries in the Urals. The smelting of silver and gold (mainly for the mint) began to be carried out on a significant scale only at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1721, the Nerchinsk plant started operating, and from the middle of the 18th century. silver is smelted by Demidov's Kolyvan plant.

Industry under Peter 1.

Many have heard about the merits of Peter I, but few know that initially he had at his disposal a state with a poorly developed economy - agriculture, industry and trade were in their infancy or in decline. Nevertheless, even then the priority task was to win "access to the sea", in connection with which the war with Sweden was started. For successful military operations, an army and navy were needed. Peter I created his own new army. But all expenses were covered by taxes. This fact made the king think about the well-being of the people. The solution, according to some historians, was found during the Great Embassy, ​​the results of which showed a huge difference between Russia at that time and Europe.
The idea that Russia needed the development of an industrial complex was known long before the appearance of Peter, but since the implementation of this idea required willpower and huge efforts on the part of the sovereign, only he managed to start its implementation.
Peter carried out his transformations according to the principles of mercantilism, which he learned after visiting abroad. According to this path, the goal was set - to educate the common people in advanced methods of developing and mastering new types of production.
Perth 1 began its transformations boldly and with great enthusiasm, but the people perceived them as another burden and whim of the ruler. Also, some issues of the country's development, which required a carefully thought-out program of transformation, were carried out by Peter too quickly and thoughtlessly. And as a result, many of his ideas did not bear the fruits that were expected, and practically stopped after his death.

Beginning of reforms in the industrial sphere.

For the development of industry, a raw material base was needed, in connection with this, exploration work was started throughout the country, both foreign and local specialists were involved. During this period, deposits of carnelian, saltpeter, peat, coal, crystal, etc. were discovered. New enterprises were introduced (in the Ryazan region - the Rimin brothers mined coal, von Azmus mined peat).
Transformations were carried out at mining and iron works, sericulture and sheep breeding, leather production and other sectors of the economy.
According to the reforms of Peter the Great, decrees were issued that contained such instructions as “what exactly?”, “How?”, “How much?” and "from what?" produce goods. Failure to comply with the decrees was punished by the imposition of heavy fines, and in some cases the death penalty.

Results of reforms in the industrial sphere.

As a result of Peter's reforms, several large manufactory-type factories arose. The most famous were in the Olonets region. The factories of this region were distinguished by their technical level of equipment and full workforce.
To ensure the operation of mining plants in the Urals and Perm, the city of Yekaterinburg was built. Such a wide development was the publication of Berg Privilege, according to which everyone could voluntarily develop the land in search of precious metals, while paying a tenth of the cost of mining, how to add to the state and a 32nd share to the owner of the land. Thus, by the end of the reign of Tsar Peter the Great, seven million poods of cast iron and more than two hundred poods of copper were processed annually at these factories, and deposits of precious metals - gold and silver - were also developed.
It is also worth noting the arms factories in Tula and Sestroretsk. Thanks to these factories, Russia stopped buying weapons and produced everything itself.

The solution of the personnel issue under Peter I

Peter I did not skimp and invited specialists from Europe, offering them very favorable conditions: high salaries, free housing and the right to export the accumulated fortune after a certain period. Thousands of craftsmen responded to his proposals, for example, about a thousand people were hired from Amsterdam alone.
Measures were also taken to increase the education and activity of the local population, in terms of their technical participation in the development of industry:
- training of young Russians abroad
- training of free, serfs and fugitive (since 1720) peasants at manufactories.
However, there were few people willing to work in factories, so the tsar periodically issued decrees on the recruitment of apprentices for manufactories. In the future, it was decided to encourage the landowners in their desire to engage in manufactory production. This step made it possible to solve the issue of job occupancy (serfs were forced to work in factories). However, the following conditions were created for the workers themselves:
- fourteen hour work day
- salaries were received mainly by free citizens, who were few in number. The rest were paid in food and clothing.
- salaries at state-owned enterprises were higher than at private ones.
Product quality.
In such conditions, it was not surprising that the quality of products was low, in view of the preserved simple processing methods and the low interest of the workers themselves.
However, locally produced products, although slowly, were sold. Since the king, following the laws of mercantilism, imposed high duties on foreign goods.

The results of the reforms.

Despite everything, Peter I laid the foundation for the development of industry in Russia, its economic growth. Many new types of production appeared, which undoubtedly improved the quality of life of the people. Evidence of this is that the people were able to endure a twenty-year war with Sweden.

In the field of economics Peter pursued a policy of Western European mercantilism. The essence of mercantilism is reduced to petty guardianship and supervision of the state over industry and trade, to the provision of various privileges (loans, various kinds of advantages) to trading companies and industrial enterprises, to measures for the development of agriculture with the expectation that the country's export exceeded its import.

To do this, it was necessary to organize such an industry in the country so as not to import foreign products from abroad. The immediate goal of mercantilism was to keep the valuable metal, gold and silver, inside the country. Compulsory measures were also inherent in Western European mercantilism in England, France and other countries. Marx wrote about the mercantilism of Western Europe: “... it is truly characteristic of interested merchants and manufacturers of that time ... that ... accelerated development of capital ... is not achieved called the natural way, but with the help of coercive means” (“Capital”, vol. III, 1938, p. 691).

Peter's mercantilism is closer to mercantilism Central Europe, which, like Russia, is characterized by a weak role of cities and the commercial and industrial class.

The mercantilist policy was pursued by Peter in all activities both in relation to agriculture and in trade and industry. In the field of agriculture, technology was improved (mowing bread instead of harvesting it with sickles), new crops were introduced, mainly for export - tobacco and grapes in the south , medicinal herbs; new breeds of cattle were bred (the Kholmogory breed of dairy cows, merino sheep), etc.

Peter paid the greatest attention to the development of trade, about which he said that “trade is the supreme owner of human destiny.” In the interests of developing trade, Peter provided subsidies to trading companies. So, for example, the merchant Dokuchaev received a subsidy of 30,000 rubles; Apraksin's company - 46 thousand; dozens of other trading companies received subsidies ranging from 20,000 to 5,000 rubles.

In order to increase exports and reduce imports, the tariff of 1724 set high duties on imported goods, reaching up to 37.5% of their value; duty on imported goods was levied in foreign currency. By the end reign of Peter import was 2,100 thousand rubles, and export 4,200 thousand rubles.

Foreign trade went mainly through the Baltic ports, of which Petersburg was the most important. In 1722, 116 foreign merchant ships arrived at ports on the Baltic Sea; in 1725 there were 914 of them. Peter in every possible way encouraged the Russian merchants to organize a company and trade with foreign countries, but only a few of the merchants were able to take into account the demand of the Western European market; commerce and the warning of any difficulties requires.

Little by little, Russian merchants began to get used to the conditions of the European market. To study commercial sciences by merchants, Peter annually sent to Holland and Italy at public expense, first 12, and from 1723 15 merchant sons from Moscow and Arkhangelsk.

Peter I concluded a profitable trade agreement with Persia. Under the nome, trade with China through Kyakhta and with Central Asia expanded significantly. In order to develop domestic trade in the country, Peter especially supported fairs.

In the regulations of the Chief Magistrate of 1721, a special chapter “fair fairs” was introduced, instructions were also given on the organization of exchanges, brokers, etc. In the interests of the development of internal trade, the device of channels was undertaken. In 1698, the construction of a canal between the Volga and the Don began, not far from Tsaritsyn.

Volga-Don Canal under Peter.

For building Volga-Don Canal 20 thousand working people were rounded up. The work was carried out under the guidance of a foreign engineer. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the Volga-Don Canal was abandoned, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, hasty construction began. Vyshnevolotsk Canal, for the construction of which about 40 thousand peasants were driven. The Vyshnevolotsk Canal was completed in 1708 and connected the Caspian Sea with the Baltic Sea.

In 1718, work began on a bypass canal around the stormy Lake Ladoga completed after Peter's death.

Already in 1712, a Collegium for trading was organized, “so that I would add one or two foreigners to the best condition, who needed to be satisfied, in order to show the truth and jealousy in that with an oath, in order to arrange the best order, for without prejudice there is that their bidding is not comparatively better than ours.

Later, the Commerce College became in charge of trade. Back in the 17th century. on the basis of the local peasant craft, the first serf manufactories were created - Tula, Kashirsky, Olonets, in which, along with the serf labor, there was free labor of working people.

The Northern War gave a strong impetus to the development of industry. In industry, Peter I created new enterprises necessary to free himself from foreign dependence.

Already existing enterprises were strengthened and strengthened. Comrade Stalin characterizes the policy of Peter the Great in the development of industry as follows: an attempt to jump out of the framework of backwardness” (Stalin On the industrialization of the country and on the right deviation in the CPSU(b), 1937, pp. 5-6).

Indeed, the development of the metallurgical industry is closely connected with the wars of Peter I. For example, in connection with Azov campaigns Peter, in the interests of developing the military industry, used the private Borinsky ironworks that had arisen around 1694 in the Voronezh region.

Peter expanded the Tula and Kashira factories. Since the beginning of the Northern War, Peter paid special attention to the Olonets factories, to which 12 thousand peasant households were assigned for the preparation of firewood and coal. Factories were supposed to produce guns, anchors, etc.

AT Petersburg and Moscow cannon factories were built (again in St. Petersburg, and reconstructed in Moscow); was also built Sestroretsk plant, which manufactured, in addition to weapons, anchors, nails and wire, 629 working people worked on it.

Peter paid the greatest attention to the Ural industry. Built in 1699 Nevyansk plant In 1702, Peter handed over to the Tula master Demidov, who expanded this plant and soon built a new Tagil plant.

Ural iron turned out to be of higher quality than foreign. Fokerodt says that "Russian iron is good, soft, it is better than Swedish, that you will not find better iron." In 1718| pig iron production at the Urals and other ironworks reached 6,641,000 poods. Of this cast iron, 13% was smelted at state-owned factories, and the rest, 87%, at private ones. In 1726, 55,149 pounds of iron were exported from St. Petersburg and Arkhangelsk, not counting the rest of the Baltic ports.

According to Fokerodt, in 1714 the number of copper and iron cannons in the entire Russian state reached several thousand. Cannons were cast in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Voronezh Olonets, Sestroretsk. To monitor the developing Ural industry, Peter sent the engineer de Genin to the Urals. 25 thousand serfs were attached to 11 Ural factories. The entire peasant population for 100 miles in a circle had to serve the factories: harvest timber, transport products to the rivers, etc.

This emphasizes the feudal features of Petrovsky enterprises. To supply the army under Peter, 15 cloth and woolen enterprises arose. Peter's cherished dream was to equip the Russian army with the help of Russian industry. In addition, under Peter, 15 linen factories, 15 silk factories, 11 leather factories, 5 paper factories were organized. Copper-smelting plants were built and the extraction of silver-lead ores was organized for the first time in Nerchinsk. According to Fokerodt, “Even during his lifetime, Peter I brought various factories to the point that they delivered in abundance, as much as was needed for Russia, such goods as, for example, needles, weapons and various linen fabrics, and especially canvas, which could not not only to supply the fleet, but also to lend to other peoples.

Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, the government established factories, encouraged merchants to establish them, provided entrepreneurs with funds and provided them with various benefits and benefits.

At the same time, the government, while giving funds, retained control and interfered in the technique of production. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that this Petrine industry had its roots in handicraft and handicraft industries and in serf enterprises of the 17th century.

By the end of the reign of Peter I, according to his contemporary, Secretary of the Senate Ivan Kirillov, there were 233 industrial enterprises. Some of the enterprises were quite large. So, for example, 730 people worked at a cloth factory in Moscow, and 1,162 people worked at a cloth and canvas factory.

Along with large industry Peter also took measures to develop small crafts, but government intervention in this area was not always successful. So, in order to increase the export of canvas and linen abroad, Peter ordered the peasants to arrange wide mills for fabric, but this order corresponded to the available technical base and was canceled two years later.

In 1722, Peter introduced a shop device for artisans. Craftsmen united in workshops, elected elders in the workshops to monitor the quality of goods; a seven-year period was even set for apprenticeship, however, without limiting the number of apprentices and establishing the size of production, which is typical for guild organizations in Western Europe.

At first, “artists, swindlers and drunkards”, “wine (guilty) women and girls” were assigned to industrial enterprises for work, “walking people”, beggars and idlers were attached to enterprises. Such personnel could not contribute to the development of the productivity of enterprises. Working people were usually recruited from the ruined townspeople artisans for free hire. By a decree of January 18, 1721, in response to requests from industrialists and merchants, they were allowed to buy serfs from enterprises.

Such serfs, bought for enterprises, were called possessive. They were not listed as the owners of the enterprise, but for the enterprise to which they were bought. So, for example, serfs bought by Demidov were considered to belong to Nevyansk or Tagil factories.

The plant was sold together with the peasants who belonged to it. In addition, it was practiced to register the peasants of the surrounding villages with the factories of the states, as well as “reviews of the “ownerless” peasants who were identified to replenish the work! whose strength. Peasants were attributed not only to the nearest, but sometimes to distant places.

So, the peasants who lived several hundred miles away were rightly assigned to the Ural factories. Part of the year! ascribed peasants worked in factories and only for a little! time was released for their agricultural work.Peter tried to create local Russian cadres of work masters. For this, foreign engineers who came to Russia were given the condition to train several Russian people in their business.

In 1711, Peter ordered the establishment of craft schools in large enterprises to teach certain skills and the Decree read: teaching to the masters of various deeds.

The position of the working people was extremely difficult. They received a soldier's ration, equal to 6 rubles 20 kopecks a year. The work went on from dawn to dusk. During work, overseers often used corporal punishment.

Particularly difficult conditions were at the Ural ironworks.

Peter considered foreign trade to be one of the most effective means of introducing Russia to Western European culture. At the beginning of his reign, he took vigorous measures to expand trade. He visited Arkhangelsk three times and built several ships at the Solambal shipyard to export government goods abroad. And the trade of Arkhangelsk developed rapidly; at the end of the 17th century. its turnover barely reached 850,000 rubles, and in 1710 - 1,485,000 rubles. But the White Sea, in its remoteness, the brevity of the navigation period and its difficulties, did not meet the needs of Russian foreign trade, even in its then size.

A different, more convenient outlet was needed for the products of the Russian economy. After an unsuccessful attempt to establish itself on the Sea of ​​Azov, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were acquired for Russia and St. Petersburg was founded. Promises of benefits attracted foreign merchants to the new Russian port; the Dutch and the British took the greatest part in its trade. In 1706 a trade convention was concluded with France; Italian ships, in respect of range, were promised a concession of half of the duties; Prince Menshikov was instructed to enter into correspondence about trade benefits for the merchants of Hamburg, Bremen and Danzig. At the same time, Peter took care of the arrangement of water communication between the internal grain-growing and populated regions of the state with St. Petersburg (Vyshnevolotsk system). The canal for bypassing Lake Ladoga was started in 1719 and completed in 1728.

Having established himself on the Neva, Peter redoubled his concerns about St. Petersburg and its trade. He ordered to proceed with the construction of a military and merchant port on the island of Retusari (Kotlin), where the Baltic fleet was to have a permanent residence, and where all ships would be unloaded, for which the entrance to the mouth of the Neva, due to its shallow water, was impossible. Subsequently, this harbor, as well as the city that arose with it, received the name of Kronstadt. Trade in the new port at first developed poorly. Both Russians and foreigners preferred Arkhangelsk, where routes had been established for a long time. To strengthen the trade of St. Petersburg, Peter took a number of artificial measures. By decree of October 31, 1713, he commanded " announce publicly that merchants and other officials who have hemp and yuft should not be taken to the city of Arkhangelsk and Vologda for trade, but would be brought to St. Petersburg. Also, which sovereign goods: caviar, glue, potash, resin, bristles, rhubarb should not be released to Arkhangelsk, but brought to St. Petersburg". Merchant foreigners were invited to notify their compatriots abroad so that ships to load Russian goods would be sent to St. Petersburg, and not to Arkhangelsk. Subsequently, at the request of the merchants, with the accumulation of export goods in St. Petersburg, permission was given to carry a certain part of the goods to Arkhangelsk. By decree of November 20, 1717, the most eminent merchants of Arkhangelsk were resettled in St. Petersburg. By a decree of 1720, the usual 5% duty was reduced to 3% from goods sent to St. Petersburg, while no duties were levied at internal outposts from those assigned for export from St. Petersburg abroad; carts with these goods, after examination and sealing, passed non-stop to St. Petersburg itself.

With all these measures, St. Petersburg trade was strengthened, Arkhangelsk trade was reduced. Within 8 years (1710-1718), the vacation of Arkhangelsk rose from 1 1/3 to 2 1/3 million rubles, and the import from 142,000 to 600,000 rubles; in 1726, goods worth 285,387 were shipped to Arkhangelsk, and only 35,846 rubles were brought in. In 1718, goods worth 268,590 rubles were exported from St. Petersburg, in 1726 - 2,403,423 rubles; in 1718 it was brought to St. Petersburg for 218,049 rubles, in 1726 - for 1,549,697 rubles. In 1720, 76 foreign ships entered the Neva, in 1722 - 119, in 1724 - 180. 452,403 rubles were collected from these duties.

The trade of Riga, which was greatly reduced in the first years after its conquest by Russia, soon exceeded its previous size: in 1704, 359 ships visited Riga, in 1725 - 388. The growth of Riga, despite the competition of St. export was served by the Lithuanian-Polish region far from St. Petersburg. Revel, Narva and Vyborg have lost some of their former importance, partly due to military events. Vyborg, especially those who suffered from them, Peter granted free trade in bread, resin, timber and other goods that were prohibited or were the subject of state monopoly. As part of the development of Russian overland trade, in 1714 a state-owned transport of Siberian goods was sent to Poland and Hungary, which had excellent sales there; the proceeds were used to buy Hungarian wines. The Nezhin Greeks were given the privilege of trading with Moldavia and Wallachia. Overland trade arose through Poland with Prussia. In 1723, Russian merchants were allowed to trade with Breslavl. The storage place for our overland trade with Germany at that time was Vasilkov - the Russian customs on the Polish border.

Peter's attempt to acquire several strong points on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea was unsuccessful, in order to conduct direct trade from there with Khiva and Bukhara, and then, with the help of caravans sent from these khanates to India, to direct Indian trade through the Caspian Sea to Russia. Russian-Persian trade was still concentrated mainly in the hands of Armenian merchants who had their offices in Astrakhan. They not only brought Persian goods, mainly silk, to Russia, but also sent them by sea to Holland, from where, in turn, they exported Dutch cloth and other goods that were marketed in Persia. Peter willingly allowed this trade, in view of the significant state income from transit duties. In 1711, with the knowledge and approval of the Persian Shah, he concluded a condition with the Armenians, by virtue of which all the silk exported from Persia was to be delivered by them to Russia. For this, the Armenians were granted a monopoly trade in silk, and were given some duty benefits. Russian merchants, mainly from Astrakhan, carried on quite a lively active trade in Nizabad and Rasht. They stored their goods mainly in Shamakhi. When this city, in 1711, was sacked by the Lezgins, Russian merchants lost significant sums: the losses of one trading house stretched up to 180,000 rubles. In 1716, the import of Bukhara and Persian goods to Astrakhan alone amounted to 464,000 rubles, while duties were collected over 22,500 rubles. In order to strengthen Russian-Persian trade relations, in 1715 a special embassy was sent to Persia, which managed to conclude a trade agreement with Persia. In 1720, the tsar appointed a Russian consul to Ispahan (who, however, was stopped in Rasht due to internal unrest). The British applied for permission to resume their transit trade with Persia through Russia, but were refused, as did the Dutch and French. The last years of Peter's reign were marked by a number of orders concerning the organization of Russian-Persian merchant shipping on the Caspian Sea and shipbuilding in Astrakhan.

In terms of streamlining Russian-Chinese trade, back in 1698, Peter ordered that a caravan be sent from Moscow to Nerchinsk not annually, but a year later, so that prices would not fall from the influx of Russian goods there. In 1719, Peter sent the captain of the guard Izmailov to Beijing, who managed to achieve the conclusion of a treatise on such, among other things, conditions:

1. that a Russian consul should have a permanent residence in Beijing, and vice-consuls in some other cities;
2. that the Russians should have the right to freely travel throughout the territory of China and transport goods along Chinese rivers and store them on wharfs;
3. so that Russian merchants were allowed duty-free trade in China.

Russian-Chinese relations, however, did not improve. Soon after Izmailov's departure, the Chinese government forbade Russian caravans from coming to Beijing until certain borders were established between Russia and Chinese Mongolia; the establishment of borders, through the fault of the Chinese, slowed down.

Having ascended the throne, Peter not only left all state monopolies in force, but also multiplied them: yuft, hemp, potash, tar, lard, hemp oil, linseed, rhubarb, caviar, fish glue could be brought by private individuals only to river, lake or sea piers, and then passed into the hands of the treasury. At first, Peter conducted this trade, like his predecessors, either himself or entrusted its conduct to special officials, but soon, due to lack of time, he began to lease out the export of state-owned goods. So, in 1703, the export of tar, “seal skins and all fishery products of the Arkhangelsk coast was handed over to Prince Menshikov; Vologda merchants Okonishnikovs at the same time received a monopoly on the sale of flaxseed. Later, the caviar trade was sold for 100,000, rhubarb - for 80,000 rubles. Other export and some imported goods were also surrendered. According to the decree of 1715, the treasury sold the monopoly goods that were not at the mercy of the treasury exclusively for cash (full-weight "efimki", i.e. johimstalers). However, Peter adhered to the system of state monopolies only until experience convinced him of their unprofitability for the treasury and harm to the people's well-being. The decree of April 8, 1719 commanded " there should be only two state-owned goods: potash and smolchaku”, which were withdrawn from the circle of“ free ” trade in the form of forest conservation.

In 1718, a commerce board was established. The first Russian consulate was established in Amsterdam; he was followed by consulates in London, Toulon, Cadiz, Lisbon, and soon in almost all the chief cities of Europe and Persia.

In 1724, the customs tariff and maritime trade regulations were published. According to the tariff of 1724, the duty on most imported and selling goods did not exceed 5% of the price, but selling goods, for the supply of which Western Europe, Russia had little or no competitors, were paid with higher duties; for example, 27.5% was charged from the price of holiday hemp. Customs duties were paid in foreign coins accepted at a known rate. Customs revenues were collected at the end of Peter's reign up to 869.5 thousand rubles. The value of exports from Russia was higher than the value of imports, which is explained as much by the usefulness of Russian raw materials for the Western European manufacturing industry as by the small demand in Russia for luxury and comfort, due to the lack of rich people. But even then, the relatively small costs of the Russians to pay for imports worried Peter; he wanted to create a merchant fleet in order to save sea freight in favor of Russia, and if not increase the export of products, then at least reduce their import, developing the manufacturing industry in the country.

The decree of November 8, 1723 commanded, among other things, “to multiply your commerce, build companies, start particular auctions in the Ost See, for example, send Persian goods, sashes, etc. to Poland” and do all this “not loudly, so that with an extra echo there was no harm instead of good." In 1724, the tsar decided to equip at his own expense three Russian ships to Spain and one to France, so that the merchants who were supposed to go there with goods would stay abroad for some time to study trade operations. Measures aimed at reducing foreign imports include benefits and privileges for the establishment of factories and factories in Russia and the taxation of imported goods from abroad. " To collect the scattered temple of the merchants”, Peter established magistrates in the cities. The patronage of his factory owners even went as far as attaching peasants to factories.

Under the successors of Peter to Catherine II

Peter's immediate successors continued his commercial policy, but soon its shortcomings began to be revealed, and, above all, excessive petty regulation of trade and industry. Protests were made by the merchants, for the consideration of which a special commission was established in 1727 in St. Petersburg. Among the applications considered by her was a petition from English, Dutch and Hamburg merchants living in St. Petersburg with a request to reduce customs duties on imported foreign goods. In 1731, a customs tariff was issued, according to which duties on imported goods were lowered, and on some exported goods they were completely combined. Taxation on price for most goods has been replaced by duties on weight, measure and bill. The taxation of goods passing through Arkhangelsk with an additional duty of 25% was abolished. In 1731, a “sea charter” was issued, according to which Russian merchants who sent their goods from St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk and Kola on their own ships, or in general on ships built in Russia, were charged 4 times less dues than they were established by the tariff; from the importation on the same ships, in order to avoid fraud, they took a full duty. If a Russian subject released his goods on foreign ships, he paid only 3/4 of the duty established for foreigners. Thanks to the relief of the customs burden, trade revived; thus, in 1726, Russian goods were exported from St. Petersburg worth 2 2/5 million rubles, and in 1751 - 4 1/4; in 1726 it was brought to St. Petersburg for 1 1/2, and in 1751 - for 3 3/4 million rubles.

Peter's dying order to send three Russian ships with Russian goods to Spain was executed under Catherine I: the ships were loaded with lard, hemp, ropes, yuft, canvases, canvas, flax and caviar; the treasury delivered 2/3 of the cargo from itself, the rest was collected with great difficulty among the merchants, of whom two, by order of the government, were to go on this journey. The ships arrived safely in Cadiz and here, under the supervision of the Russian consul, the cargo was soon sold out; but this example did not find followers. The same outcome had attempts to start active trade with Italy and France. More successful and longer was the experience of the merchants Bazhenov and Krylov, who sent goods on their own ships to Amsterdam and Hamburg.

In general, Russian foreign trade still remained in the hands of foreigners, at first predominantly the Dutch, and from the 1930s, the British. The export of iron, canvas, linen, and rhubarb from Russia was concentrated in English hands. The British taught South European merchants to place orders for Russian goods with English trading firms. The government repeatedly tried to establish direct trade relations with France, but these attempts were unsuccessful, partly for political reasons, mainly due to the lack of entrepreneurial spirit among Russian and French merchants. In 1734, an agreement was concluded between Russia and England, which granted the subjects of both states the right to free navigation and trade in all areas belonging to them in Europe, and English and Russian ships were admitted on the basis of the greatest favor. Both the Russians in England and the British in Russia had the right to transport all kinds of goods, with a few exceptions, and the same duties were paid on both sides. To eliminate fraud and falsification, a “truthful marriage” was established, with the responsibility for the good quality of products being placed on the rejecters. This agreement was renewed in 1742 for another 15 years.

The trade agreement of 1726 with Prussia, renewed in 1743 for 18 years, was distinguished by the same character. In Sweden, under an agreement of 1735, it was allowed to export duty-free from the harbors of the Baltic Sea bread for 50,000 rubles, hemp, flax and masts - also for 50,000 rubles. After a two-year war, in 1743, a new treaty was concluded, which restored mutual free trade between the subjects of both states. Duty-free export of bread, hemp and flax was allowed from Russia for an amount twice as large as under the agreement of 1735, and in the event of a crop failure in Sweden, bread was allowed to be exported there "no matter how much you get." Russian furs, leathers and cattle went through Poland to Prussia, Schleswig, Saxony and Turkey: Russian merchants themselves went to the destinations of goods and there they acquired goods needed for Russia. Maritime trade went mainly through the ports of the Baltic Sea, between which St. Petersburg played a dominant role. The improvement of the Vyshnevolotsk waterway and the opening, in 1728, of the Ladoga Canal, especially contributed to the expansion of its trade turnover. In addition to St. Petersburg, Russia had 6 trading ports on the Baltic Sea: Riga, Revel, Pernov, Ahrensburg, Narva and Vyborg. In 1737, Gapsal was attached to them, in 1747 - Friedrichsgam.

Relations with the East underwent many changes. According to a treaty concluded in 1732 in Rasht, Russia returned to Persia most of its conquests. For this, the shah granted Russian merchants the right to trade duty-free in Persia, undertook to protect the Russians from any arbitrariness and provide them with speedy justice, without the usual red tape in Persia. Russia was allowed to keep consuls in the cities to protect the interests of its merchants. In 1755, a Russian partnership was founded for trade with Persia. The Armenians, seeing him as a serious competitor and not having achieved its closure, united with him in 1758 in one "Persian Trading Society", with a capital of 600,000 rubles. In 1762, it, along with other monopoly companies, was closed, as Peter III found that the Russian trading companies of that time served only as a refuge for bankrupt merchants and were “ nothing but the unrighteous appropriation to one of what belongs to all».

The terms of trade with Central Asia improved somewhat after the Kirghiz-Kaisatsky horde accepted Russian citizenship (in 1731), especially due to the foundation on the river. Orsk fortress, Troitsk and Orenburg in the Urals. Since 1750, a fairly frequent movement of caravans from Bukhara, Tashkent, Kashgar to Orenburg begins. The attempts of Russian merchants to go with goods through Orenburg to Central Asia were not unsuccessful. In Balkh, Russian caravans met with Indian ones and exchanged goods with them. Under an agreement with Turkey in 1739, free trade was granted to the subjects of both states; but Russian trade on the Black Sea was to be carried out on the ships of Turkish subjects. The embassy sent by Catherine I managed to conclude a general treaty with the Chinese government in 1727, and in 1728 an additional one, which established free trade between empires. For the bargaining of private individuals, two border places were appointed - Kyakhta and Tsuruhaitu; the right to send caravans to Beijing was granted only to the Russian government, no more than once every three years, and the number of merchants in caravans should not exceed 200. From that time on, the government sent its caravans with furs to Beijing only 6 times, between 1728 and 1755 .G. Caravan bargaining at the expense of the treasury required significant costs that did not pay off with profits, which is why under Peter III it was canceled. Furs were mainly sold to China, and silk and rhubarb were obtained from there.

The monopoly in foreign trade remained in force, being of interest not only to merchants, but also to noble people; for example, Count P. I. Shuvalov received the exclusive right to leave abroad fat, blubber, and forest. On the other hand, Russia owes to the energy of the same Shuvalov the destruction (April 1, 1753) of internal outposts and the abolition of internal duties, which were becoming more and more complicated and increasing. The following fees were abolished: 1) customs (ie, ruble and fair duty); 2) from hiring cabbies and floating ships; 3) with branding clamps; 4) from bridges and transportation; 5) lifting; 6) from tan and tan horse and cowhide skins and from cattle; 7) free and dump; 8) tenth collection from egg fish; 9) stationery petty; 10) from an icebreaker and a watering hole; 11) from measuring quarters; 12) from the sale of tar; 13) from scales of weighty goods; 14) from stone millstones and pottery; 15) from traveling printed letters; 16) deductible from wine contractors and advertisers; 17) with a customs letter. Not so much the duties themselves were burdensome, but the formalities, arbitrary requisitions and all sorts of pressure on the part of collectors (tsolovalnikov) and tax-farmers. These fees were especially difficult for rural petty trade, since any goods worth more than 2 hryvnias were recorded at customs. Instead of the abolished fees, the customs taxation of imported and exported goods at the border customs was increased by 13%. At the time of the abolition of internal duties, their annual amount throughout Russia, excluding Siberia, was determined on a 5-year basis at 903,537 rubles; and since it was at least 5% of the value of goods circulating in domestic trade, the entire amount of domestic trade turnover is determined at 18 million rubles, while the turnover of foreign trade for imports reached 6, and for vacation 7.5 million rubles .

Such a weak development of domestic trade indicates the dominance of subsistence over money economy. The customs tariff of 1757 was strictly protective in nature: import duties were raised on all non-essential items. The number of items prohibited for import or export has been increased. This tariff did not apply to Livonian ports. Under Peter III, much was done to facilitate foreign trade. The export of grain, which was sometimes allowed, sometimes forbidden without sufficient reasons, began to be carried out from all ports without hindrance. The export of salted meat and live cattle was facilitated. Arkhangelsk received all the rights that the port of St. Petersburg used. According to the data of 1758-68, the most important items of Russian vacation were, in addition to bread, hemp (about 2 1/4 million pounds per year), flax (692 thousand pounds), flaxseed and hempseed (120 thousand pounds ), hemp and linseed oil (166,000 poods), hemp ropes (19,000 poods), linen and equals (up to 7.5 million arshins), lard (up to 1 million poods), yuft and other leathers (up to 200 thousand pounds), furs, mostly cheap, live poultry, soap, horse hair, bristles, iron, copper. The release of wooden beams, mast and other timber, as well as pitch and tar, was subject to restrictions, and often even a complete ban, in the form of forest conservation. Silk and rhubarb were exported from transit Asian goods. Information about the number of imports is available for St. Petersburg: here in the middle of the 18th century. cloth and woolen products worth 827 thousand rubles, indigo and other dyes for 505 thousand, wines and vodka for 348 thousand, sugar for 198 thousand, small goods for 146 thousand, silk fabrics for 108 thousand, fresh fruit by 82 thousand, haberdashery by 60 thousand, tea and coffee by 57 thousand. The total annual turnover of foreign trade and customs income in this period is expressed, according to Storch, by the following numbers:

In 1761, 1779 ships arrived at Russian ports, including 332 ships in St. Petersburg and Kronstadt, 957 in Riga, 145 in Revel, 115 in Narva, 80 in Vyborg, 72 in Pernov, 37 in Friedrichsgam, and 37 in Ahrensburg. 34, Gapsal - 7.

Under Catherine II and Paul I

Convinced that “trade is removed from there, where it is used, and settled where its tranquility is not disturbed,” Catherine, soon after her accession, issued a decree on trade, which confirmed the orders of Peter III to facilitate the trade in bread, meat, flax, as well as the abolition of government trading with China; ordered “rhubarb and pitch to be in free trade, but potash and pitch, to save forests, leave state-owned goods; narrow canvas can be freely exported abroad, but linen yarn is not produced; to destroy the sale of tobacco, seals and fish, and to make the release of beavers free. The customs farm, given to Shemyakin in 1758 for 2 million rubles, was also destroyed. in year. In 1763, a "Commission on Commerce" was established.

The tariff developed by her and put into effect in 1767 imposed high duties on imported goods “for home dressings and decorations, as well as for luxury in food and drink”; those products are prohibited for import, with which “we can be content with abundance in our own state”; goods are exempted from the duty, "of which the production or factories in the state have not yet begun, in order to encourage agriculture or needlework thereof." Overseas products and goods that were produced in Russia "not yet in sufficient quantity and not perfect kindness" were subject to a duty of about 12%. On imported goods, "which are also made in Russia, and these factories have been brought to some perfection," duties were set at 30% of the price to encourage the factories. “This surplus of 30% to the promotion may be satisfied; if you are not satisfied, then it is useless to keep such factories. The prevailing role in the development of foreign trade was still played by the Dutch and the British, especially the latter, who, according to the treaty of 1766, enjoyed special advantages: for example, they could pay duties in current Russian coin, at the rate of 1 ruble. 25 kop. for efimok, while from other foreigners they were certainly charged with efimok, at the rate of 50 kopecks. The attitude towards the British has changed since, during the Anglo-American War, Russian ships, like the ships of other nations, began to be inspected and stopped by the British on suspicion of carrying military contraband, and items necessary for equipping ships were also taken for smuggling. and even food supplies. Armed neutrality put an end to this (1780).

Taking advantage of the coolness between Russia and England, the continental states, one after another, concluded treaties with Russia granting them the same rights that the British enjoyed in our country. In 1782, Denmark concluded an agreement with Russia, in 1785 - Austria, in 1786 - France, in 1787 - the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal. We reduced duties on French, Hungarian, Neapolitan and Portuguese wines, on Marseille soap, olive oil, Brazilian indigo and tobacco, and Portuguese salt, which was imported into Riga and Revel. Instead, it was said: the Austrian government - a reduction in duties on Russian furs, caviar and yuft; in French - the exemption of Russian ships from the payment of freight duties and the reduction of duties on Russian lard, soap, wax, strip and sectional iron; in Neapolitan - a significant reduction in duties on Russian iron, lard, leather, yuft, ropes, furs, caviar, linen and hemp cloths, in Portuguese - a reduction in duties on boards and wood, from hemp, hemp oil and seed, from strip iron, anchors , cannons, cores and bombs, from sailing canvases; flemish, equal and linen kolomyankas; finally, Denmark provided Russian ships with significant benefits when passing through the Sound.

With England, the treaty of 1766, after a 20-year period, was not renewed. The events that took place in France in 1789-92 served as an occasion for a sharp change in Russian politics: by terminating the treaty of 1786, Catherine forbade French ships from entering Russian ports, banned the import of any French goods and trade in them, on March 29, 1793, she concluded a convention with England, by which, among other things, it was decided not to send any bread or other provisions of life to France. These hostile measures also extended to trade relations with Holland and other states that fell under the rule of the French. By a decree of May 20, 1796, Dutch ships were denied access to Russian ports.

Relations with the southern European states through the Azov and Black Seas at the beginning of Catherine's reign were insignificant. The entire Azov-Black Sea trade was concentrated in Cherkasy, where the Kubans and Crimean Tatars brought Greek wines, southern fruits, vegetable oils, rice, cotton, and the Russians - leather, cow butter, canvas, iron in and out of business, hemp, ropes, fur, leather. Russian merchants often traveled to the Crimea and lived there for a long time, enjoying the favor of the local government and paying moderate duties: 5% for import and 4% for export. According to the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kaynardzhy (1774), Russian ships received the right to free navigation in all Turkish waters, and Russian merchants - all the benefits that subjects of the most favored powers enjoyed in Turkey. In order to revive trade in the ports newly acquired from Turkey, Catherine introduced a special, preferential tariff for them, the rates of which for both imported and holiday goods were 25% lower than the general tariff. Legislative activity continued for the benefit of internal trade: in 1773 the last state monopolies were abolished; in 1785, the "City Regulations" were published, which expanded the rights of the merchant class; It was founded and renamed from villages to 300 new cities. Improved waterways; established credit institutions. From 1762 to 1796, the release of Russian goods abroad increased 5 times, and the import from abroad - four times:

Periods	Export	Bringing
	million rubles
1863-1765	12,0	9,3
1766-1770	13,1	10,4
1771-1775	17,4	13,2
1776-1780	19,2	14,0
1781-1785	23,7	17,9
1786-1790	28,3	22,3
1791-1795	43,5	34,0
1796	67,7	41,9

For amounts up to 200,000 rubles. brought: cotton, linen, lead, zinc, sheet iron, needles, craft tools, haberdashery, ribbons, silk and woolen, stockings, writing paper, faience and porcelain products, pharmaceutical goods, cheese, horses. The entire import, on average, amounted to 27,886,000 rubles annually. In 1763, no more than 1,500 sea merchant ships came to the main Russian ports, and in 1796 - 3,443.

Emperor Paul I at the very beginning of his reign issued a series of decrees that softened the prohibitive nature of the measures taken in 1793 against trade with France. By two decrees on February 16 and 28, 1797, he allowed to transport from Holland not only all goods in tariffs not prohibited, on ships belonging to neutral powers, but also some French: Provence oil, canned food, olives, anchovies, wines, vodka, pharmaceutical materials ; the importation of other commodities was prohibited, as were all direct relations with France. With Portugal, trade relations beneficial for Russia were secured by a treaty of 1798. In 1800, an agreement was concluded with Prussia on naval armed neutrality; treatises with other states that were not at war with Russia at that time were confirmed without any changes.

Trade with China, according to the rules of 1800, was to have a strictly exchange character; it was forbidden to sell anything to the Chinese for money under pain of a fine. To protect the interests of Russian trade, the first merchants were elected, who were supposed to take care of raising prices for Russian goods and lowering prices for Chinese goods. According to the Kyakhta tariff published in 1800 for trade with China, customs duties were to be levied on Chinese gold and silver, as well as Russian copper coins and banknotes; deferred payment and transfer of bills of exchange to Irkutsk, Tobolsk, Moscow and St. Petersburg were allowed, as before. To facilitate trade relations with Central Asia, the export there of foreign gold and silver coins from the border customs was allowed.

The customs tariff issued in 1797 differed from the tariff of 1782 in higher duties on provisions. The two “leading” merchant harbors of the Crimea, Feodosia and Evpatoria, Paul granted complete freedom for the arrival of ships of all nations, “with the fact that each and every natural Russian subject and foreigner not only bring goods to these harbors duty-free, but also deliver them to all other places peninsulas on the same right. In the case of sending such goods into the interior of the empire, they were subject to payment, in Perekop, with duties according to the tariff, as well as goods imported into the Crimea from the rest of Russia. Much was done during this reign for the development of trade in the inner regions of the empire: the Oginsky Canal was completed, connecting the Dnieper basin with the Neman basin; the Sievers Canal was dug to bypass the lake. Ilmen; The Syassky Canal was started and work continued on the construction of the Mariinsky Canal.

In the last years of the reign of Paul I, under the influence of external political events, several orders on trade were issued. So, according to a decree on March 6, 1799, it was ordered to arrest all the ships that were at that time in Russian ports and belonged to the inhabitants of Hamburg, since the emperor had noticed for some time “the inclination of the Hamburg government towards anarchist rules and the adherence to the rule of the French thieves of legitimate power.” By a decree on October 12 of the same year, Danish commercial ships were prohibited from entering Russian ports, "due to the clubs established and tolerated by the government in Copenhagen and throughout the Danish kingdom, on the same grounds as those that caused nationwide indignation in France and overthrew the legitimate royal power" . Both of these orders were canceled in October of the same year, when the emperor found that both the Hamburg government and the Danish king satisfied all his requirements, "proposed for the good of the general." In November 1800, it was ordered to sequester all sorts of English goods in all shops and stores and completely prohibit their sale. On February 8, 3801, "due to the measures taken by France for the safety and security of Russian ships," trade relations with this power were again allowed. At the same time, it was forbidden to export Russian goods not only to England, but also to Prussia, in view of the fact that England, after breaking off direct trade with Russia, "decided to conduct it through other nations." On March 11, 1801, the emperor ordered that from Russian ports, land border customs and catching no Russian goods without a special High. no command was issued. In 1800, goods worth 61.5 million rubles were exported, and 46.5 million rubles were brought in.

In the 19th century

Under Alexander I

Emperor Alexander I, who reigned on March 12, 1801, “desiring to deliver free and unhindered circulation to commerce”, by decree on March 14 ordered to remove “the previously imposed ban on the export of various Russian goods”, as well as an embargo from English ships and a sequestration from the property of English merchants. Soon the dispute with England about neutral trade ended with the peace concluded on June 5, 1801 in St. Petersburg. It was recognized that a neutral flag did not cover the enemy's cargo, and that belligerent powers could stop neutral ships, even under escort, and compensate them for damages in case of unfounded suspicion. On September 26, 1802, an agreement was concluded in Paris with France on the basis of a commercial treatise of 1786. According to the Tilsit Treaty of 1807, Alexander undertook, if England did not conclude peace with Napoleon within 5 months, to proceed to the “continental system ". October 24 of the same year issued a declaration of rupture with England; after that, an embargo was imposed on English ships, and in 1808 the import of English goods to Russia was prohibited.

The continental system, by blocking the sale of Russian raw materials abroad by sea, dealt a heavy blow to our agriculture, without benefiting the manufacturing industry, since the products of Russian plants and factories could not yet compete with foreign ones that penetrated to us through the land border. Huge masses of Russian holiday goods lay idle in the coastal towns, and at the same time we could not obtain many of the colonial products necessary for factories, for example. dye substances. Our internal trade has weakened, the exchange rate has fallen. With the obvious impossibility of maintaining a system harmful to Russia, Alexander I allowed from 1811 the importation of colonial goods under the American flag and forbade the importation of foreign luxury goods that came to us by land, mainly from France. The change in Russian commercial policy, together with a number of political circumstances, led to a break with France and a new rapprochement with England. In 1814, trade relations were resumed with France and Denmark, in 1815 - with Portugal.

At that time, in our European trade, the “Regulations on Trade for 1811” published in 1810 still had the force of a customs tariff, which allowed for duty-free import of many raw products needed for crafts and factories, and prohibited the import of linen, silk, woolen; export duties on flax, hemp, lard, linseed, resin and sailcloths were raised. In terms of economic rapprochement with European states, the emperor agreed at the Congress of Vienna to soften the severity of this situation, but it was decided to do this gradually. According to the tariff of 1816, tanned leather, cast iron, many products made of iron, copper and tin, many varieties of cotton and linen fabrics were still prohibited from being imported; but other products are allowed with the payment of a duty of 15 - 35% of the cost (velvet, cambric, cloth, carpets, blankets, high-quality iron, cutlery, weapons, furs, etc.). It was decided to levy duties on both silver and banknotes, counting (for 1817) 4 rubles. banknotes equal to 1 silver ruble; from goods taxed not by weight, but by price - only in banknotes. The tariff of 1816 was already replaced by a new one in 1819, on the following occasion. By Article XVIII of the Treaty of Vienna, Russia, Austria and Prussia mutually undertook "in order to promote, as far as possible, the success of agriculture in all parts of the former Poland, to stimulate the industry of its inhabitants and to establish their well-being, to allow henceforth and forever the free and unlimited circulation of all between all their Polish regions products of the land and products of the industry of these regions. This decree, supplemented by the conventions of August 24, 1818 and April 21, 1819, provided Austria and Prussia with such privileges for the export of any goods to Russian possessions that our government could no longer maintain the previous tariff in force, and in 1819 issued was new, the most indulgent towards foreign provenances ever in force in Russia. The duty on foreign goods, according to this tariff, consisted of two parts: the actual customs and consumptive. The first was paid by the importer, the last - together with the first - by the Russian consumer. Put together, these two parts, in most cases, were very close to the tariff rates of 1797, and the consummation part was many times higher than the customs part. Here are some examples:
Duties:

Name of product	Imported, cop.	Consommation		Total
		rub.	cop.	rub.	cop.
for sugar from pud	40	3	35	3	75
on cast iron from pud	9		81		90
on steel from a pud	7,5		17,5		25
on hay scythes	3		27		30
on writing paper	2 1 / 6		12 5 / 6		15
on calico	13,5		26,5		40
on the sailcloth and equal	3 / 4		79 1 / 4		80

An increase of more than 15 million rubles. the importation of foreign products could not but affect our manufacturing industry: many factories were closed; the number of sugar refineries was reduced from 51 to 29. The alarmed government made several partial amendments to the rates of 1819, and in 1822, issued a strictly protective tariff, “considered,” as the manifesto says, “with the success of its own industry, equal to the institutions published on this subject in other states”. Particularly high duties were imposed on imported products, semi-finished materials and luxury goods; more moderately - raw works; almost all holiday goods were subject to comparatively light taxation, while many were exported duty-free.

Under Alexander I, our trade on the Black Sea made great strides, thanks to the geographical position of Novorossiya and government concerns about it. In 1803, all customs duties, both on imports and on holidays, for the Black Sea region were reduced by 25%; in 1804 allowed " send through Odessa all sorts of goods in transit to Moldavia, Wallachia, Austria and Prussia, as well as from there across the sea". The Peace of Bucharest in 1812 confirmed the free entry of Russian ships into the Kiliya mouth of the Danube and free navigation along this river. The free port right granted by Paul I to the Tauride Peninsula was extended to Odessa. On the Caspian Sea, trade was hampered by hostilities against Persia; only after the conclusion of the Gulistan Treaty (1813) Russian-Persian trade revived, which was facilitated by the granting in 1821 to all traders in Transcaucasia, Russians and foreigners, exemption for 10 years from the payment of duties and duties, except for the customs 5% duty on imported from Persia goods. Trade with Central Asia along the Kyrgyz border continued to develop, which was facilitated by the permission for merchants - all three guilds - to conduct foreign trade here, and for people of all classes - barter. Merchant caravans heading from Orenburg to Bukhara and back were guarded by a military convoy. To encourage the importation of goods to the remote regions of Siberia - Okhotsk and Kamchatka, the government allowed the duty-free importation of life supplies, medicines and tools there; holiday goods were paid for by duty at a moderate rate. In 1825, 236 1/3 worth of goods were exported from Russia, 195 million rubles were brought to Russia, and 53 million rubles were received in customs duties.

Under Nicholas I

The patronizing commercial and industrial policy did not bring the fruits that were expected from it. Under the protection of the tariff, which is prohibitive for many foreign products, factory production has not made sufficient progress either quantitatively or qualitatively. Despite high duties, the import of foreign goods from 1825 to 1850 doubled in value, in particular, the import of goods quadrupled. Foreigners still dominated our foreign trade: in the 1930s, only 14% of the total number of ships navigating abroad belonged to Russians (including Finnish). And even these few Russian ships did not always meet in foreign ports the hospitality that foreign merchant ships in Russia have long enjoyed. So, in the thirties, in Great Britain and the United States of America, Russian ships were allowed to come only with a cargo of Russian goods; tolls from our ships in England were levied at double the usual rate for others. In France, our merchant ships, even with Russian merchandise, had to pay much more duties and other fees than the ships of the most favored nations. The surcharge on Russian ships was also levied in other states, with the exception of Sweden, Norway and the Hanseatic cities. Of the 7182 ships that came to Russian ports and left them, there were only 987 Russians. In 1825, 64 worth of goods were exported from Russia, and 51 million rubles were brought in. silver; in 1850, exported for 98, and brought - for 94 million rubles. silver.

Our relations with the European states were sealed, from time to time, by trade agreements. So, in 1828 it was concluded and in 1835-38. the treaty was renewed with Sweden, in 1832 with the United States of North America, in 1845 with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in 1846 with France, in 1847 with Tuscany, in 1850 with Belgium and Greece , in 1851 - with Portugal. By the last treaty, by the way, it was forbidden to bring Chinese and Indian goods on Russian ships to Portugal; goods brought on Russian ships to Portugal and on Portuguese ships to Russia were subject to payment of an additional duty of 20%. The correct course of T. with Poland, which in customs terms was considered a foreign state until 1850, was violated during the troubles of 1830 and 1831, but restored in 1834: almost all prohibitions were canceled, all goods, except for cotton products, it was allowed to bring from Poland to Russia, but only on the basis of certificates of origin of goods.

Prussia acquired the greatest importance in our trade along the land border, whose turnover with Russia during the second quarter of the century increased from 6 to 25 million rubles. Our vacation there rose from 4.0 to 10.9, and the import from there - from 1.6 to 14.4 million rubles; The turnover of trade with Austria increased from 6 to 12 million rubles. Prussia bought bread, flax, hemp, timber, lard, leather and bristles in Russia, not so much for herself as for export, through Danzig, Koenigsberg and Memel, to Great Britain, Holland, France and other states. In addition to these goods, furs and cattle were exported to Austria. Furs were the subject of significant trade at the Leipzig Fair, while cattle were sent to Bukovina, and the rest of the sale was stolen to Olmutz and Vienna. Mostly manufactory goods were brought from Prussia and Austria; moreover, silk, grape wines, scythes and sickles came from there.

The Adrianople treatise of 1829 confirmed the strength of the trade agreement of 1783, and the duty on all, both imported and sold goods, was determined at 3% of their value, established by a special tariff. In 1846, a new treaty was concluded, by which Turkey undertook to replace all hitherto existing internal trade fees with one duty, 2%, and also to grant Russia the rights of the most favored power. Thanks to a long peace, the trade of southern Russia developed rapidly: the release from the Black Sea ports quadrupled in 20 years (from 1830 to 1850), and the import increased 3 times; the number of ships arriving in 1850 reached 2,758. Wheat was the main export here, while fruit, wine, olive oil, silk, cotton, and various colonial goods were brought in. The Turkmenchay peace treaty of 1829 restored trade relations with Persia, and Russian-Persian trade temporarily revived: vacations to Persia rose to 5.5, imports to 2 3/4 million rubles; but, under the influence of English competition, the former fell in 1832 to 900,000 rubles, and the latter to 450,000 rubles. Despite the encouragement and benefits for the Russian merchants, by the middle of the century, vacations had increased only to 1.5 million rubles, and imports - up to 8.5 million rubles.

Central Asian caravans came to the border points twice a year: in spring and at the end of summer. Their nearest route from Bukhara to Khiva was inconvenient due to the lack of water and because of the enmity between the Bukharians and the Khivans; the second way went to Petropavlovsk, the third, not safe from the Kirghiz - to Troitsk. To secure the way through the steppes, Bukhara, Kokand and Tatar merchants resorted to hiring Kyrgyz carters from those clans that migrated to the Russian border places for the summer, and went south for the winter. Thus, cotton, paper yarn, soft junk were brought to Russia from Central Asia, and calico, chintz, leather, glass and products from it, paints, cast iron, iron, steel, copper, tin, zinc and products from these metals were exported there, mercury, silver. Orenburg and Siberian merchants took part in this trade. At the beginning of the 2nd quarter of the XIX century. In the 1940s, especially since Kankrin (in 1844), retired, objections were heard in Russian society against the extremes of protectionism. In 1846 some duties were reduced; in the same year, a special committee was drawn up under the chairmanship of the Tengoborsky, which developed a new tariff, approved on April 21, 1851. The number of prohibitions was reduced, duties on paints, cotton and metal products and haberdashery goods were lowered; duties on selling goods were partly lowered and partly abolished. At the beginning of the second half of the XIX century. the total annual turnover of Russian foreign trade for export extended to 107, for import - up to 86 million rubles, with the inclusion of the Kingdom of Poland, which in customs terms since 3851 was connected with the Empire. The countries of destination of our sea vessels and the origin of imported goods were distributed in 1849-1851. in the following way.

On vacation:

By import:

From 1855 to 1900

The war with Turkey and the three powers allied with it diverted many people's forces from productive labor, which is why within two years the turnover of Russia's foreign trade decreased significantly: exports, which in 1853 reached 147 million rubles. ser., fell in 1854 to 67, and in 1855 - to 39 million; import from 102 decreased to 70 and 72 million rubles. ser. After the conclusion of peace, trade revived and expanded more and more every year. By the end of the reign of Alexander II, exports reached half a billion, and imports - 622 million rubles. The development of trade was most facilitated by the liberation of the peasants, the lowering of customs duties on imported goods, the development of the railway network, which increased under Alexander II from 1,000 to 21,000 versts, the abolition of farming, the abolition of the poll tax from the burghers and peasants, zemstvo institutions, judicial reform, city ​​position 1870

In 1857, a new tariff was put into effect, Tengoborsky took part in developing the bases for it. Under 299 articles of the tariff of 1850, duties were reduced, and prohibitions on imports were lifted under 12 articles. The import of raw and semi-finished materials was especially facilitated. In 1859 and 1861 two 10% increases were made to the tariff rates of 1857, but even after that the customs taxation, which amounted to in 1850-1852. 34% of the price, did not exceed 16%. By the tariff of 1868 customs duties were again lowered, in general, to 12.8% of the value of the import. Trade treaties were concluded with almost all states on the basis of mutual favour: with France - in 1857 and 1874, with England and Belgium - in 1858, with Austria-Hungary - in 1860, with Italy - in 1863. , with the Hawaiian Islands - in 1869, with Switzerland - in 1872, with Peru - in 1874 and with Spain - in 1876.

Several agreements were concluded with China that were beneficial for Russia. According to the 1858 treaty in Tien-Jing, all those Chinese ports were open to the Russians, in which foreign trade was allowed. The Beijing Supplementary Treaty of 1860 allowed the subjects of both states to carry out barter trade along the entire border line and confirmed the right of Russian merchants to travel at any time from Kyakhta to Beijing and along the way, in Urga and Kalgan, to carry out retail trade, with the sole purpose that they no more than 200 people gathered in the same place. In 1869, special rules were established for Russian-Chinese overland trade, on the basis of which trade could be conducted duty-free at a distance of 100 Chinese li (about 50 versts) from the border line; Russians were given the right to trade duty-free in Mongolia. The duty on goods brought by Russian merchants to the Tien-Ching was reduced by 2/3 against that due under the general foreign tariff; no duties were levied on Chinese goods purchased by Russian merchants in the Tien-Jing for export by land to Russia, unless these goods had already been paid for by duty in any port; goods purchased for the same purpose in Kalgan were paid only by a transit duty, half the amount against export. Finally, goods, but named in a foreign tariff, were cleared with a duty according to the Russian additional tariff; on goods that did not appear in either one or the other, duties were levied, as a general rule, in the amount of 5% of the value.

Russian-Chinese trade, however, developed poorly, the main reason for which was the competition of the British, who sold their goods at a cheaper price. In particular, the trade in tea in Kyakhta was somewhat reduced due to the opening of the western Russian border for its import. Back in 1852, an expedition was sent to Japan, under the command of Admiral Putyatin, who managed to conclude a trade agreement with the Japanese government: three ports were opened in Japan for Russian ships - Shimoda, Hakodate and Nagasaki, to which Ieddo was added in 1858 and Osaka. In 1867, a convention was concluded with Japan, with which the provisions of the previous treaties, which were beneficial for Russian trade, were supplemented.

Thanks to the strengthening of trade relations with foreign countries and moderate customs duties on imported goods, the turnover of foreign trade in 20 years (1856-1876) increased from 160 to 400 for holidays, and from 122 to 478 million credit rubles for imports. The rapid increase in imports, which outstripped, in value, exports, aroused fears. In order to hold back the growth of imports, and also in the interests of the fiscal, who needed gold for the upcoming war, it was decided to levy, from 1877, customs duties on all imported goods in gold, while maintaining the previous nominal rates. With this, customs taxation was immediately increased by 1.5 times, if we take into account the exchange rate not in 1876, but in the five years following it. On June 3, 1880, the duty-free import of cast iron and iron was canceled, and duties on metal products were increased; On December 16, 1880, duties on all duty-free goods in general were increased by 10%; On May 12, 1881, duties on jute and jute products were raised, on May 19 of the same year - on cement; June 1, 1882 for many items of the tariff in the amount of up to 7.5 million rubles; On June 16, 1884, duties on coal and coke were established and increased - on pig iron not in business; On January 15, 1885, duties on tea, wood oil, herring and some other items were increased; On March 19, 1885, agricultural machinery and apparatus were besieged; On May 10, 1885, duties on copper and copper products were increased; On May 20, 1885, the rules on trade relations between the Empire and Finland were changed, and many customs tariff rates were raised; On June 3, 1885, duties were increased on 167 tariff articles. All these allowances were expected to increase the customs revenue by 30 million rubles, but in reality the revenue along the European border did not increase. The raising of customs duties with the aim of tariff protection for various industries continued after 1885; so, for example, on March 31, 1886, duties on copper and copper products were again increased, on June 3 - on brick, alum, soda, sulfuric acid, vitriol and glue, on July 12 - on coal brought to the southern ports, in 1887 - for pig iron, iron and steel not in business, for coal and coke and for some other goods of secondary importance.

Since the establishment of the collection of duties in gold currency, the exchange rate of the credit ruble has not only not increased, but has fallen from 85 kop. in 1876 to 67 in 1877 and to 63 kopecks. in the next five years. In 1887 the rate dropped to 55.7, in 1888 it rose to 591/2, in 1889 to 66. From the beginning of 1890; the exchange rate of the credit ruble began to rise and reached 77 in the first half of the year, which reduced the customs protection of industry, expressed in credit currency. As a result, it was deemed necessary from the middle of 1890 to raise indiscriminately, with very few exceptions, all customs duties by 20%. At the same time, work was being completed on the revision of the tariff of 1868, which ended with the introduction, on July 1, 1891, of a new tariff, which slightly modified and brought into the system all the partial and general increases in rates that preceded it. How big the difference between the rates of the last two tariffs can be judged by the following examples:

Customs duty per pud:

Product	at the rate of 1868	at the rate of 1891
Cast iron	5 kop.	45-52.5 kop.
Iron	20-25 kop.	90 kop. - 1 rub. 50 kop.
rails	20 kop.	90 kop.
Machinery, factory, other than copper	duty-free	2 rub. 50 kop.
Steam locomotives	75 kop.	3 rub. 00 kop.

On average per inhabitant, trade turnover increased in the 2nd period against the first by 44.6%, in the 3rd against the second by 81.9, in the 4th against the third by 34.0%. In 1900, 716,391 thousand worth of goods were exported, and 626,806 thousand rubles were brought in. Simultaneously with the increase in Russia of duties on imported raw materials, machinery and tools, in some foreign continental states the duties on Russian grain and raw materials were increased, which, regardless of changes in our trade policy, was caused by the increased importation of cheap overseas agricultural products to European markets. works. For the first time, Germany raised duties on imported bread and on some other agricultural products in 1879. Gradually rising, these duties reached in 1892: 37.9 for wheat and rye, 30.3 for oats and 30 kopecks for barley. from pud. In 1892 and 1893 Germany concluded agreements with 22 states, including all our competitors in the marketing of bread, under which duties on grain products, butter, eggs, livestock, timber and some other agricultural products were reduced by 30-40% for these states. . Thus, Russia was effectively eliminated from the German market. After unsuccessful attempts at an agreement, allowances of 15, 20, 25% were made in Russia to duties on goods coming from Germany. The latter responded with a 50% increase in duties on Russian agricultural products, as a result of which an addition to duties on German provenances in Russia was made in the same amount, and German ships were subject to an increased last tax: 1 rub. instead of 5 kop. with flippers. Then negotiations began, leading to an agreement on January 29, 1894, for a period of 10 years. Duties on Russian wheat and rye were lowered to 26.5 kopecks, on oats to 21 1/5 kopecks, and on barley to 15 kopecks. In addition, for 10 years, no increase in duties on oilseeds, forest products and horses and duty-free imports of bran, cake, seeds of forage grasses, bristles, game, skins, wool and some other goods are guaranteed. In total, duties on Russian goods were dropped in the amount (according to the calculation for 1895) about 13.5 million rubles. For Germany, Russia reduced duties on 120 goods and commodity groups, totaling (for 1895) 7 million rubles (at the rate of 1/15 imperial). The benefits of this treaty are extended to all European states and the North American United States. In the last 20 years, more agreements were concluded: with China - in 1881, with Korea - in 1889, with France (additional convention) - in 1893, with Austria-Hungary - in 1894, with Denmark, Japan and Portugal - in 1895, with Bulgaria - in 1897 Thus, Russia has trade agreements that secure for it the right of the most favored power with all European states, except for Romania, where the same common customs tariff applies to all states. Of the Asian states, Russia does not have a trade agreement only with Siam, of the American states, it is connected by agreements only with the United States and Peru.

Russia's internal trade is much less explored than its external one. Its total turnover is unknown; but there is no doubt that they are many times greater than the turnover of foreign trade. The annual production of agriculture is estimated at 3.5 billion rubles, cattle breeding and all other agricultural industries - at 2.5 billion; the mining and manufacturing industry - factory, handicraft and home - adds another 3 billion to this mass of values. Thus, the entire annual production of consumer goods can be estimated at 9 billion rubles. About half of this mass of products is consumed locally without entering the markets, so that the value of goods circulating in domestic trade can be estimated at 4.5 billion rubles. Russia's internal trade turnover is estimated at about the same amount based on trade tax data and trade documents.

Back

| 2

Add to bookmarks

Add comments

It is difficult to disagree with the well-known historian Immanuel Wallerstein, who argued that the Muscovite state (at least until 1689) should undoubtedly be placed outside the framework of "European Europe". Fernand Braudel, author of the brilliant monograph Time of the World (Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 1979; Russian edition M., Progress, 1992), quite agreeing with Wallerstein, nevertheless argues that Moscow has never been absolutely closed to the European economy, even before the conquest of Narva or before the first British settlements in Arkhangelsk (1553 - 1555)

Europe strongly influenced the East with the superiority of its monetary system, the attractiveness and temptations of technology and goods, with all its power.

But if the Turkish Empire, for example, diligently kept aloof from this influence, then Moscow gradually pulled itself towards the West.

To open a window to the Baltic, to allow the new English Moscow company to settle in Arkhangelsk - this meant an unambiguous step towards Europe.

However, the truce with the Swedes, signed on August 5, 1583, closed Russia's only exit to the Baltic and retained only the inconvenient Arkhangelsk port on the White Sea. Thus, access to Europe was difficult.

The Swedes, however, did not prohibit the passage of goods imported or exported by Russians through Narva.

Exchanges with Europe also continued through Revel and Riga. Their positive balance for Russia was paid in gold and silver.

The Dutch, importers of Russian grain and hemp, brought sacks of coins containing between 400 and 1,000 riksdaler each (the official coin of the Netherlands after the Estates General of 1579). In 1650, 2755 bags were delivered to Riga, in 1651. - 2145, in 1652 - 2012 bags. In 1683, trade through Riga gave Russia a positive balance of 832,928 riksdaler.

Russia remained semi-closed in itself not because it was allegedly cut off from Europe or opposed to exchanges. The reasons were rather in the moderate interest of the Russians in the West, in the unsteady political balance of Russia.

To some extent, the experience of Moscow is akin to the experience of Japan, but with the big difference that the latter, after 1638, closed itself to the world economy through a political decision.

Turkey was the main foreign market for Russia in the 16th and early 17th centuries. The Black Sea belonged to the Turks and was well guarded by them, and therefore, at the end of the trade routes that passed through the Don valley and the Sea of ​​Azov, goods were reloaded exclusively on Turkish ships. Equestrian messengers regularly ran between Crimea and Moscow.

The capture of the lower reaches of the Volga (the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan in the middle of the 16th century) opened the way to the south, although the waterway passed through weakly peaceful areas and remained dangerous.

However, Russian merchants created river caravans, uniting in large detachments.

Kazan and, to an even greater extent, Astrakhan became the checkpoints of Russian trade heading to the Lower Volga, Central Asia, China and Iran. Trade trips captured Qazvin, Shiraz, the island of Ormuz (which took three months to reach from Moscow).

The Russian fleet, created in Astrakhan during the second half of the 16th century, actively operated in the Caspian. Other trade routes led to Tashkent, Samarkand and Bukhara, all the way to Tobolsk, which was then the frontier of the Siberian East.

Although we do not have exact figures expressing the volume of Russian trade exchange between the southeast and west, the prevailing role of the markets of the South and East seems obvious.

Russia exported raw hides, furs, hardware, coarse linen, iron products, weapons, wax, honey, food products, plus re-exported European products: Flemish and English cloth, paper, glass, and metals.

To Russia from the eastern states spices, Chinese and Indian silks in transit through Iran; Persian velvets and brocades; Turkey supplied sugar, dried fruits, gold items and pearls; Central Asia provided inexpensive cotton products.

It appears that Eastern trade has been positive for Russia. In any case, this applies to state monopolies (ie, to some part of the exchanges). This means that trade relations with the East stimulated the Russian economy. The West, on the other hand, demanded only raw materials from Russia, and supplied them with luxury goods and minted coins.

And the East did not disdain ready-made products, and if luxury goods made up some part of the commodity flow going to Russia, then along with them were dyes and many cheap consumer goods.