The speech apparatus is a set of interacting human organs that are actively involved in the emergence of sounds and speech breathing, thereby forming speech. The speech apparatus includes the organs of hearing, articulation, respiration, and today we will take a closer look at the structure of the speech apparatus and the nature of human speech.

Sound formation

To date, the structure of the speech apparatus can be safely considered 100% studied. Thanks to this, we have the opportunity to learn how sound is born and what causes speech disorders.

Sounds are generated due to the contraction of the muscle tissues of the peripheral speech apparatus. Starting a conversation, a person automatically inhales air. From the lungs, the air flow enters the larynx, nerve impulses cause vibration and they, in turn, create sounds. Sounds add up to words. Words into sentences. And the proposals - in intimate conversations.

Speech, or, as it is also called, voice apparatus has two departments: central and peripheral (executive). The first consists of the brain and its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways, stem nuclei and nerves. Peripheral, in turn, is represented by a set of executive organs of speech. It includes: bones, muscles, ligaments, cartilage and nerves. Thanks to the nerves, the listed organs receive tasks.

Central department

Like other manifestations of the nervous system, speech arises through reflexes, which, in turn, are associated with the brain. The most important parts of the brain responsible for speech reproduction are: the frontal parietal and occipital regions. For right-handers, this role is played by the right hemisphere, and for left-handers, the left hemisphere.

The frontal (lower) gyrus is responsible for the creation of oral speech. The convolutions located in the temporal zone perceive all sound stimuli, that is, they are responsible for hearing. The process of understanding the sounds heard occurs in the parietal region of the cerebral cortex. Well, the occipital part is responsible for the function of visual perception of written speech. If we consider in more detail the speech apparatus of the child, we can see that his occipital part is developing especially actively. Thanks to it, the child visually fixes the articulation of the elders, which leads to the development of his oral speech.

The brain interacts with the peripheral region through centripetal and centrifugal pathways. The latter send brain signals to the organs of the speech apparatus. Well, the first ones are responsible for delivering the response signal.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three more departments. Let's consider each of them.

respiratory department

We all know that breathing is the most important physiological process. The person breathes reflexively without thinking about it. The process of breathing is regulated by special centers of the nervous system. It consists of three stages, continuously following each other: inhalation, short pause, exhalation.

Speech is always formed on the exhale. Therefore, the air flow created by a person during a conversation performs articulatory and voice-forming functions at the same time. If this principle is violated in any way, speech is immediately distorted. That is why many speakers pay attention to speech breathing.

The respiratory organs of the speech apparatus are represented by the lungs, bronchi, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. The diaphragm is an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When it, together with the intercostal muscles, contracts, the chest increases in volume and inspiration occurs. Accordingly, when it relaxes - exhale.

Voice department

We continue to consider the departments of the speech apparatus. So, the voice has three main characteristics: strength, timbre and pitch. The vibration of the vocal cords causes the air flow from the lungs to be converted into vibrations of small air particles. These pulsations, transmitted to the environment, create the sound of the voice.

Timbre can be called sound coloring. For all people, it is different and depends on the shape of the vibrator that creates vibrations of the ligaments.

Articulatory department

The speech articulatory apparatus is simply called sound-producing. It includes two groups of organs: active and passive.

active organs

As the name implies, these organs can be mobile and are directly involved in the formation of the voice. They are represented by the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw. Since these organs are composed of muscle fibers, they are amenable to training.

When the organs of speech change their position, constrictions and locks appear in various parts of the sound-producing apparatus. This leads to the formation of a sound of one kind or another.

The soft palate and mandible can rise and fall. With this movement, they open or close the passage to the nasal cavity. The lower jaw is responsible for the formation of stressed vowels, namely the sounds: "A", "O", "U", "I", "S", "E".

The main organ of articulation is the tongue. Thanks to the abundance of muscles, he is extremely mobile. The tongue can: shorten and lengthen, become narrower and wider, be flat and arched.

Human lips, being a mobile formation, take an active part in the formation of words and sounds. Lips change their shape and size, providing the pronunciation of vowel sounds.

The soft palate, or, as it is also called, the palatine curtain, is a continuation of the hard palate and lies at the top of the oral cavity. It, like the lower jaw, can rise and fall, separating the pharynx from the nasopharynx. The soft palate originates behind the alveoli, near the upper teeth, and ends with a small tongue. When a person pronounces any sounds other than "M" and "H", the veil of palate rises. If for some reason it is lowered or motionless, the sound comes out "nasal". The voice is raspy. The reason for this is simple - when the palate is lowered, sound waves, along with air, enter the nasopharynx.

Passive Organs

The speech apparatus of a person, or rather its articulatory department, also includes immovable organs, which are the support for the mobile ones. These are teeth, nasal cavity, hard palate, alveoli, larynx and pharynx. Although these organs are passive, they have a huge impact on

Now that we know what the human voice apparatus consists of and how it works, let's look at the main problems that may affect it. Problems with the pronunciation of words, as a rule, arise from the lack of formation of the speech apparatus. When certain parts of the articulatory department become ill, this is reflected in the correct resonation and clarity of pronunciation of sounds. Therefore, it is important that the organs that are involved in the formation of speech are healthy and work in perfect harmony.

The speech apparatus can be disturbed for various reasons, since this is a rather complex mechanism of our body. However, among them there are problems that occur most often:

1. Defects in the structure of organs and tissues.
2. Incorrect use of the speech apparatus.
3. Disorders of the corresponding parts of the central nervous system.

If you have speech problems, do not put them on the back burner. And the reason here is not only that speech is the most important factor in the formation of human relations. Usually people who have impaired speech apparatus not only speak poorly, but also experience difficulties in breathing, chewing food and other processes. Therefore, by eliminating the lack of speech, you can get rid of a number of problems.

Preparation of speech organs for work

In order for speech to be beautiful and relaxed, it needs to be taken care of. This usually takes place in preparation for public performances, when any hesitation and mistake can cost reputation. Speech organs are prepared in work with the aim of activating (tuning) the main muscle fibers. Namely, the muscles that are involved in speech breathing, the resonators responsible for the sonority of the voice, and the active organs, on the shoulders of which the intelligible pronunciation of sounds lies.

The first thing to remember is that the human speech apparatus functions better with proper posture. This is a simple but important principle. To make speech clearer, you need to keep your head straight and your back straight. The shoulders should be relaxed and the shoulder blades should be slightly flattened. Now nothing prevents you from saying beautiful words. Getting used to the correct posture, you can not only take care of the clarity of speech, but also gain a more favorable appearance.

For those who, by the nature of their activities, speak a lot, it is important to relax the organs responsible for the quality of speech and restore their full working capacity. Relaxation of the speech apparatus is ensured by performing special exercises. It is recommended to do them immediately after a long conversation, when the vocal organs are very tired.

Relaxation posture

You may have already come across concepts such as posture and relaxation mask. These two exercises are aimed at muscle relaxation or, as they say, removal. In fact, they are nothing complicated. So, to assume a relaxation pose, you need to sit on a chair and bend forward slightly with your head bowed. In this case, the legs should stand with the whole foot and form a right angle with each other. They should also bend at right angles. This can be achieved by choosing the right chair. The arms hang down, with the forearms resting lightly on the thighs. Now you need to close your eyes and relax as much as possible.

To make rest and relaxation as complete as possible, you can do some forms of auto-training. At first glance it seems that this is a pose of a dejected person, but in fact it is quite effective for relaxing the whole body, including the speech apparatus.

Relaxation mask

This simple technique is also very important for speakers and those who, due to the specifics of their activities, talk a lot. There is also nothing complicated here. The essence of the exercise is the alternating tension of the various muscles of the face. You need to “put on” different “masks” on yourself: joy, surprise, longing, anger, and so on. Having done all this, you need to relax the muscles. It is not at all difficult to do this. Just say the sound "T" on a weak exhalation and leave the jaw in a free lowered position.

Relaxation is one of the elements of oral hygiene. In addition to it, this concept includes protection against colds and hypothermia, avoidance of mucosal irritants and speech training.

Conclusion

This is how interesting and complex our speech apparatus is. In order to fully enjoy one of the most important gifts of a person - the ability to communicate, you need to monitor the hygiene of the vocal apparatus and treat it with care.

A number of organs take part in the production of speech sounds, which together form the human speech apparatus. This apparatus consists of four main parts: the respiratory apparatus, the larynx, the oral cavity, and the nasal cavity.
The respiratory apparatus consists of the diaphragm, or abdominal barrier, chest, lungs, bronchi, windpipe.
The role of the breathing apparatus in speech is similar to the role of bellows that force air: it produces the air jet necessary for the formation of sound.
There are two phases in the work of the respiratory apparatus: inhalation and exhalation.
When inhaled, air enters the lungs through the windpipe and bronchi; when exhaled, it comes out of them back. With simple breathing (not during speech), both phases are approximately equal in duration. During speech, the inhalation is fast, and the exhalation is prolonged. This is because in the process of speech, mainly exhalation is used, and inhalation only restores the air supply used up in speech. Thus, when we speak, air from the lungs through the bronchi through the windpipe enters the larynx.
The larynx forms the upper end of the windpipe. This is an organ that serves almost exclusively for the purpose of producing sounds. The larynx is like a musical instrument, which gives the most varied in pitch and strength sounds.
Across the larynx are two bundles of elastic muscles, similar to two lips, called the vocal cords. The edges of the vocal cords facing each other are free and form a gap called the vocal cord.
When the ligaments are not stretched, the glottis is wide open, and air passes freely through it. It is this position of the ligament that is occupied in the formation of deaf consonants. When they are stretched and in contact with each other, the free passage for air is difficult. The air current passes forcefully between the ligaments, resulting in an oscillatory movement that causes them to tremble and vibrate. The result is a musical sound called a voice. He takes part in the formation of vowels, sonorous and voiced consonants.
The oral cavity plays a dual role in the formation of sounds. On the one hand, it serves as a resonator, which gives a different color (timbre) to sounds. On the other hand, it is the place where independent noises of different quality are produced, which are either mixed with the voice, or themselves, without the participation of the voice, form sounds.
The quality of the noises in the oral cavity, as well as the role of the oral cavity as a resonator, depend on the volume and shape, which can be different due to the movement of the lips and tongue. These movements are called articulations. Through articulations, each sound of speech receives its final "finish". This makes it different from other sounds. The articulations of the tongue and lips are joined by the movement of the lower jaw, which, lowering, expands the oral cavity or narrows it in a reverse movement.
Language is especially important in the formation of speech sounds. It is extremely mobile and takes various positions in relation to the teeth and palate. The front part of the tongue is especially mobile, the tip of which can touch almost any place in the mouth, starting with the teeth and ending with the soft palate.
Depending on which part, how much and to what place of the palate the tongue rises, the volume and shape of the oral cavity change, resulting in various noises.
The language cannot draw any natural boundaries between its parts, so the division is made completely conditionally.
The part of the tongue located against the dentition of the palate (together with the tip of the tongue) is called the anterior. The part of the tongue located against the hard palate is the middle one.
The part of the tongue opposite the soft palate is called the back.
Differences in sounds depend on differences in the articulations of the tongue, and one must distinguish between the place and method of articulation.
The place of articulation is determined by:

1. what part of it articulates the language;
2. in relation to which point it articulates (to the teeth, palate).

The front of the tongue can articulate in relation to the upper teeth (for example, when forming consonants, [then], [h], [s], [k], [l]) and in relation to the dental part of the palate (for example, when forming consonants [g], [nі], [p]).
When the tongue articulates with its middle part, then its back approaches the hard palate (for example, when forming a consonant sound [/] or vowels [i], [e]).
When the tongue articulates with the back, then its back rises to the soft palate (when consonants [g], [k], [X] or vowels [y] gt; [o]) are formed.
When pronouncing consonant sounds of the Russian language, the movement of the middle part of the tongue can join other articulations, thanks to such additional articulation, the so-called soft pronunciation of consonants is obtained.
What we call “softness” of sound is acoustically determined by the higher pitch of oral noises compared to the corresponding “hard” sound. This greater pitch is associated with a change in shape and a decrease in the volume of the resonant oral cavity.
The work of the lips also plays a large role in the formation of sounds, but less than the tongue. Lip articulations are performed either with both lips, or only with the lower lip.
With the help of the lips, independent noises, similar to those produced by the tongue, can be produced. For example, lips, closing with each other, can form a shutter, which, with an explosion, is torn apart by a stream of air. This is how the consonants [and] (without a voice) and [b] (with a voice) are formed. If at the same time the passage to the nasal cavity is open, then a consonant [l *] is obtained.
The border between the oral cavity and the passage into the nasal cavity is the so-called palatine curtain (a movable soft palate ending in a small tongue). The purpose of the palatine curtain is to open or close the air passage from the pharynx into the nasal cavity.
The purpose of the nasal cavity is to serve as a resonator in the formation of certain sounds. During the formation of most of the sounds of the Russian language, the nasal cavity does not take part, since the palatine curtain is raised and air access to the nasal cavity is closed. In the formation of sounds
[g], [n] the palatine curtain is lowered, the passage to the nasal cavity is open, and then the oral cavity and the nasal cavity form one common resonating chamber, another qualitative color - timbre.

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Sound as an object of phonetics

sound and letter

Writing is like the clothes of oral speech. It conveys spoken language.

The sound is pronounced and heard, and the letter is written and read.

The indistinguishability of sound and letter makes it difficult to understand the structure of the language. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay wrote: whoever mixes sound and letter, writing and language, “he will only with difficulty unlearn, and maybe never unlearn to confuse a person with a passport, nationality with the alphabet, human dignity with rank and title”, those. entity with something external .

The focus of phonetics is sound.

Sound is studied from three sides, in three aspects:

1) the acoustic (physical) aspect considers speech sounds as a variety of sounds in general;

2) articulatory (biological) studies the sounds of speech as a result of the activity of the organs of speech;

3) the functional (linguistic) aspect considers the functions of speech sounds;

4) the perceptual aspect studies the perception of speech sounds.

The work (set of movements) of the organs of speech during the formation of sound is called articulation of sound.

The articulation of sound consists of three phases:

1. Excursion (attack)- the organs of speech move from the previous position to the position necessary for the pronunciation of this sound (Panov: "the exit of the organs of speech to work").

2. Excerpt- the organs of speech are in the position necessary to pronounce the sound.

3. Recursion (indentation)- the organs of speech come out of their occupied position (Panov: "leaving work").

Phases interpenetrate each other, this leads to various kinds of changes in sounds.

The set of movements and positions of the organs of speech habitual for speakers of a given language is called articulation base.

When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs contract, air passes through the larynx, across which the vocal cords are located in the form of elastic muscles.

Having passed the larynx, the air stream enters the oral cavity and, if a small tongue ( uvula) does not close the passage, - in the nasal.

The oral and nasal cavities serve as resonators: they amplify sounds of a certain frequency. Changes in the shape of the resonator are achieved by the fact that the tongue moves back, forward, rises up, falls down.

If the nasal curtain (small tongue, uvula) is lowered, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open and the nasal resonator will also be connected to the oral one.

In the formation of sounds that are pronounced without the participation of tone - deaf consonants - not tone, but noise is involved.

All speech organs in the oral cavity are divided into two groups:

1) active - mobile and perform the main work during the articulation of sound: tongue, lips, uvula (small tongue), vocal cords;

2) passive ones are immobile and perform an auxiliary role during articulation: teeth, alveoli(protrusions above the teeth), hard palate, soft palate.

Content:

The speech apparatus is a set and interaction of human organs that take part in the process of speech breathing, sound and voice formation, as well as ensuring the emergence of speech itself in the speaker. The latter include the organs of hearing, vision, articulation and the human central nervous system. In a narrow sense, the vocal apparatus is understood as all those organs that are directly involved in the process of sound formation (respiratory organs, larynx, supraglottic cavities) and respiration.

How sounds are formed

Today, the structure of the speech apparatus can be considered fully understood. It allows us to understand how sound is born, what to eliminate possible problems and disorders of the voice and speech apparatus.

How does the process of sound pronunciation take place? The sounds of their combination are born as a result of contraction of the muscular tissues that make up the peripheral apparatus of speech. A person, starting to speak, exhales on the machine, unconsciously. The created air flow from the lungs passes into the larynx, as a result of which the resulting nerve impulses act on the vocal cords. They vibrate and contribute to the formation of sounds that add up to words and sentences.

The structure of the speech apparatus

The voice apparatus consists of two sections: central and executive. The first is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways, stem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and the corresponding nerves. And the peripheral section is the whole set of executive speech organs, which include bones and cartilage, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral nerves (sensory and motor). With their help, the work of these bodies is carried out.

In turn, the executive department consists of three main departments, each of which operates collectively:

1. Respiratory department

It's no secret that the formation of human breath is the most important physiological process. People breathe reflexively without really thinking about it. Breathing is carried out by special centers of the human nervous system, and it consists of three continuous and successive phases:

• pause
• exhalation

A person always speaks on exhalation and the air jet stream created by him simultaneously performs two functions: voice-forming and articulatory. Any violation of this rule distorts the sound of speech. That is why it is very important to take the time to work on .

The respiratory organs include the lungs, bronchi, trachea, intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm. It is on it that the main muscles of a person rely. The diaphragm is an elastic muscle that has the shape of a dome in a relaxed state. When it and the intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the human chest increases and inspiration occurs. And vice versa, when they relax - exhale.

2. Voice

It is necessary to remember about the correct posture, thanks to which the voice-speech apparatus functions better. To do this, keep your head straight and your back straight, do not slouch, straighten your shoulders, bring your shoulder blades together a little. In addition, such a habit of correct posture contributes to the improvement of your appearance.

For people whose activities are associated with prolonged speaking, the ability to relax the organs of speech and restore the efficiency of the speech apparatus is of great importance. Relaxation means rest and relaxation, which is provided by special exercises. They are recommended to be performed at the end of speech technique classes and immediately after prolonged speaking, when vocal fatigue sets in.

1. Posture of relaxation

You may have read in specialized literature about posture and relaxation mask. That is, about relaxation, the removal of muscle "clamps". To assume this posture, you need to sit down and lean forward slightly, while bending your back and bowing your head. The legs rest on the entire foot and should be spaced at right angles to each other. Your hands rest on your hips, your hands hang freely. Close your eyes. And relax all your muscles as much as possible.

In this posture of relaxation, you can use separate forms of auto-training, which will provide the most complete relaxation and rest.

Sitting, relax all your muscles as much as possible

2. Her mask

The possession of a mask of relaxation is no less important for the speaker or the speaker. To do this, alternately strain and relax various muscle groups of the face. How to “put on” masks of joy, surprise, longing, and so on. After that, relax all the muscles. To do this, say the sound " T» on a weak exhalation and leave the lower jaw in a lowered position.

Make faces, tense and relax your face - this can improve your sound pronunciation

Relaxation is one of the hygiene of speech activity. Its general requirements: protection from unwanted hypothermia and from colds. Avoid anything that irritates the mucous membranes. Follow a certain technique for training the speech apparatus, follow the rules for performing exercises in speech technique and reasonably alternate between stress and rest.

When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs contract, air passes through the larynx, across which the vocal cords are located in the form of elastic muscles. If an air stream comes out of the lungs, and the vocal cords are moved and tense, then the cords vibrate - a musical sound (tone) occurs

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The device of the speech apparatus

When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs are compressed, the air passes through the larynx, across which are locatedvocal cordsin the form of elastic muscles. If from l eg ki there is an air stream, and the vocal cords are moved and tense, then the cords vibrate Xia - there is a musical sound ( tone ). Tone is needed for the pronunciation of vowels and voiced g la dreams x.

If the vocal cords are divided into wow, they are silent. The air jet passes freely through the larynx and does not touch it. l o s s s x links. Such a lol nie is necessary for the pronunciation of voiceless consonants.

After passing the larynx, the air stream enters the oral cavity and. if a small tongue ( uvula ) does not close the passage, - in the nasal.

The oral and nasal cavities serve as resonators: they amplify sounds of a certain frequency. Changes in the shape of the resonator are achieved by the fact that the tongue moves back, forward, rises up, falls down.

If the palatine curtain is pubescent, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open and the nasal resonator is also connected to the oral one.

In the formation of sounds that from n o s t s without the participation of tone - deaf consonants - not tone is involved, but noise .

All organs of speech in the oral cavityare divided into two groups:

1. active - mobile and perform the main work during the articulation of sound: tongue, lips, uvula (small tongue), vocal cords;
2. passive immobile and perform an auxiliary role during articulation: teeth, alveoli (protrusions or teeth), hard palate, soft palate.

Consonants and vowels and their classification

Speech sounds - minimal units of the speech chain, which are the result of complex human articulatory activity and are characterized by certain acoustic and perceptual (associated with the perception of speech) properties [LES].

One of the linguistic universals is the presence of consonants and vowels.

Consonants

1. the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream;
   1. uneven tension of the organs of speech;
   2. the presence of noise;
   3. in the vicinity of vowels, consonants cannot be syllable-forming.

The consonant system of a given language or dialect is called consonantism (from lat. consonans - consonant).

Classifications of consonants

Consonants are classified according to the following criteria.

I. By participation (ratio) in their formation of voice and noiseconsonants are divided into sonorous and noisy.

1. Sonorants or sonants(lat. sonorous - sonorous) are such consonants, in the formation of which voice and slight noise participate: [ j ], [l], [m], [n], [p], [l '], [m '], [n '], [p '].
   1. noisy are such consonants, in the formation of which noise prevails over the voice. They, in turn, are divided into:
      1. voiced noisy, the formation of which is characterized by noise accompanied by voice, and
         1. deaf noisy, which are formed only by noise.

By the presence or absence of voices, voiced and deaf noisy formcorrelative pairs of voiced-deafness:[b] - [p], [d] - [t], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], can be and unpaired voiceless, for example, [x], [x'], [c], [h].

P. By place of education(i.e. by active incumbent)consonants are subdivided into following. groups.

1. Lip consonants are divided into:

1) labial are formed by closing the lower lip with the upper:

[b], [n], [m], and in Russian there are also soft [b '], [n '], [m '].

2) labio-dental are formed by bringing the lower lip closer to the upper teeth: [c], [f], soft [c '], [f '].

1. Lingual consonantsare divided into anterior, middle and posterior lingual, depending on which part of the tongue - anterior, middle or posterior - plays an active role in the formation of sound.
   1. Anterolingual:
      1. dorsal (the front of the tongue closes with the upper teeth): [d], [d ’], [t], [t "], [h], [h ’], [s], [s ’], [l], [l '], [n], [n '], [c].

B) apical (raising the front of the tongue to the alveoli and palate): eng.[d], [t].

1. how cuminal (the tip of the tongue rises to the sky): [g], [w], [p], [h], w.

D) retroflex(the tip of the tongue rises to the sky and turns back) - in Indian languages.

1. Middle language (raising the middle part of the tongue to the sky): [ j].
   1. back lingual (rapprochement of the back of the tongue with the soft palate): [g], [k], [x], their soft pairs.
2. Uvular, or reed(lat. uvula - tongue): French burr [p].
3. Pharyngeal, pharyngeal:Ukrainian mountain, garna maiden.
4. Laryngeal, laryngeal, ligamentous: tat. tә emin, tә Esir, also in Arabic. lang. Rus. "N e-a ".

III . According to the method of education (those. by way of overcoming obstacles):

1. occlusive - consonants, which are formed by the complete closure of the organs of pronunciation, so the air, bumping into an obstacle, breaks it with force and produces a noise characteristic of these sounds (they are also called explosive): [b], [p], [d], [t] , [g], [k].
2. Connecting passages(a passage remains between the organs of speech):
   1. lateral [l], [l].
   2. nasal [m], |n], tat. [ң ].
3. slotted consonants are formed by incomplete convergence of the active and passive organs of speech, as a result of which a narrow gap remains between them through which air passes: [h], [s], [g], [w], [c], [f], [x ], [ j].
4. Allocate also stop-slit, or affricates. In the initial stage of articulation, they are formed as occlusions, but at the end of articulation, the occlusion does not instantly open, but passes into a gap, as in the case of gaps. This is [c] and[ h ] .
5. Trembling (vibrants)- consonants, during the formation of which the tip of the tongue either closes or opens with the alveoli during the passage of the air stream, i.e. vibrates: [r], soft [r '].

IV . According to the position of the palatine curtain:

1. Nasal , during the formation of which the palatine curtain opens a passage into the nasal cavity, through which part of the air exits: [m], [n], tat. [ң ].

2. Oral (clean)- the palatine curtain covers the passage to the nasal cavity: all the rest.

V. P o the presence or absence of an exhaled stream of air:

1. Respiratory : all consonants rus. lang.
2. Non-respiratory (clicking)arise through sucking movements of the organs of speech; in Tajik and Turkmen they mean, for example, negation.

VI. By the presence or absence of softening (palatalization)(in Russian) - by hardness-softnessall consonants are divided into 1. solid and 2. soft (palatalized), which formcorrelative pairs for hardness-softness: [b] - [b '], [p] - [p '], [c] - [c '], [f] - [f '], [d] - [d '], [t] - [ t ’], [s] - [s ’], [s] - [s ’], etc .; unpaired:. [c], [h '], [ j].

Vowels - speech sounds that are characterized by:

1. the absence of an obstacle in the way of the exhaled air stream;
2. uniform tension of the organs of speech;
3. consist of tone (voice);
4. are syllabic.

The vowel system of a language or dialect is called vocalism.

Vowels are pure tonal sounds. Musical tone, the voice is formed in the larynx as a result of the vibration of the vocal cords. The cavities of the mouth and pharynx are resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the different structure of the organs of speech - lips, tongue, lower jaw.

Classifications of vowels

Classifications of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language are based on the following main features.

I . According to the degree of elevation of the tongue (movement of the tongue vertically),according to the degree of its approach to the sky during the formation of sound, all vowels are divided into:

1. High vowels:[and], [s], [y].
   1. Middle vowels:[e], [o].
   2. Low vowels:[a] (see table).

When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually slightly moves away from the upper jaw, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow. When pronouncing low vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening. Therefore, low vowels are also called wide.

P. At the place of the rise of the tongue, i.e. by the movement of the tongue horizontally during the formation of sound, differ

1. Front vowels:[and], (e).
   1. Middle vowels:[s]. [a].
      1. Back vowels:[y], [o].

When forming front vowels, the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, and the middle part of the tongue rises slightly. When pronouncing back vowels, the tongue moves back, the tip of the tongue moves away from the lower teeth, and the back of the tongue rises to the palate. The middle vowels occupy a middle position between the front and back vowels.

III. By the participation of the lips vowels are divided into:

1. Rounded (labialized- from lat. labium - lip) - lips are rounded and stretched forward: [y], [o], in Tat. lang. there are more of them.
   1. Non-deformed (non-labialized): rest.

IV. Longitude (in some languages, for example, in English):

1.Long: [i:] meat, [u:] cool.

2. Brief: [ i ].

V . According to the position of the palate(see above):

1. Nasal - were in the Old Russian language.

2. Clean - all vowel sounds of modern Russian. lang.

VI . By uniformity of sound or articulation:

1. Monophthongs.
   1. Polythongs - combinations of several vowel elements within one syllable. So, their variety is diphthongs: english go , in Latin, Latvian and other languages. Diphthongs, in turn, are divided into
      1. true, in which both elements are equivalent, and
         1. false, in which one element is the top of the syllable, and the other side:

A) descending - the strong element is the first: eng. home, German in aum,

B) ascending, where the strong element is the second: Spanish. Bueno.

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