SYRIA
Syrian Arab Republic, a state in Southwest Asia. Syria borders on Iraq, Turkey, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon, in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea.
Syria. The capital is Damascus. Population - 16,673 thousand people (1998). The population density is 90 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 55%, rural - 45%. Area - 185,180 sq. km. The highest point is Mount Ash-Sheikh (Hermon), 2814 m above sea level, the lowest is 212 below sea level. The official language is Arabic. The main religion is Islam. Administrative division - 13 governorates. The monetary unit is the Syrian pound. National holiday: Evacuation Day - 17 April. National Anthem: Glory to the Defenders of the Fatherland.
After a short delay, check if videostreamok has hidden its iframe setTimeout(function() ( if(document.getElementById("adv_kod_frame").hidden) document.getElementById("video-banner-close-btn").hidden = true; ) , 500); ) ) if (window.addEventListener) ( window.addEventListener("message", postMessageReceive); ) else ( window.attachEvent("onmessage", postMessageReceive); ) ))();
Until the 1920s, the name "Syria" was used to refer to a larger geographical and historical region that included all of Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the current West Bank of the Jordan River and the Gaza Strip, as well as small areas in southern Turkey and northwest Iraq. This region, sometimes called Great Syria, stretched from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Peninsula and covered the entire eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea from Gaza in the south to Antioch (modern Antakya) in the north. Great Syria was an important part of the ancient Hellenistic world, then the Roman and Byzantine empires, and with the spread in the 7th century. Islam became the center of the Arab-Muslim civilization. For 400 years, until 1918, Greater Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire. With the weakening in the 19th century. The power of Istanbul increased the penetration of Europeans into the region and at the same time the Arab movement arose. After the defeat of the Ottoman Sultanate in the First World War, the reins of government in the region passed to the European powers. Under the mandate of the League of Nations, France established the administrative-political border between Syria and Lebanon. Britain did the same in Transjordan and Palestine, which it opened up to large-scale Jewish immigration, having previously promised to create a "Jewish nation-state." In the 1940s, after the decline of the colonial empires during and immediately after the Second World War, these Arab regions gained independence, with only most of Palestine becoming part of the State of Israel. The area of modern Syria is 185,180 square kilometers. km, population - 16,673 million people (1998). In 1990, approximately 340,000 Palestinian refugees and their descendants also lived on its territory. In 1967 ca. 1150 sq. km of Syrian territory in the Golan Heights, in southern Syria, were occupied by Israel.
NATURE
Surface structure. On the territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the east through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, five physical and geographical regions are distinguished: 1) the Primorsky lowland, 2) the Western mountain range, 3) the Rift zone, 4) the Eastern Syria. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowlands, the mountains of Ansaria and the valley of the El-Asi river, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries. The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In some places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 16-32 km.
Western mountain range. Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, there is the Ansaria (En-Nusayriya) limestone mountain range, which runs parallel to the seashore from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. 64 km has an average height of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Yunes (1561 m). On the western strongly dissected slopes of the mountains, open to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, there is a lot of precipitation. In these mountains, small rivers originate, flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers have developed deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot dry air masses and receives much less precipitation. At the southern tip of the Ansaria ridge is the Tripoli-Khomsky intermountain passage. A road runs along it, connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; in the western direction flows the El-Kebir river, which over the years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.
Rift zone. To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and to the north of the Tripoli-Khomsky passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African rift system. The valley of the middle course of the El-Asi river is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El-Gab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high fertility of the soil, irrigated agriculture is developed here.
Eastern mountain range. The Ez-Zawiya Mountains adjoin directly to El-Ghab from the east, which is a hilly surface with an average height of 460-600 m. Its maximum heights reach 900 m. passes the border between Syria and Lebanon. These mountains are composed of porous limestones that absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the surface there are many sources used to irrigate land in the vicinity of the capital. Within the range of Ash-Sheikh, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Hermon mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used in the water supply of the Damascus oasis.
East Syria Plateau. The large, eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually drops to the east from about 750 m east of the Antilivan range to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the Ed-Druze mountains, dome-shaped, rising up to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse-grained material formed from erupted rocks, which makes it difficult to use this territory economically. Only in the area of Hauran (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are strongly weathered, fertile powerful soils were formed. To the east of the Az-Zawiya mountains, the terrain acquires an undulating character. Its surface gradually decreases from about 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the north-east of the country, medium-altitude (more than 500 m above sea level) mountains of Abb el-Azis (maximum height 920 m) are distinguished, which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, which cuts into it to a depth of 30-60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire region, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir -ez-Zor. Their height decreases to the east from 2000 m in the Maalula range (north of Damascus), to 800 m in the Bishri mountains (northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used as winter pastures.
Climate. Most of Syria is dominated by an arid and semi-arid climate, with little precipitation, and it falls mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowland and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.
Western Syria. The climate of the seaside strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual rainfall is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000-1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with a maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is practically no rainfall. At low altitudes in this season, the climatic conditions are uncomfortable: during the day, the air warms up to 30-35 ° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer it is much more pleasant: daytime temperatures there are approximately 5 ° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11 ° C. Average temperatures in winter are 13-15 ° C, temperatures below 0 ° C are only at some distance from the coastal lowlands. Occasional solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only on the Ansaria Range, where the snow cover can last two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the temperature rises to 18-21 ° C.
Eastern Syria. Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Antilivan and Hermon ranges, the average amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian desert, which extends east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year. The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. temperatures in July-August often exceed 38 ° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply, and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, due to cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast, where it is hot and humid. In winter, in the steppe and desert regions, it is approximately 5.5 ° C cooler than in the coastal strip. The average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7 ° C, and in Aleppo - 6 ° C. In the north of the steppe zone, frosts and snow often occur, but in its southern areas, as well as in the desert, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Nighttime temperatures in winter fall well below 0°C.
Water resources. In areas with insufficient moisture for irrigated agriculture, wells, springs, accumulations of groundwater and rivers are used, due to which a significant share of electricity is generated in the country. Irrigation provided approx. 12% of the sowing wedge, and about 2/5 of its area is carried out thanks to wells. On the remaining irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its main tributaries, the Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also extremely important for the energy and agricultural sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which also lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow bringing the area of irrigated land and electricity production to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, which was completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmuk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).
natural vegetation. In the distant past, the Ansaria Range and other mountains in the north of the country were occupied by forests. Later, they were replaced by stunted communities of conifers and deciduous species in wetter sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the mountain ranges and in the low mountains of the interior of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for pasture cattle breeding. In deserts, the landscape revives only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and undersized shrubs appear. Nevertheless, even such a poor vegetation cover is enough to feed camels, which are bred by nomads.
Soils. Only 1/3 of the territory of Syria is suitable for agriculture. Fertile soils that allow growing a variety of crops occupy 10% of its area. The most productive lands are confined to the coastal lowlands and the lower slopes of the Ansaria Range.
POPULATION
Ethnic groups and languages. The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs. About 90% of them are Muslims, 10% are Christians. The largest national minority is formed by the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most of the country's Kurds are concentrated in the foothills of the Taurus, north of Aleppo, and on the El Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities around Jerablus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni trend in Islam. The main part of the Kurds lives in the countryside, in the cities they are primarily engaged in physical labor, although there are also foremen and craftsmen among them. Wealthy Kurds earn income primarily through property ownership, some have reached high civil positions, but they practically do not engage in trade. The share of the population of Armenians, the second largest national minority, is 2-3%. Many Armenians are refugees from Turkey who arrived at the end of the 19th century, but most of them emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians are Christian, were able to avoid Arabization and retained their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities, 75% of them are concentrated in Aleppo, where they have a prominent place in economic life, and 15% in Damascus. As a rule, Armenians are merchants, freelancers, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers. Turkmens and Circassians are also represented in Syria. Turkmens practice Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. Initially, they led a nomadic lifestyle, but at present they are mainly engaged in semi-nomadic cattle breeding on the El Jazeera plateau and along the lower course of the Euphrates River, within Syria, or agriculture in the Aleppo region. The Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after it was conquered by the Russians at the end of the 19th century; they retained most of their customs and their native language, although they also speak Arabic. About 1/2 of all Circassians lived in the governorate of El Quneitra, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus.
Demography. Three general censuses have been conducted in Syria. Its population, according to the first census organized in 1960, was 4,565,000 people, including 126,700 Palestinian refugees. The corresponding figures for the 1970 census were 6,294 thousand and 163.8 thousand, the 1981 census - approx. 9.6 million and approx. 263 thousand refugees. As a result of rapid demographic growth, most of the country's population is formed by young people: half of them have not yet reached 15 years of age, and 2/3 are under 25 years of age. Girls marry early, and on average, women give birth to 7 children. The population continues to grow at a rapid pace, averaging 3.2% in the 1960s, 3.5% in the 1970s, and 3.6% per annum in the 1980s. From the 1950s until the end of the 1980s, the birth rate was also high: 45 newborns per 1,000 inhabitants. At the same time, the mortality rate gradually decreased from 2.1% in the early 1950s to 0.7% in the late 1980s, mainly due to a sharp decline in infant and child mortality. In 1945-1946, several thousand Armenians left Syria for the USSR, and after the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, most of the 30,000 Jews living in the country emigrated there. About 100,000 Palestinians have settled in Syria since Israel took over the Galilee.
Cities. The share of the urbanized population in the country increased from 40% in 1965 to 55% in 1998. The two main cities, Damascus and Aleppo, have 1.8 million and 1.3 million people, respectively, according to 1994 data. Other large cities (thous. inhabitants: Homs (750), Hama (450), Latakia (380), Deir ez-Zor (260), Hasakah (250), Raqqa (230), Idlib (200), Daraa (160), Tartus (150) ), Al-Suwayda (75).
Confessional structure. At least 85% of the population of Syria are Muslims, of which 80-85% are Sunnis, 13-15% are Alawites, approx. 1% Ismaili and less than 1% Shia. About 3% of Syrians belong to the Druze sect and are concentrated in the mountainous region of Ad-Druz, southeast of Damascus. Up to 10% of Syrians practice Christianity. The Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian churches enjoy the greatest influence among the country's Christians. Compared to adherents of other religions, the Christian community has a higher proportion of city dwellers and a more solid stratum of people who have received higher education, as well as representatives of highly paid "white collars" and freelancers.
GOVERNMENT AND POLICY
The state structure of Syria is determined by a highly centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the president of the country and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the militant seizure of power by PASP supporters in 1963. Since November 1970, General Hafez Assad, the leader of the PASP military wing, became the head of state, who came to the leadership as a result of a coup, displacing the civilian top of the party. Hafez al-Assad is President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Secretary General of the PASP regional leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, which functions as parliament.
Central authorities. The military, loyal to General Assad, who were in power, soon convened the People's Council, and the legislative assembly was tasked with drafting a permanent constitution. It was intended to replace the country's interim constitution introduced by the PASV in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were selected by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the PASV and its four main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Movement Unionist Socialists and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of members from independent and opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a national referendum. The 1973 constitution provides that the country is headed by a president elected for a seven-year term. A candidate for this post is nominated by the leadership of the PASV, approved by the People's Council and approved by an absolute majority of votes in a national referendum. The President has the power to appoint and remove one or more vice presidents, the prime minister and other members of the government (Council of Ministers) who exercise executive power. He also appoints judges to the highest judiciaries and governors of the governorates. The head of state can dissolve parliament and perform legislative functions until a new parliament is convened, and submit to a national referendum bills rejected by the People's Council. The latter is granted the right to veto or introduce (2/3 votes) amendments to presidential decrees.
Local authorities. Administratively, Syria is divided into 13 governorates (provinces), headed by governors, approved by the president on the proposal of the minister of the interior. Governorate Councils operate under the governors, 1/4 of whose deputies are appointed by the governor and the minister of the interior, and 3/4 are elected by the electorate for a four-year term. The Minister of the Interior appoints to these Councils from 6 to 10 deputies, who are members of the Executive Committees of the provinces, which carry out daily supervision of the activities of the local administration. Municipal Councils direct the activities of city services, issue business licenses, and establish local taxes. These Councils are headed by mayors who are appointed by the governors of the governorates and, in small towns, by the heads of districts. In 1987, Damascus, which had a special capital status, was merged with the adjacent governorate of the same name into a single administrative unit.
Major political organizations. From March 1963, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath) became the leading political force in Syria; until 1954 The Arab Renaissance Party, founded in 1947 by young intellectuals led by Michel Aflaq and Salah ad-Din Bitar. In 1951, a Ba'ath branch was also established in Iraq. The PASV proclaims as its goal the creation of a single Arab state, which should include all Arab countries, the implementation of economic reforms that provide for the redistribution of wealth on the basis of equality, the establishment of a democratic system in which the policy of the state will be directly determined by the aspirations of the people and freed from foreign interference. The PASW program was especially attractive to industrial workers, poor peasants from remote areas of the country, and students of the military academy in Homs who belonged to various minorities such as Alawites, Druze and Kurds. The close ties between the PASP Regional Leadership and the Syrian officers were evident in a series of military coups that were carried out by pro-Baathist officers after Syria left the United Arab Republic in 1961. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the main political opponents of the PASP were various underground Islamist groups. Most of them were affiliates of the Egyptian-based Society of Muslim Brotherhood, which settled in Syria as early as the late 1930s. The Muslim Brotherhood enjoyed the support of small merchants and artisans from the city's bazaars, whose well-being was threatened as a result of the socialist reforms carried out after 1963. In the late 1960s, a militant Islamist movement emerged, led by Marwan Hadid, which was soon able to win widespread support in northern cities such as Aleppo, Hama and Homs. Beginning in the mid-1970s, these militant Muslims created a network of small underground cells and organized a series of armed uprisings against the ruling regime. However, after the brutal and bloody suppression of the mass uprising they organized in Hama in 1982, and after the extradition of the leader of the uprising, Adnan Uklah, to the authorities three years later, the military wing of the Islamists disintegrated. As a result, the only, virtually apolitical, association of "Muslim Brotherhood" in Damascus remained in Syria.
Judicial system. The judicial system is divided into three levels, and also includes state security courts, which hear cases covered by emergency laws and decrees, and local Sharia courts, which deal with domestic and family disputes. Offenses go to state courts. These include the Court of Cassation in Damascus, which serves as the highest court of appeal and final decision on protests and complaints, the courts of appeal in the provincial capitals, and the disciplinary courts in the districts, where magistrates preside. The appointment, transfer and removal of members of all these courts is the responsibility of the Superior Council of Judges, which is composed of senior civilian judges. The country has a Supreme Constitutional Court, which includes the head of state and four judges appointed by him. This instance considers issues related to elections and the constitutionality of laws and decrees adopted by the president and the People's Council. The Supreme Constitutional Court does not have the right to overturn laws passed by referenda. A state of emergency was declared in Syria in March 1963 and was still in effect into the 1990s. During this period, control over compliance with the legislation on holding public events, publishing newspapers and magazines, and selling property was the responsibility of the Minister of the Interior, as the second-ranking person responsible for the implementation of emergency laws. Individuals who violate these laws are tried in state security courts, usually in closed session.
Armed Forces and Police. In the early 1990s, the Syrian army included approx. 300 thousand people and included six armored divisions, which were armed with up to 1500 modernized T-72 tanks, three mechanized divisions and seven airborne brigades. The country's air force consisted of 80 thousand people and had approximately 650 combat aircraft; in addition, several air defense brigades equipped with surface-to-air missiles have been established. The Syrian navy had several Komar-class missile boats, minesweepers and light patrol boats and had 4,000 personnel. Since the early 1990s, an estimated 30,000 Syrian military group has been stationed in Lebanon, mainly in the Beqaa Valley and in areas near Beirut and Tripoli. In the 1980s and 1990s, several independent special services were engaged in state security issues in Syria, headed by proxies of the president. The largest of them was represented by the elite "defense brigades" numbering 20-25 thousand people stationed in the vicinity of the capital. Until 1984, they were commanded by the president's brother, Colonel Rifat Assad. The special forces, which included 8 thousand commandos and paratroopers, were led by Colonel Ali Haidar. In addition, the ground and air forces had their own reconnaissance units. The Interior Ministry operated two separate intelligence systems: Mukhabarat and the Political Security Service. All of these independent intelligence agencies actively participated in the suppression of the Islamist movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The consequence of the struggle for influence between Rifat Assad and Ali Haidar was the subordination in March 1984 of the "defense brigades" to the command of the regular armed forces.
Foreign policy. The first Baathist government (March 1963 - February 1966) followed the Baathist principles of non-alignment, pan-Arab unity and the building of an Arab version of "socialism". In this government, a kind of balance was maintained between the military and the civilian wing of the PASV. The situation changed completely in February 1966. Baath founding fathers Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din Bitar were forced to flee Syria after the coup leaders Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad sentenced them to death. The new regime was illegitimate and, in order to assert itself, undertook a series of military adventures on the border with Israel, which ultimately led to the Arab-Israeli war on June 5, 1967, as a result of which Syria lost the Golan Heights. In November 1970, Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad became the absolute ruler of Syria. On October 6, 1973, Syria, together with Egypt, launched a coordinated offensive against Israel. In the early days of the war, the Syrian army achieved some success by regaining the Golan Heights, but in the end, Syria lost even more territory. Thanks to active American mediation, Israel withdrew troops from the new occupied lands, as well as from the city of El Quneitra in the Golan Heights, which was part of the Syrian-Israeli agreement signed on May 31, 1974. This agreement actually determined the border between Syria and Israel. The Syrian military invasion of Lebanon as a continuation of the confrontation with Israel was predetermined. In June 1976, Assad sent troops to Lebanon The regime of Hafez al-Assad, despite the pacifist rhetoric, was in fact a consistent opponent of a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict through negotiations that began in 1975. Assad opposed the visit of Egyptian President Sadat to Jerusalem in November 1977, the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in March 1979, the peace plan put forward by Saudi Prince Fahd in November 1981, the Lebanese-Israeli agreement in May 1983, the Jordanian-Palestinian agreement in February 1985, the first agreement signed in Oslo in September 1993, the Jordanian-Israeli peace treaty in October 1994 and the second agreement, signed in Oslo in September 1995. Lasting three and a half years, from 1993 to 1996, the Syrian-Israeli peace talks ended inconclusively, although Israel offered Assad the full return of the Golan Heights in exchange for a peace treaty. After the collapse of the USSR, Assad lost a valuable ally, but continues to be Iran's closest partner. See below
It became part of the Macedonian kingdom.
In the cave Dederiyeh (Dederiyeh Cave), located in the valley of the river Afrin, the remains of several Neanderthals were found.
About 10 thousand years BC. e. Syria became one of the centers of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, where cattle breeding and agriculture appeared for the first time in the world. The subsequent Pre-Pottery Neolithic B is characterized by the rectangular houses of the Mureybet culture. During the pre-ceramic Neolithic, local residents used vessels made of stone, gypsum and burnt lime. Finds of obsidian, originating from Anatolia, are evidence of ancient trade relations.
11,000 years ago, the community at Tel Karassa pioneered agriculture. The discoveries made at Tell Qarassa North are the oldest evidence for the domestication of three types of cereals: one type of barley and two types of wheat (spelt and spelled).
Settlement Tell Halula IX-VIII millennium BC e. in northern Syria had an area of 8 hectares. DNA study of the inhabitants of Tell Halul and Tell Ramad in southern Syria showed that the first European settlements were founded by the inhabitants of the Middle East.
The oldest known fossil remains of a domesticated cow come from an early Neolithic settlement. Ja "de el-Mugara in northern Syria and belong to the VIII millennium BC. e. (calibrated radiocarbon dates are 10,650 - 10,250 years ago). Molecular genetic analysis of these finds allows us to conclude that the entire population of current cows came from 80 rounds, tamed in the settlements of Ja "de el-Mugara and Chayonu-Tepesi in southeastern Turkey.
In 5 thousand BC. e. in the north of modern Syria, there was a Khalaf culture, which was at enmity with the Ubaid culture and was absorbed by it.
In Northern Mesopotamia, the beginnings of city life can be seen at Nagar (now Tel Brak in northern Syria). By 3800 B.C. e. the city had large buildings, extensive workshops, and an estimated population of 20,000, not counting its suburbs. The first significant settlement in southern Mesopotamia was Eridu around 3700 BC.
During the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, the cities of Hamukar and Emar played an important role.
Aram
One of the brightest eras of its early history was the X-VIII centuries BC. e., when, after the conquests of the kings Rizon I and Tab-Rimmon, the city of Damascus became the center of the powerful Aramaic kingdom, which soon became the hegemon of all Syria. This dominating position remained with their descendants. At the beginning of the ninth century BC e. the son of Tab-Rimmon, Ben-Hadad I, fought with the kingdom of Israel and seized part of northern Galilee from the Israelis. But a few decades later, the hegemony of Damascus began to be threatened by the rapidly growing Assyrians. They first collected tribute from the rulers of Syria in 859 BC. e. In order to successfully resist the enemy, the local rulers decided to join forces. The son of Ben-Hadad I, Ben-Hadad II, managed to create a powerful anti-Assyrian alliance, which together with him included Tsarihamat, Israeli, Arvad, Ammon and some others. In 853 BC e. a fierce battle took place under the walls of the city of Karkara, on the banks of the Orontes River. It was very bloody, but ended to no avail. Some time later, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III again invaded Syria, laid siege to Damascus, but could not take it.
However, the coalition of Syrian and Palestinian rulers, dangerous for the Assyrians, did not last long. Soon between the Israeli king Ahab and Ben-Hadad II (bibl. Venadad) the war began. At the battle of Rimoth Gilead in 850 BC. e. the Israelites were defeated and Ahab was killed (2 Kings). Then in 843 BC. e. Ben-Hadad II himself also died - one of his close associates, a certain Azail, taking advantage of the fact that the king was sick, strangled him with a blanket and seized power himself. In 834 BC e. The 120,000th Assyrian army approached Damascus for the second time. The king of Assyria, Shalmaneser III, discovered that the Syrians had taken up positions on Mount Senir, one of the mountain peaks of Lebanon, and dug in there. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Syrian army, and Azail himself was forced to flee to Damascus. The Assyrians surrounded the city and cut down the groves in its vicinity. Shalmaneser III was able to capture a lot of booty, but the city was not taken this time either.
antique period
French Mandate
The 1969 constitution defined Syria as a democratic, popular, socialist republic with a planned economy, with private property limited by law. On November 16, 1970, President Salah Jadid was overthrown in a military coup, and Hafez al-Assad became President of the Republic in 1971, whose rule was in fact a dictatorship. The obvious Soviet bias of the Syrian leadership was balanced by curtsies towards Islam. The Arab-Israeli wars in and 1973 contributed to an increase in the role of Syria in the overall confrontation.
During the years of Hafez al-Assad, Syria sought to limit Israel's influence in the region. The Syrian Golan Heights came under Israeli control, however, a kind of "compensation" for this loss was the almost complete political control of Syria over Lebanon, established during the civil war in this country.
In -1982, a series of armed uprisings took place in Syria
Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: a physical and geographical essay), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical essay: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical essay: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Huseynova (Theatre), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical essay), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical essay: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>
SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).
General information
S. is a state in the Southwest. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language is Arabic. Monetary unit - sir. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).
Administrative-territorial division (2011)
| Governorate (province) | Area, thousand km 2 | Population, million people | Administrative center |
|---|---|---|---|
| Damascus (city) | 0,1 | 1,8 | |
| Dara | 3,7 | 1 | Dara |
| Deir ez-Zor | 33,1 | 1,2 | Deir ez-Zor |
| Idlib | 6,1 | 1,5 | Idlib |
| Latakia | 2,3 | 1 | Latakia |
| Reef Dimashq | 18 | 2,8 | Damascus |
| Tartus | 1,9 | 0,8 | Tartus |
| Aleppo (Aleppo) | 18,5 | 4,9 | Aleppo (Aleppo) |
| Hama | 10,2 | 1,6 | Hama |
| Homs | 40,9 | 1,8 | Homs |
| El Quneitra | 1,9 | 0,1 | El Quneitra |
| Al Hasakah | 23,3 | 1,5 | Al Hasakah |
| Er Raqqa | 19,6 | 0,9 | Er Raqqa |
| Es Suwayda | 5,6 | 0,4 | Es Suwayda |
S. is a member of the UN (1945), the Arab League (1945, membership was suspended in 2011), the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), the IMF (1947), the IBRD (1947).
Political system
S. is a unitary state. The constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.
The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a 7-year term (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.
The supreme body of the legislator. power - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis ash-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.
The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.
Leading politicians. Party: Party Arab. socialist. Renaissance (PASV), Progressive nat. Front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Change, etc.
Nature
Relief
Coast preim. low, slightly indented bays. The B. h. of the territory of S. is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, from north to south, two chains of mountains stretch, separated by tectonic. depression El-Gab with the valley of the river. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain makes up the Ansaria ridge (Al-Nusairiya; height up to 1562 m), the eastern one - the mountains of El-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya (height up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon, there is the Anti-Lebanon Range (height up to 2629 m, Mount Talat-Musa) and its south. continuation - the Ash-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Ash-Sheikh (Hermon) vys. up to 2814 m. In Anti-Lebanon, there are many karst landforms formed in limestones. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). In the southwest is a volcanic Ed-Duruz massif (height up to 1803 m). In the southeast - part of the Syrian desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. In east. parts along the river valley. The Euphrates stretches alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the Badiyat al-Jazira plateau. 200–450 m remnant hills (mountains Abd al-Aziz height up to 920 m, etc.). Along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.
Geological structure and minerals
The territory of S. is located on the north. the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian platform, in the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a capacity of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of cherts and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, eolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravel, limestones) occur on the coastal lowland. In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic part of S.'s territory experienced uplift; a regional seismically active fault emerged (the so-called Levantinsky fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and builds. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.
Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural combustible gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, in the east and northeast, belong to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestones, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural structures. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).
Climate
On the territory of S. the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast, the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; rainfall over 800 mm per year. It is cooler in the Ansaria (Al-Nusairiya) ridge, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus cf. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; rainfall approx. 200 mm per year. In the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and their instability over the years increases. Vost. part of the country has a dry continental climate; cf. January temperatures 4–7 °C (almost annual frosts are typical), August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing. the shemal wind and the spring wind khamsin blowing from the direction of the Arabian desert are accompanied by sand and dust storms.
Inland waters
B. h. territory has no external flow, dry erosion valleys (wadis) are characteristic of the flat areas. The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean and the Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length in the north 675 km) with tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of S.'s surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabka [near the city of Madinat al-Taura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El Asad reservoir. Along the north-east. the borders of S. flows r. Tiger. In the northwest, a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmuk (a tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - the river. El-Kebir. The runoff of the river is formed completely within the S.. Barada irrigating the oasis Damascus Huta. The maximum river runoff takes place in winter, in summer there is low water on the rivers. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used with the help of wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources are 16.8 km 3 , water availability is low - 882 m 3 /person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in the industry, 87% - in the village. x-ve. In S., the problems of dividing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.
Soils, flora and fauna
On the plateau, sandy-loamy deserts with thin soils of the serozem type are widespread. In the south, stony-gravelly hamads predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the north S.'s borders are common gray-brown and brown soils. The Badiyat-el-Jazira plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. On the coastal lowland, there are brown soils, with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.
The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and semi-shrubs (saltwort, wormwood), ephemers. On the Badiyat-el-Jazira plateau, short-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge, and other ephemeroids, with the participation of wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates valley, sections of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and along the coast. pines, Cilician fir, small massifs of relic Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. On the back On the slopes of the Ansaria (Al-Nusairiya) ridge, broad-leaved oak forests are widespread with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs. The lower parts of the slopes usually cover the secondary formations of maquis and gariga. To the east the slopes of the Ansaria, Antilivan and Ash-Sheikh (Hermon) ranges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the middle mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain belt.
The animal world is diverse. 125 species of mammals live, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; from ungulates - antelope, wild ass onager, many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, forest cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks), falcons, eagles, and hawks are among the birds of prey. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are under the threat of extinction.
State and environmental protection
In S., where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has changed greatly. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Main ecological problems are overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and along the coast. In east. desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur in arid regions. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial is urgent. drains, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 sites (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake El Jabbul is a wetland of world importance.
Population
The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yezidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (in the area between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of the Neo-Assyrian languages zap. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyo (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of Neo-Assyrian speakers also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.
The population for 1950-2014 increased by 6.5 times (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military operations, according to the UN , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight from the country of St. 4 million people). natural us growth. 2.1% (2013), which is due to the mean. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than the death rate (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15-64 years old) - 61%; the proportion of children (under 15 years) - 35%, persons over 65 years - 4%. Wed life expectancy 75 years (men - 72, women - 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed us density. OK. 97 people/km2 (2014). The most dense selenium coast, sowing. part of the country and the governorate of Rif-Dimashq (average density 100–250 people / km 2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama and others over 1000 people / km 2); the least is the center. and east. areas (less than 25 people / km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). The largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the structure of employment, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry - 32.7%, with. x-va - 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).
Religion
A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, estimate). The overwhelming majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are widespread); the influential Shia minority includes Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of Druzes is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10-11% of the inhabitants are Christians, predominantly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldean Catholics, Syro Catholics, Maronites, Greek Catholics, Armenian Catholics and Roman Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. In the Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, there is a small Yezidi community. Few. the Jewish community remained in Damascus. Serious damage to religion. minorities in the country inflicts weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.
Historical outline
Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest
The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Ashelian [main. monuments - between the river. El Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm-et-Tlel (in the oasis of El-Koum north of Palmyra; layers ca. 20 m, before the Neolithic), etc.]. Then follows the industry Yabrud, then - Hummal and Laminar (about 200-150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Mousterian era is represented by the Levallois industry (including those with pointed points such as Umm-et-Tlel and others); the early Upper Paleolithic - by Orignac and the Akhmar culture (about 35–17 thousand years ago), the middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which Natufian culture .
The territory of S. is included in the most ancient zone of the formation of a producing economy - fertile crescent. Among the supporting monuments dokeramich. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell-Abr, Tell-Aswad, Ras-Shamra, El-Kdeir, etc. A number of centers of the appearance of ceramic dishes that spread from the middle. 7th millennium BC e. About con. In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture is recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra and the Khalaf culture spreads, replaced by the sowing culture. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the civilization of Sumer, there are mountain settlements. such as Tell-Brak, Tell-Hamukar in the north-east of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.
From the beginning 3rd thousand communications with the South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community of "Nineveh 5" is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-adm. centers (see in the article Tell-Khazna). Around ser. In the 3rd millennium, settlements appeared with a bypass wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type), correlated with the cities and the beginning of the Syr proper. civilizations; during the excavations of tell Beidar (the ancient city of Nabad), the oldest in the region (25th century) cuneiform archive (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian) was discovered. From the beginning 3rd millennium, in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites are settled from the south, and another group of Semites is advancing to the north, which founded the state of Ebla, which competed with that which arose on Wed. Euphrates Marie. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.
About con. In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 - beg. 18th century in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) is formed, which soon collapsed. In the west, the states of Yamkhad and Qatna competed with him and among themselves. To the 2nd floor. 1770s - 1760s (under Zimri-Lim) refers to the last flowering of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century a prominent role in the region, along with the Semites, was played by the Hurrians. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Egypt Ancient with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the oldest alphabet in the world (c. 15th century; see also Ugaritic letter). According to the Hitto-Egypt. world (1270) b. part of the territory of S. remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon Sev. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-08), and the state of the Hittites, like an Asian. possessions of Egypt, in con. 13 - beginning. 12th century fell under the onslaught of the peoples of the sea, who also destroyed a number of cities in the sire. coast of the Mediterranean.
To con. 2nd - beginning. 1st thousand these app. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North. S.), coexisting with the states, where the so-called. late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Achlameans), who penetrated the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit-Adini (the capital in Til-Barsib), Bit-Bakhiani in the upper reaches of the Khabur (the capital of Guzan is the settlement of Tell-Khalaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi near the city of Aleppo (Haleb) and others. One of them, with its capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, the first written mention c. Ser. 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of his kings Rizon I and Tabrimmon, becomes the strongest in the region.
From con. 11th c. expansion into the region of Assyria begins. Opposing this so-called. North Sir. the union was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III in 857–856. T. n. Southern Sir. the alliance (supported by the rulers of Phoenicia, Palestine, Egypt, the North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) in the battle of Karkara (853) managed to stop the Assyrians. However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734 the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; series resistance sir. states led by the king of Damascus Rizon II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig latpalasar III. Rhizon II was executed, b. h. Aramaic population resettled in ext. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.
After the death of Assyria in 612-609, S. became the arena of the struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. went to Antigonus, after the battle of Ipsus (301) entered the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and disintegration began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then it was part of Parthian kingdom, Armenia, was controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. land S. controlled Nabataean kingdom. In 83-69 BC. e. the region captured the arm. Tsar Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. S. and a number of adjacent lands was organized by Rome. prov. Syria.
From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) Prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic position (4 legions were located here) and economical. potential (highly developed agriculture and handicrafts, including textile and glass-making). Sir. merchants and craftsmen were known in many cities of Rome. empire. Some Roman. emperors and members of their families were originally from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and the influence of Rome, especially in polyethnic. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (main arr. based on Aramaic).
From the 1st century S. is one of the centers for the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. represented more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antioch Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of a patriarchate. From the 4th c. the region becomes an important center of monasticism, pilgrimage was born here (cf. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of intra-Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of Miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under imp. Justine I (518-527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread to the Middle and Wed. East (see Syrian churches).
In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Celesiria and Sirophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Prov. (the capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - the provinces of C. I (the capital in Antioch) and C. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small prov. Theodoria. The state centered in Palmyra, which for some time retained its independence, was annexed to Rome c. nineteen; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 put under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of the struggle against the state of the Sassanids, is known no later than the 4th century.
During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but under a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.
Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest
All R. 630s as a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, Byzantium's power in the territory of S. ended. weakened, the dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634 Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fahla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra esh-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzant. an army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counterattack, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmuk (636) was put to flight by a smaller force of Muslims; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638 Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until ser. 640s Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became a political one. and the cultural center of the growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in decomp. areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, most of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. lang. (from the beginning of the 8th century). Remained, however, otd. Hellenistic elements. heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted the culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning was widely developed, and the influence of both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture was reflected in architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).
All R. 8th c. The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline, it was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and the gradual decline of cities began. In the context of the political and economic Instability continued Arabization and Islamization of the Sir. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, sowing. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to Byzantine attacks. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which applied for war. help now to Baghdad, then to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the capture of Syria by Egypt. emirs Tulunids in 878, in 935 - emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Fatimid Ismaili caliphate. All R. 10th c. all in. S. the Hamdanid dynasty came to power, whose court was in Aleppo, which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).
Syria before the Ottoman conquest
The development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries was suspended by the conquest of its internal. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and sowing. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. the regions of S., which remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, the Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimids. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 on its territory of the Prince of Antioch. Vost. S. broke up into separate. Arab dominions. and Seljuk feudal lords, who fought both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo Nur ad-Din managed to unite most of the S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part of sir. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he ousted the crusaders from the mean. parts of the Antioch prince-va. The successors of Salah ad-Din - the Ayyubids retained control only over the internal. areas of S., in the north were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the Crusaders, in the east - dec. Turk. state formations.
In the 2nd floor. 13th c. S. was under the rule of Egypt. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually, the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baibars succeeded in the 1260s. take strategically important fortified points of the Ismailis in the mountains of S. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last fortresses of the Crusaders on Syr. coast of the Mediterranean. At that time, an effective adm. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts began, and with. x-va. S. reached its peak during the reign of Nasir al-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through S. and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and North. Africa began the decline of the power of the Mamluks, which opened the way for the Mongols led by Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the success of Mong. troops, to horse. 15th c. Sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were raiding the territories adjacent to the Red Metro, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.
Syria until the end of the 19th century
As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of Serbia was divided into four vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus, and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were ruled by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special ones were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first favorably affected the development of c. x-va. However, the strengthening of tax oppression and the growth of arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. In the economy of the region means. the role began to play a goal. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut turned into Ch. shopping centers S. Europe. Penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchants in a number of cities. colonies, which took over almost completely trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (predominantly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of the European. powers to establish their spheres of influence in S. (the French supported the Maronites, the British supported the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, striving to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze were resettled in an isolated mountainous region southeast of Damascus, and the region itself received the name. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. h. S. came under the rule of Akk Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 the French troops, unable to capture Egypt, landed on the Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Brit. fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.
During the tour.-Egypt. During the war of 1831–33, S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. Pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, the growth of the cultivated land fund. However, the introduction of recruitment duty, state. corvee and tax increases caused repeated uprisings of the sires. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans who supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in Serbia. powers: since 1840, the power of the Ottoman sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for Europe goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The tendency to transition of page - x which was outlined in this connection. Allotments in the possession of the townspeople increased after the law of 1858, which permitted the transfer of communal lands in the villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From Ser. 19th century Commodity-money relations actively developed in Serbia. Specialization took place. s.-x. regions (Northern S. - cotton, Khauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for granting loans to the Ottoman Empire, the French. companies have received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of the Hijaz), modern. port facilities, the organization of regular steamship communications, the laying of telegraph lines.
In connection with the increasing intervention app. powers in economic and political S.'s life to con. 19th century anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arabs. the elites were also unhappy with Ottoman rule. In the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia, the ideas of the Arab were developed. nationalism. In the 1870s a society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yaziji, whose goal was to fight Ottoman domination. In the 1890s in Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated the independence of Serbia from the Ottoman Empire.
Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century
Patriotic mood in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution of 1908. Dozens of social and political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines established legal Arab. patriotic organizations practiced mass rallies and political. disputes. However, it soon became apparent that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend the interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. The formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among the young and European-educated sir. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif al-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. club. Syrians also dominated such prominent nat. political organizations like "Young Arabia" (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, together with the Lebanese Reform League, they convened an Arab in Paris. congress. However, the inability of the Arab. nationalists to involve in their political. the struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.
After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a base for the German tour. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Jemal Pasha, who led in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared military in S. position. Despite the mass repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, due to an increase in taxes on the military. needs and Brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of mass requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sir. food riots took place in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the arms. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-Brit. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation after the war of a single independent Arab. state-va. In Sept. In 1918, an anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, which coincided in time with the advance of the British to Damascus. and French troops and an Arab. armies led by Faisal (entered in Oct. 1918). B. h. S. fell under the authority of the British commander of the allied forces. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, were French. strength. British-appointed military governor in east S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to rule all former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (earlier, in March 1920, by a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent .). However, in Apr. 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. Representatives at the San Remo Conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and to control Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan - to Great Britain. In July 1920 the French troops, overcoming the armament. Sir resistance. patriots, occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.
Syria during the French Mandate
During the French period S.'s mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region with a center in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme north-east of the country in the vicinity of Rakka and Deir ez-Zor, a separate section was allocated. a district administered directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by joining the populated Preim. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida and others. The conditions of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for free Europe. trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow to the sire. textile industry (in 1913-26 the number of weavers in Aleppo was reduced by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies exerted a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the "Bank of Syria and Lebanon" had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipes belonged to the French.
All R. 1920s in S. there was a number of political. parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sir. and lebanon. communists; actually Sir. communist party (SKP) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). All over S., anti-French forces flared up. speeches. In 1922–23, a Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new revolt of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of Gen. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, suppressed after two days of art. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the "state of Aleppo" and the "state of Damascus" were merged into the "state of Syria." In Apr. 1928 elections were held in the Constituent. assembly. In May 1930, an organic statute (constitution) was adopted in Serbia, proclaiming it a republic (with the French mandate retained). Under the French the regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia, which were isolated from the north, remained in control. In the parliamentary elections in Nov. 1936 won the National. block. Dec. 1936 the new parliament elected H. Atasi as the country's president. National-liberate. movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the party Nat. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of the independence of S. In Dec. 1936 Franco-Syr was signed. an agreement declaring the sovereignty of S., which did not allow France to interfere in the internal. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to deploy and move troops, as well as to create a military. bases on the territory of Northern Ireland. A three-year transitional period was provided for the abolition of the mandate regime and the entry of Serbia into the League of Nations. Sir. Parliament ratified the treaty on 12/27/1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, who came to power in France, in January. 1939 abandoned the treaty. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the high commissioner suspended the constitution (abolished in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to manage the internal. the affairs of the country created the so-called. board of directors).
Since the start of World War II on Sept. In 1939, war was declared in S. position, large contingents of French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the capitulation of France in June 1940, the country came under the authority of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. In connection with the violation of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the interruptions in the flow of food and raw materials, economic. the situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. Feb. 1941 National the bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the "Board of Directors" and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the autumn of 1941. On 8/7/1941, Britons entered S.. troops and units Free France". Between Kuatly, the Free French administration and Brit. representatives reached an agreement, according to which in July 1943 new parliamentary elections were held in the country, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded in Dec. 1943, French the mandate was canceled, to Sir. the government from 1.1.1944 passed the main. adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen foreign policy. country's sovereignty. Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March, she took part in the creation Arab League. In October she was admitted to the United Nations. However, Britons continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. would provide her with economic aid. and strategic privileges. Refusal Sir. government to meet these requirements caused in May 1945 clashes between the French. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. were subjected to artillery shelling). In the fall of 1945, the S. government demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to decide on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.
Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arab. countries started wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli Wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the adversaries, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Serbia.
Syria after independence
S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the nat. economy, development prom. (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (predominantly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of the state. sector in the economy was put in 1951-1955 by the nationalization (for the ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by the "Iraq Petroleum Company" and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" on deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for the transportation of oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that translated labor relations into a legal plane. In 1947 a new electoral law was issued introducing direct elections and secret ballot. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable, most of them were on the rights of sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, was due to the internal political. state instability. In the beginning. In 1947, the peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of political parties. parties, which allowed the National. parties to win the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli to be re-elected president. Nov. 1948 his government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the Chief Gen. regimental headquarters. Kh. al-Zaim introduced a state of emergency in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, and the activities of the political. parties are completely banned. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in armed forces. forces during the re-war. coup led by Col. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. Dec. 1949 Regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad civil rights and conduct socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (since July 1953 - president) who established the military regime. dictatorships. All political. parties, societies organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was repealed. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in Feb. 1954, supported by people. speeches in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government, formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, set about restoring the democratic system. institutions. The constitution of 1950 was returned, and the activities of political parties were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by the desire parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industry and the agricultural sector, victory in the presidential elections in August. 1955 won Kuatli again.
In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in " cold war". All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against the creation of Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the United States and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56 Egypt reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and the creation of a common military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian. connections. Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). In Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the region of the UAR, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the seizure of landowners means. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961, foreigners were nationalized. and private commercial banks and major industrial companies. All political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a general unstable economic In the 1940s, the situation of S. (harvest failure due to drought, interruptions in supply, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in discontent among the population. Egyptian Decree. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction to S. state. planning and strengthening state. sector paved the way for the new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by the military command of S.) and S.'s withdrawal from the UAR.
The activities of the new government of M. al-Dawalibi were aimed at the gradual curtailment of the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused in decomp. Sir circles. public debate about ways to further develop the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the exit to the political. proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in the strengthening of the positions of the PASV.
As a result of military On March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they had convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade union associations and the adoption of a new labor law, in accordance with which the role of the state in protecting the rights of workers increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called. Ramadan socialist. the decree that put everything under the control of the state is most significant. Sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program for further nationalization was implemented. In the course of its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASW began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the left from all desks. and Mrs. posts. But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a program of broad socio-economic. transformations. The nationalization of large industrial enterprises followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State. the sector of the economy took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967, the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).
In 1966 - early. 1967 increased tension on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions, as a result of which part of the Sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra region, was occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (which means that part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government's reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. a wing of the PASV led by H. Assad.
Syria in 1970–2011
With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. support of trade and investment process in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sir. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arabs. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry in Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic. contacts and generous economic help from Saudi. Arabia and Kuwait in con. 1970s The Arab-Israeli war of 1973 showed a marked strengthening of the country's defense capability compared to 1967. However, the use of budgetary funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with growing competition between state officials, provoked accusations of corruption. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of decomp. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on state facilities and the murders of prominent S. and PASV functionaries.
After clashes between the army and the rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made on criminal liability for membership in the organization Muslim Brotherhood. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. leaders formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are to raise wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions on private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in Feb. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president's brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Const. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran–Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations rallied in the Nat. alliance for the liberation of Syria.
In the beginning. 1980s due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings have declined significantly, while the military has risen sharply. expenses in connection with the Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 congress of the PASV criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed reorganizing the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency circulation and losses from black market operations. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. governments and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and services. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [implemented only after in 1990-91 Damascus supported the operation of the international. coalition against Iraq Kuwait Crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf made it possible to achieve the rapid growth of the Sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the deficit in the balance of payments of S. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private business, continued its policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone was opened in 2000.
Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the vote in a referendum). But given his advanced age, the question of a successor became a question: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over as his father, received the support of 97.3% of the vote.
The new head of S. announced his intention to reach a settlement with Israel, subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders of 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which they were interrupted by his predecessor. Taking steps to rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time in order to expand the base of the sir. influence in Lebanon went to the strategic. partnership with Shia radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring S. Hussein's accomplices, followed by US sanctions. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, launched an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion in Beirut car ex. lebanon. prime min. R. al-Hariri: there were accusations against Damascus, allegedly seeking to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after in Sept. 2004 UN called for withdrawal of sir. army from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. complied with the relevant resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, which were won by the only candidate B. Assad.
Syrian Civil War
In March 2011, in the city of Dar'a (on the border with Jordan), unrest began under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Dar'a later spread to other regions (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of S. had reached its maximum. glow. The opposition accused the government of suppressing the protest with hundreds of civilian victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism, massacres of armed forces. forces and security forces. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political. reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in effect since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, a reduction in military conscription, and an increase in wages. A commission was established to investigate the events in Dar'a, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prisons. However, this did not lead to calm, on the contrary, the protests of the opposition increasingly took the form of armed. confrontation.
Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which the PASV was deprived of its leading and guiding status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, in the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the Nat. unity”, which included the PASV and the Progressive nat. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians died in El-Hula under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed the provocateurs from the opposition. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in conditions of de facto. civil wars: according to the official. According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the results of the vote. Part of the territory of S. was under the control of decomp. paramilitaries. organizations (terrorist "Islamic State" in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of S. in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).
At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorists. organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began air strikes on the positions of the Islamic State in the territory of S. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. On March 15, 2015, Turkey gave permission to the United States to use Incirlik Air Force Base to accommodate Amer. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the "Islamic State" started military. Russian operation in St.
Diplomatic relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Ros.-sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and S. Relations between Russia and S. are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008 B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, Vladimir Putin visited Damascus for the first time in the history of bilateral relations. Political Recent interactions have been focused on issues of intra-Syrian settlement.
economy
S. is a country of average economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. The volume of GDP is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); in terms of GDP per capita $ 5100. Human Development Index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).
The basis of the economy - p. x-in, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railway. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, revitalize the private sector, attract foreign. investments, etc. So. damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the armament that began in 2011. conflict between governments. rebel troops and formations. The state grew up. debt, economic growth slowed down. growth, accelerated inflation, etc.; significantly destroyed prom. infrastructure (the oil industry was the hardest hit). By 2015 will destroy. shares of international terrorist organizations (“Islamic State”, etc.) disorganized farms. communications, put the country's economy on the brink of collapse.
In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry - 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fisheries - 17.6% (2013, estimate).
Industry
The most developed (before the aggravation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industries are: oil and natural gas extraction and processing, electric power, chemical, building materials, food and textiles.
Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); main mining areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaydia, Rumailan deposits; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward deposits, etc. in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity of 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus Governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).
Natural gas production 16.6 bcm (2012, estimate); main deposits - El-Dubayat and El-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity approx. 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), Tadmor (2.2 million . m 3 , Homs governorate), etc.
Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest - "Aleppo", capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest - "Tabka" on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city of . Raqqa).
Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimated; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly on the basis of imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (about 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; plants in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).
Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering. and the electronics industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are car assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).
Phosphorites are being mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimated; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among chemical enterprises prom-sti - factories for the production of a miner. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas processing), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paints and varnishes, detergents, polymeric materials, etc. C. is one of the leading Arab. countries for the production of pharmaceuticals. drugs. In the beginning. 2010s in S. acted sv. 50 pharmaceuticals companies (approx. 17 thousand employed; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national drug needs.
The industry of building materials is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Output: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).
Traditionally, the textile industry is of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo, Damascus). The industry is represented by the cotton gin. factories, silk-spinning factories (the main center is Latakia), the production of woolen and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothes, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. (including sugar, oil, tobacco, canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production decomp. artistic metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .
Agriculture
One of the chap. industries of the national economy. In structure of page - x. out of 13.9 million ha, pastures account for 8.2 million ha, arable land - 4.7 million ha, perennial plantations - 1.0 million ha (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s needs for food and provided light and food-flavored industry with raw materials.
Crop production (about 65% of the value of agricultural production) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils under conditions of high moisture), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; rainfed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is common between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Cultivated (collection, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. tech. crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beet (1027.9 thousand tons).
Animal husbandry (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive, in semi-desert regions it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 mln. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes river valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch is about 12 thousand tons per year).
Services sector
The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state institutions. (the largest is Commercial Bank S., in Damascus) and small private ones (which arose in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also branches of international. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - St. 56%).
Transport
Main mode of transport is automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including with hard surface 66.1 thousand km, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa / border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Main lines: Damascus - Homs - Hama - Aleppo - Maidan-Ikbes / border with Turkey; Aleppo - Latakia - Tarsus - Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Er Raqqa - El Qamishli / border with Turkey. International airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. sea ports: Latakia (cargo turnover about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). S. has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals in the sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and oil refineries, as well as employees for the transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from deposits in the east and in the center of S. go to Aleppo (later to Turkey) and Homs (later to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.
International trade
The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2675 million dollars, imports of 8917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country has led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3876 million dollars, imports - 10780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and oil products (more than 1/3 cost), s.-x. products (cotton, dec. vegetables and fruits, wheat, livestock, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% value, 2012, est.): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported machinery and equipment, food, metals and products from them, decomp. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.
Military establishment
Armed. forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (SV), Air Force and Air Defense, Navy. Military. formations - up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the NE - 275 thousand people. Military annual budget of 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities that have been ongoing on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.
The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the President of the country, who determines the main directions of the military-political. S. course and manages the Armed Forces through the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. The head of the General Staff (he is also the commander of the SV), the commanders of the types of the Armed Forces and some centers are subordinate to him. MO control.
The direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the Armed Forces. Most formations and units have a strength below the standard.
NE (110 thousand people) - main. aircraft type. Organizationally consolidated into 3 headquarters of army corps, 12 divisions, 13 det. brigades, 11 dept. regiments of special destination. Reserve: headquarters of a tank division, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). In service with the SV are St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactical. missiles, 6 launchers for anti-ship missiles, 4950 tanks (including 1200 under repair and storage), 590 BRM, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 ATGM launchers, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.
The Air Force and Air Defense (about 56 thousand people) are composed of combat and auxiliary. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Main body adm. and operational control of the Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the air defense forces - the department. command; aviation is subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters in the main. obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of S. includes more than 100 airfields, while for basing the modern. only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu-ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Blay, Damascus, Dumair, En-Nasiriya, Seykal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been built at all airfields based on combat aviation. aircraft shelters. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 missile launchers, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.
The Navy (5,000 men) consists of the Navy, Navy Aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic. ships, training ship. The Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of P-5 and P-15 anti-ship missile systems, 2 art. division (36 130-mm and 12 100-mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Basing - Latakia, Tartus.
Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Recruitment of regular armed forces on conscription by males aged 19–40 years, service life 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for the military. service 3.2 million people. One of the priorities of the military construction of military-political. S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of aircraft modern. military samples. equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.
healthcare
In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total health spending is 3.4% of GDP (budget funding 46.1%, private sector 53.9%) (2012). The legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatry. assistance (2007). State. healthcare is free. In military conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and services for the provision of honey. care and health management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis, poliomyelitis (2012). Main causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).
Sport
National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the London Olympics; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in freestyle wrestling competitions in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in decomp. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to the boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 Sir. athletes participate in the Asian Games (with the exception of 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan Arab Games (1976, 1992), Sir. athletes won in the team event. The most popular sports in the country are football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, athletics. Since 1972, the men's national team has periodically taken part in the World Chess Olympiads.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
Education management. institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim. educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Main regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - on obligatory. education (1981), on the activities of high fur boots (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes pre-school education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary prof. education (ch. arr. on the basis of an incomplete secondary school; a course of up to 3 years), higher education. The Center for Prof.-Techn. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary prof. educational institutions work 2-year technical. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. Pre-school education covered (2013) 5.3% of children, primary education - 74.2%, secondary - 44.1%. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). The largest universities scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.
Mass media
Arabic daily newspapers are published. lang. (all - Damascus): "Al-Baath" ("Renaissance", since 1948, organ of the PASW; circulation about 65 thousand copies), "Al-Saura" ("Revolution", since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; approx. 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; approx. 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab” (“Struggle of the People”, since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. lang. comes out daily gas. "Syria Times" (Damascus; since 1981; approx. 12 thousand copies). Weekly journals are published in Arabic. lang. (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillakhin” (“The Peasants’ Struggle”, since 1965, an organ of the General Federation of Syrian Peasants; approx. 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist workers' struggle", since 1966, an organ of the General Federation of Syrian Trade Unions; about 30,000 copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (performed by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), television broadcasting since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; city of Damascus). Governments. Sir. Arab. information agency ("Syrian Arab News Agency"; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).
Literature
Lit-ra Sir. people develops into an Arab. lang. On the territory of S. in the 1st century. n. e. Sir existed. the language in which lit. works (see Syriac literature) and which in the 14th century. the Arab was completely ousted. language. Wed-century. lit-ra S. - part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in S., which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, a period of enlightenment began; the desire to update literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story "Joys for lovers and delight for the nights", 1874; collection of essays "Pearls", 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The initiators of Sir. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah (historical dramas Cleopatra, 1888; Greed of Women, 1889) became the theater directors. At the origins of a new sir. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books "Forest of Law", 1866, "Journey to Paris", 1867; story "Pearls from Shells", 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of Sir. prose became works created in the traditions of the maqama, but devoted to the pressing problems of the sir. societies: N. al-Qasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Sakal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Age”, 1909). Patriotic The theme is traditional. poetic form. creativity of M. al-Bizma, H. ad-Din az-Zarkali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. romanticism dominated in the literature of S., most clearly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Rish, V. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attara, prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose writer. genre in the literature of S., is associated with M. al-Arnaut (the novels The Lord of the Quraish, 1929; The Virgin Fatima, 1942; and others). Novels in modern the themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.
Since the 1930s realism began to assert itself, vividly represented by short stories by A. Khulki (collection "Spring and Autumn", 1931), M. al-Najar (collection "In the palaces of Damascus", 1937), F. ash-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Sorceress's Daughter”, 1948) and others. The genre of social comedy (M. al-Sibai) took shape in dramaturgy; and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s and 60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Qayali, H. al-Qayali, S. ash-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Hauraniyya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (the novel "Love Letters", 1956), H. Barakat (the novel "Green Peaks", 1956), A. al-Ujayli (the novel "Basima in Tears", 1959) and others The "women's" prose, represented by the names of S. al-Khaffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel "The Diaries of Khala", 1950), K. al-Khuri (the novel "Days Spent with Him", 1959), received formalization. In the psychological Z. Tamer's prose, marked by stylistic. grace, the influence of Europe is palpable. modernist literature. Existential problems dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People”, 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats”, 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.
In the 1960s development received a "new poetry", marked metric-rhythmic. experiments: N. Qabbani, A. an-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; the work of Adonis gained wide fame. Romantization of the past, appeal to the mythological. material inherent rich philosophy. reflections of the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam-bek, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai, H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door”, 1964; “The Carpenter's Daughter”, 1968). The creator of the "political theater" was S. Vannus, M. al-Hallaj (the play "Dervishes Seek Truth", 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970s–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (the story “The Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said and others; in a modernist vein, they were presented by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Late Night Faces”, 1974). The novel developed preim. in realism. spirit, gravitating towards the panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilani, A. Nakhvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dihni, Y. Rifaiyya, H. al-Dhahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 - early. 21st century dedicated to the socio-political and patriotic. topics; among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Dhahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (the novels Masquerade of the Dead, 2003; N. Suleiman (the novel Souls Under Ban, 2012).
Architecture and fine arts
In the historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was exposed to many influences. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, other Egyptian, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely associated with the cultural complex of Arabia. In the 3rd century BC e. - 3 in. n. e. S. became an area of contact between ancient and Parthian traditions; in the 4th–7th centuries. - Byzantium. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of the ancient artist. The culture of S. determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, depict. and arts and crafts.
Ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, ca. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, ca. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - "idols" made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the East part of the territory of S. built on the sides of narrow and short streets, rectangular 3-4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also made of stone and terracotta figurines, alabaster and marble vessels (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished earthenware is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the east. regions - ceramics of the culture of Samarra (Baguz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east. S. in the complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines were found, with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes (Tell-Khalaf); in the cave of Palanli (north. S.) - drawings of animals, close to the style of Khalaf ceramics. Eneolithic settlements of the north. and north-east. parts of the territory of S. had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, adm. buildings, multi-room rectangular in terms of houses with a center. hall and interior court (Khabuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the adobe masonry walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) in Tell Brak, the facades were decorated with clay cones, copper plates and gold. From the 2nd floor. 4th millennium BC e. were created by artists. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramic. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. prints with reliefs (Khabuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).
) S. Cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern regions of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. Fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings decomp. appointments grouped around courtyards of different sizes; ch. the premises were distinguished by their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, ca. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall, and a cella with dedications. steles and statues of the gods. In the architecture of the S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. the type of the Syro-Hittite temple and/or the bit-khilani palace (the palace-temple of Kapara in Tell-Khalaf) was formed.Artworks of the Bronze Age demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) testify to the development of a local version of the Mesopotamian depiction. lawsuit departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Ebla's art works illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of eastern. and app. artistic traditions. Sculpture in style and iconography resembles Sumerian, but with more careful elaboration of details. The archaic roughness of enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plasticity of the Hittites; fine jewelry, stylistic. the products of Ugarit, from which the most important things originate, are reminiscent of diversity. monuments of art-va S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egypt. samples, mainly demonstrate the Ugarit style with organic a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.
The invasions of the peoples of the sea and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. there are Assyrian adm. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell-Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the art style of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city in the north S. border (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9-8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country in the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. formed one of the variants of syncretic. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in the iconography and style of archaically rough images.
Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamic system and fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble cities, along with the temples of the Greek. and local deities, an important place was occupied by theaters, stadiums, palestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. The design and image of buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome. time, the majestic ruins of Apamea, Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic State in 2015). Main highways (Rom. cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodikea) at crossroads, often lined with colonnades and porticos, connected Ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets, societies. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was assigned to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the type of Rome. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the procession road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. art of ancient S. developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and plastic), in Dura-Europos (murals combining features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural. centers 4 - 1st third of the 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of the Late Antique and Early Byzantine culture of S. have been preserved: Serzhilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a bath complex, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4th–6th centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time is distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (monastery Qal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. temple type. On the whole, the cult architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large three-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone arches (in Kalb-Luseh, 4-5 centuries; church in Brad, 395-402). In the 6th c. domed basilicas were built, prototypes of cross-domed churches (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptistery, martyria, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles (palaces) Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor. 6 c.). To decorate the interiors of palaces and temples, marble facings, mosaic floors, plot paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used. carving, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. The floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra esh-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the growing role of ornament mark an appeal to a conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols characteristic of early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artist. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).
Syro-Byzantine art. The school played an important role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. on the whole retained a Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a center of Muslims was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace-adm. complex - dar al-imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st floor. 8th c. the construction of remote residences-estates - "castles of the desert" - began; at the heart of their planning is guessed the scheme of Rome. fort and Byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concepts - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornamentation - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, c. 715). The surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian. Sassanid traditions (floor frescoes and stucco sculpture from the “castle of the desert” Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).
With the transfer of the center of the Caliphate by the Abbasids to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of S. ( Rakka, founded in 772 on the model of Madinat as-Salam, see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries the cities of S. acquired the middle-century. view. In Damascus and Aleppo a great construction was unfolded. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential quarters with religious buildings, a market, and societies. bath. The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of the architecture of S. became cult-charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2-3-storey building with a center. courtyard with iwans on Ch. axes and a pool in the center, uniting a madrasah, maristan (hospital) or ribat or takiya (Sufi abode) with a prayer house and the tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the North-West. S. is occupied by the castles of the crusaders, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both - 12-13 centuries, in place of the Arab. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, the commercial and craft centers of Northern Europe (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.
The flourishing will depict. claim-va middle-century. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniature in manuscripts. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al- Mubashshir about the philosophers of antiquity (beginning of the 13th century, the library of the Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and expressive scenes with humorous. intonations; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or influenced by the Byzantines. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of plot and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), the decoration of bronze items (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.) chasing, engraving, carving, inlaid with silver (Damascus, Aleppo). Wed-century. S. masters became famous for the manufacture of weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with growing, epigraphic and pictorial motifs) became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern in a pattern”) and abstract.
The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture. Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume from the center. hemispherical domes and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are lined with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrasahs, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, aivans, arcaded porticos, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more ornate (Azem's palaces in Damascus and Ham, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic lining. panel with grows. patterns in vibrant colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-storey houses acquired windows with shutters and balconies covered with trees. carved mashrabiya lattices. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) have achieved high skill.
In con. 19 - 1st floor. 20th century changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depict. art-va (appearance of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecoshar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, master plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated in Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses, museum buildings, on the coast - resort facilities.
Display. claim S. 1st floor. 20th century developed in the process of development of Europe. artistic culture and search for nat. style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. arts association, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters of the 2nd floor. 20 - early. 21st century - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portrait painter L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The arts and crafts of S. preserves the tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric manufacturing, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.
Music
Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - a large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting wealthy Roman women playing music; it features music. instruments: oud, kemancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern Sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, clock metrics and the presence of bourdon - “ison”) and, on the other hand, maqam (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatic). In worship, the west-sir. The Church (Antioch rite) uses the everyday singing book (hymnary) Bet Gezo (Treasure Reservoir; ed. Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing ca. 700 notated chants (in modern transcription in 5-linear notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and the Syrian Conservatory (1961); in 2004, an opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music "Dar al-Assad".
Theatre
Until ser. 19th century development of prof. Theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting has acquired its own unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heiress of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed Nar. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets karagez, scenes of nar. comedy fasl mudhik. At the heart of all ideas is the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit. These become artists. folk tradition. spectacular forms are in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.
Along with Egypt, S. formerly other Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here, where mysteries and morality were staged. The playwright A. H. al-Kabbani adapted world dramaturgy to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically combining new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of Nar. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social acuteness of the plays and their wide audience success caused the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among others. Sir. cultural figures, whose mass departure to Egypt in the 1870–80s. associated with pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were the playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishaq, Yu. al-Hayat and others. -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemak" (1882) and others. Between the two world wars, nar. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. scenes and music. So. contribution to the formation of Sir. The theater was introduced by the actor and playwright N. al-Reihani, whose play "Kish-Kish Bey" combined elements of the French. vaudeville and national music comedy; ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of Nar. character Karagoz. At the heart of its popular in the 1920s. performances "The Barber of Baghdad" and "Jasmina" - fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights". Circle of topics Sir. dramas of the 1930s included plots Arab. and Islamic history, Nar. epic and mountains. folklore. Appeal to the historian events and characters at this stage was associated with the desire to excite the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the nat. self-awareness. The gain of independence in 1945 gave a new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the Nat. dramatic theater where young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lahman worked. The stage was conquered by social drama; Among the authors are V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Makdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, who studied the relationship between the totalitarian government and the silent people, was distinguished by the sharpest socially accusatory character. The beginning of criticism of the current regime from the theatrical stage was put by Vannus' play "June 5th Party" (1968). In search of rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of the Mamluk Jaber” (1970) staged by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced the image of a storyteller into the performance, who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore.
At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. one of the most urgent problems of the stage. claim-va S. - disputes about the place and role of bunks. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern the life of the country. Leading theatrical figures (including professor at Damascus University, author of many books and articles about the theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, the creation of an annual festival of itinerant storytellers. Theaters also operate in the capital: the Union of Workers, al-Kabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival resumed in Damascus, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of S., attracting the attention of young performers ( the theme of the round tables is “Theatre and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, S.'s theater continues to develop. In 2010 dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus "Theater Laboratory", where, relying on the artist. research on modern theater analyzes the issues of communication modern. Sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Seminars have been held since 2013 (“Work on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).
Cinema
From 1908 (when the first screenings took place in the country) to the middle. 1910s demonstrated in the chronicle and staged French. films, after the start of the 1st World War - German. In 1916, the Cinema Canakkale was opened in Damascus. In 1928, the first sire came out. game f. "Innocent defendant" A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930s-60s: "Under the sky of Damascus" by I. Anzur (1934), "Call of Duty" by Badri (1936), "Light and Darkness" by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), " Wayfarer" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, under the Ministry of Culture, the General Organization of the Syr was formed. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the preparation of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has been financing the production of feature films). The film "Bus Driver" (1968, Yugoslav director B. Vucinich) told about the struggle of the Syrians for their rights, the fate of the Palestinian people - "Deceived" by T. Salih (1972), about the destruction of civilians in a Palestinian village in 1956 - "Kafr Kasem” by B. Alavia (1975, pr. Mkf in Moscow). The topic of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dehni, and “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s dir. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of a simple person to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photos”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the hypocrisy of an unprincipled careerist ("Mr. Progressive", 1975). The film "A case at half a meter" by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the nat. young people who have distanced themselves from confronting negative socio-political. phenomena. Autobiographical f. "Dreams of the City" by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, which strengthened the principles of democracy. satirical the comedy "Boundaries" by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of Nar. fairy tales and sharp publicism in interpreting the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the tapes of A. L. Abdul Hamid - "Nights of the Jackal" (1989) and "Oral Messages" (1991). A notable event was the historical a painting about Kawakibi "Dust of foreigners" by Zikra (1998). A wide resonance was caused by the tape "Black Flour" by G. Schmait (2001) about the life of the nat. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by dir. V. Rahib in f. "Dreams" (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parental home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between a man and a woman were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film Out of Access (2007). The film "Once More" by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of dramatic. events in the country. In 1979-2011, an international conference was held in Damascus. film festival.
Details Category: Western Asian countries Posted on 21.11.2013 10:59 Views: 10482Civilization originated here in the 4th century BC. BC. According to Karl Baedeker, the German founder of the publishing house of guides to various cities and countries, the capital of Syria, Damascus, is the oldest capital in the world that exists today.
modern state Syrian Arab Republic borders Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey. It is washed in the west by the Mediterranean Sea.
State symbols
Flag- the modern flag of Syria was reintroduced in 1980. Previously, this flag was used by the United Arab Republic.
The colors of the flag are traditional for the flags of the Arab countries. The two stars represent Egypt and Syria, the two peoples that are part of the United Arab Republic. Green is the color of the Fatimids (the dynasty of Muslim caliphs from 969 to 1171), white is the color of the Umayyads (the dynasty of caliphs founded by Muawiyah in 661), black is the color of the Abbasids (the second (after the Umayyads) dynasty of Arab caliphs (750-1258) and red is the blood of martyrs; also red is the color of the Hashemite dynasty and was added when Sharif Hussein joined the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Coat of arms- represents a golden “hawk of the Quraysh”, having a shield on its chest, twice dissected into scarlet, silver and black with two green five-pointed stars one above the other in the middle (the colors of the Syrian flag). In its paws, the hawk holds a green scroll on which the name of the state is written in Arabic: On the tail are two divergent green wheat ears.
State structure of modern Syria
Form of government- parliamentary republic.
head of state- the president. Elected for 7 years, the number of consecutive terms in office is not limited.
Head of the government- Prime Minister.
Official language- Arabic. The most widely spoken languages also include Kurdish, Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. The most popular foreign languages are Russian, French and English.
Capital- Damascus.
Largest cities Aleppo, Damascus, Homs.
Territory- 185 180 km².
Population– 22 457 336 people About 90% of the country's population are Syrian Arabs (including about 400,000 Palestinian refugees). The largest national minority is the Kurds (9% of the population of Syria). The country's third largest ethnic group is the Syrian Turkmen, followed by the Circassians; there is also a large Assyrian community in the country.
Currency- Syrian pound.
Economy- the most developed industries: oil, oil refining, electric power, gas production, phosphate mining, food, textile, chemical (production of fertilizers, plastics), electrical engineering.
Only a third of the territory of Syria is suitable for agriculture. Cotton, livestock products, vegetables and fruits are produced.
Political instability, hostilities and trade and economic sanctions imposed on Syria have led to the deterioration of the Syrian economy.
Export: oil, minerals, fruits and vegetables, textiles. Import: industrial products, food.
Damascus University
Education- in 1950, free and compulsory primary education was introduced. Currently, there are about 10,000 primary and more than 2,500 secondary schools in Syria; 267 vocational schools (including 107 women's), 4 universities.
Textbooks in secondary schools (under B. Assad's rule) are issued free of charge up to grade 9 inclusive.
Damascus University was founded in 1903. It is the leading institution of higher education in the country. The second most important is the university in Aleppo, founded in 1946 as an engineering faculty of Damascus University, but in 1960 it became an independent educational institution. In 1971, Tishrin University was established in Latakia. The youngest university founded in Homs is Al-Baath University. A large number of Syrians receive higher education abroad, mainly in Russia and France.
Syrian landscape
Climate- arid, subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior - continental.
Administrative division- Syria is divided into 14 governorates, the head of which is appointed by the Minister of the Interior after the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers. Each governorate elects a local parliament.
Golan Heights. The territory of the Golan Heights makes up the Syrian governorate of Al-Quneitra, with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli troops captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and until 1981 the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces. In 1974, the UN Emergency Forces were introduced here.
In 1981, the Israeli Knesset passed the "Golan Heights Law", which unilaterally declared Israeli sovereignty over the territory. The annexation was invalidated by the UN Security Council Resolution of 17 December 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.
In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze (Arabic-speaking ethno-confessional group in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel), 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites (a number of Islamic religious denominations, offshoots or sects). The largest settlement in the region is the Druze village of Majdal-Shams (8800 people).
Syria and Israel are de jure at war, as a peace treaty between these countries has not been signed so far.
Religion- Approximately 86% of the population of Syria are Muslims, 10% are Christians. Of the Muslims, 82% are Sunnis, the rest are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, constantly increasing due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.
Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox, 18% are Catholics.
There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox Churches.
There are currently people in Syria, Iraq and other countries who want to create a split between Sunnis and Shiites.
Sunnis- the most numerous direction in Islam. Sunni theologians (ulema), unlike Shiite ones, do not enjoy the right to make their own decisions on the most important issues of religious and public life. The position of the theologian in Sunnism is reduced primarily to the interpretation of sacred texts. The Sunnis place special emphasis on following the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (his actions and sayings), on loyalty to tradition, and on the participation of the community in choosing its head, the caliph.
Shiites- the direction of Islam, uniting various communities that recognized Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants as the only legitimate heirs and spiritual successors of the Prophet Muhammad. A distinctive feature of the Shiites is the belief that the leadership of the Muslim community should belong to the imams - appointed by God, elected persons from among the descendants of the prophet, to whom they include Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants from the daughter of Muhammad Fatima, and not elected persons - caliphs.
Russia is concerned about attacks on Christian minorities in Syria.
Chapel of Saint Ananias in Damascus
Military establishment- includes the Ground Forces, the Air Force, the Navy and the Air Defense Forces. The president is the supreme commander of the armed forces.
Sport- The most popular are football, basketball, swimming and table tennis.
Culture of Syria
Syria, as the oldest state in the world, is the cradle of many civilizations and cultures. Here the Ugaritic cuneiform was born and one of the first forms of writing - Phoenician (XIV century BC). The contribution to the development of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cultures was made by Syrian figures, the scientist Antiochus of Ascalon, the writer Lucian from Samosata, the historians Herodian, Ammianus Marcellinus, John Malala, John of Ephesus, Yeshu Stylite, Yahya of Antioch, Michael the Syrian.
Lucian of Samosata in his satirical writings, he ridicules social, religious and philosophical prejudices, as well as other vices of contemporary society. His essay "The True Story", describing the journey to the Moon and Venus, had an impact on the formation of science fiction.
John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic
John Chrysostom(c. 347-407) - Archbishop of Constantinople, theologian, revered as one of the three Ecumenical saints and teachers, along with Saints Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian.
St. John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic
Christian theologians Paul of Samosata, John Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, John of Damascus are also known.
In the XII century. The famous warrior and writer Osama ibn Munkiz, the author of the autobiographical chronicle The Book of Edification, lived and worked in Syria, a valuable source on the history of the Crusades.
Old houses in Damascus
The city of Damascus was one of the world's centers for the production of bladed weapons, the famous "Damascus steel".
In modern Syrian society, special attention is paid to the institution of the family and religion and education.
The modern life of Syria is intertwined with ancient traditions. In the old quarters of Damascus, Aleppo and other Syrian cities, living quarters are preserved, located around one or more courtyards, usually with a fountain in the center, with citrus orchards, vines, and flowers.
The most famous Syrian writers of the 20th century: Adonis, Gada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani, Hanna Mina and Zakaria Tamer.
Adonis (Ali Ahmad Saeed Asbar) (b. 1930)
Syrian poet and essayist. Lived mainly in Lebanon and France. Author of more than 20 books in his native Arabic, he is considered the most significant representative of the New Poetry movement.
Nizar Qabbani (1923-1998)
Syrian poet, publisher, diplomat. One of the most important Arabic poets of the 20th century. He is one of the founders of modern Arabic poetry. Qabbani's poems are mostly written in simple language, often reflecting the realities of the Syriac vernacular contemporary to the poet. Qabbani published 35 collections of poetry.
Cinema in Syria not very developed, it is completely in the hands of the state. On average, Syria releases 1-2 films a year. Films are often censored. Famous directors include Amirali Omar, Osama Mohammed and Abdel Hamid, Abdul Razzak Ghanem (Abu Ghanem) and others. Many Syrian filmmakers work abroad. But in the 1970s, Syrian-made TV shows were popular in the Arab world.
Together with the Syrian film studio "Ganem-Film" feature films were shot in the USSR and Russia: "The Last Night of Scheherazade" (1987), "Richard the Lionheart" (1992), "Destroy the Thirtieth!" (1992), "Angels of Death" (1993), dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Stalingrad, "Tragedy of the Century" (1993), "The Great Commander Georgy Zhukov" (1995), etc.
Nature
Five natural regions are distinguished on the territory of Syria: the Seaside Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syria Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers: El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are mainly in the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria mountains and the valleys of the El-Asi river, the Euphrates and its tributaries.
Euphrates River
The natural vegetation of Syria has changed significantly. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests.
In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on the mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficuses. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.
magnolia flowers
Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, citrus fruits are grown in river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on gentle slopes.
Olive Tree
The fields are sown with corn, barley, and wheat. They also grow potatoes and vegetables. In the north and partly on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria and other ridges and in the low mountains of the interior of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for pasture cattle breeding (mainly sheep breeding). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under conditions of artificial irrigation.
In the deserts, the landscape revives only after rain, young shoots of grasses and undersized shrubs and shrubs appear: saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, wormwood. But even such a poor vegetation cover is enough to feed camels, which are bred by nomads.
Animal world Syria is not very diverse. Of the carnivores, there are sometimes a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal, there are many polecats in the steppes and semi-deserts, antelope, gazelle, wild onager donkey from ungulates.
Wild donkey onager
Jerboa rodents are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, hares are found. From reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans).
In the country there are larks, grouse, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Birds of prey include eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria
Old city in Damascus
Damascus has seven surviving city gates in the Old City wall, the oldest of which date from the Roman period:
Bab el-Saghir ("Small Gate") - behind the gate there are historical burial places, in particular, 2 wives of the Prophet Muhammad are buried here
Bab el Faradis ("Gate of Paradise")
Bab el Salam ("Gate of Peace")
Bab Tuma ("Gate of Thomas") - the name goes back to the name of the Apostle Thomas, leads to the Christian quarter of the Old City
"Gate of Thomas"
Bab Sharqi ("Eastern Gate")
Bab Kisan - built in the era of the Romans, were dedicated to the god Saturn. Through them, according to legend, the Apostle Paul fled from Damascus
Bab el Jabiya
Old city in Bosra
Bosra- a historical city in southern Syria, an important archaeological site. For the first time the settlement is mentioned in documents from the times of Thutmose III and Amenhotep IV (XIV century BC). Bosra was the first Nabatean city in the second century BC. e. The Nabataean kingdom was conquered by Cornelius Palma, Trajan's general, in 106 AD. e.
Under the rule of the Roman Empire, Bosra was renamed New Traiana Bostrom and became the capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petra. Two early Christian churches were built in Bosra in 246 and 247.
Subsequently, after the division of the Roman Empire into western and eastern, the city came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The city was finally conquered by the army of the Arab Caliphate in 634.
Today, Bosra is an important archaeological site with ruins from Roman, Byzantine and Muslim times, as well as one of the best preserved Roman theaters in the world, which hosts a national music festival every year.
Archaeological sites of Palmyra
Palmyra(Greek "city of palm trees") - one of the richest cities of late antiquity, located in one of the oases of the Syrian desert, between Damascus and the Euphrates.
It was a staging post for caravans crossing the Syrian desert, which is why Palmyra was nicknamed "the bride of the desert".
At present, on the site of Palmyra, there is a Syrian village and the ruins of majestic buildings that are among the best examples of ancient Roman architecture.
Several cities in the United States are named after Palmyra. St. Petersburg was poetically called the northern Palmyra, and Odessa - the southern one.
Old city in Aleppo
Aleppo (Aleppo)- the largest city in Syria and the center of the most populated governorate of the same name in the country.
For many centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in Greater Syria and the third largest in the Ottoman Empire, after Constantinople and Cairo.
Aleppo is one of the most ancient continuously inhabited cities in the world; it was inhabited as early as the 6th century. BC e.
The castles of Krak des Chevaliers and Qal'at Salah ad Din
Krak des Chevaliers, or Krak de l'Hospital- the fortress of the Hospitallers (a Christian organization whose goal was to take care of the poor). One of the best preserved Hospitaller fortresses in the world.
Citadel of Salah ad-Din- a castle in Syria, located in a highland area, on a ridge between two deep ravines, and surrounded by forests. The fortification has existed here since the middle of the 10th century.
In 975, the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes captured the castle, it remained under Byzantine control until about 1108. At the beginning of the 12th century. the Franks took control of it, and the castle became part of the newly formed crusader state - the Principality of Antioch.
The castle is currently owned by the Syrian government.
Ancient villages of Northern Syria
Only the ruins of 40 settlements remained, which are grouped into 8 groups.
Other sights of Syria
Umayyad Mosque
Also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus. Located in the Old City of Damascus, it is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered by some Muslims to be the fourth sacred site in Islam.
Fortress of Nimrod
Medieval fortress located in the northern part of the Golan Heights, at an altitude of about 800 m above sea level.
Qasioun Mountains
Mountains overlooking the city of Damascus. The highest point is 1151 m. On the slopes of Qasiun there is a cave about which there are many legends. It is believed that the first man, Adam, who was expelled from paradise, settled here. In medieval Arabic history books it is written that in this place Cain killed Abel.
National Museum in Damascus
The museum was founded in 1919. It presents exhibits of the history of Syria from prehistoric times to the present. The museum houses contemporary works by artists from Syria, the Arab world and other countries.
Chapel of Saint Paul (Damascus)
Built in honor of the Apostle Paul, who preached in Damascus.
Syrian mountain hills
The country has very beautiful landscapes: rocky mountains, green valleys, deserts and mountain peaks, forever covered with snow.
History of Syria
Ancient history
The history of Syrian civilization dates back to the 4th century BC. BC e.
Eblaite (an extinct Semitic language) is the oldest known Semitic language. More than 17 thousand clay tablets in this language, dedicated to crafts, agriculture and art, have been found. Among the leading crafts of Ebla are the processing of wood, ivory, and pearls.
Ebla clay tablet
During the period between the invasion of the Canaanite tribes and the conquest of Syria in 64 BC. e. The Roman Empire, its territory was under the rule of the Hyksos, Hittites, Egyptians, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, ancient Macedonians, the Elinistic power of the Seleucids, the Armenian Empire of Tigran II the Great.
From the 16th century BC e. in the south of Syria there is the city of Damascus, originally subordinate to the Egyptian pharaohs.
According to the Bible, Paul accepted the Christian faith on the road to Damascus, and then lived in Antioch, where the disciples of Christ first began to be called Christians.
Islam in Syria
Islam gained a foothold in Syria in 661, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world, already in the VIII century. being one of the largest cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.
Since 1517, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire for 4 centuries.
Syrian Arab Kingdom
It was formed shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War, it collapsed. In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. But the independence of Syria did not last long. A few months later, the French army occupied Syria, defeating the Syrian troops in the battle at the Maysalun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations divided the former Syrian possessions of the Ottoman Empire between Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France - the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon ("League of Nations mandate").
French Mandate
In 1940, France was occupied by German troops and Syria came under the control of the Vichy Regime (Governor General Dentz). Vichy mode- collaborationist regime in Southern France during the occupation of Northern France by Nazi Germany after the defeat at the beginning of World War II and the fall of Paris in 1940. Existed from July 10, 1940 to April 22, 1945. Officially adhered to a policy of neutrality. Nazi Germany, having provoked a rebellion by Prime Minister Geilani in British Iraq, sent units of its air force to Syria.
Charles de Gaulle - the eighteenth President of France
In 1941, with the support of British troops, Free French units led by Generals Charles de Gaulle and Catrou entered Syria during a bloody conflict with Dentz's troops. General de Gaulle in his memoirs pointed out that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to the German plans to invade Greece, Yugoslavia and the USSR, since they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of military operations.
On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946 French troops were evacuated from Syria.
Independent Syria
Shukri al-Kuatli, who fought for the country's independence under the Ottoman Empire, became the president of independent Syria.
Shukri al-Quatli
In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. After Syria gained independence, attacks on Syrian Jews intensified, and their businesses were boycotted. The new government banned emigration to Palestine, and the teaching of Hebrew in Jewish schools was limited. On November 27, 1947, the UN adopted a decision on the partition of Palestine, in connection with this, Jewish pogroms took place in Syria. The pogroms continued in 1948, and in subsequent years, as a result, Jews were forced to flee almost completely from Syria to Israel, the United States and the countries of South America; currently, less than 100 Syrian Jews live in Damascus and Lattakia.
In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war launched by the Arab League, after which a state of emergency was declared in the country. Colonel Husni al-Zaym came to power, repealing the 1930 constitution, banning political parties, and subsequently proclaiming himself president. He did not enjoy the support of the people and was removed after 4 months by his former comrades. Executed on August 14 near Damascus.
The civilian regime was restored by Colonel Sami Hinawi, but was soon removed by the military leader Adib al-Shishakli. On September 5, 1950, a new constitution was proclaimed, according to which Syria became a parliamentary republic, but already in November 1951, the constitution was suspended, and the country's parliament was dissolved. In 1953, Shishakli promulgated a new constitution and after a referendum became president.
President Adib al-Shishakli
In February 1954, a military-civilian coalition led by Hashim Bey Khalid Al-Atassi came to power in the country, returning the 1950 constitution. and agriculture. In the elections in 1955, Shukri al-Kuatli was elected president of the country with the support of Saudi Arabia.
On March 15, 1956, a collective security treaty was concluded between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia against possible Israeli aggression.
United Arab Republic
February 22, 1958 Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic with the center in Cairo. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser became president, but Syrians held many important positions until Nasser dissolved all Syrian political parties. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, Syria again declared independence. Nasser did not resist. The UAR lasted only 3.5 years.
Confrontation between Syria and Israel
Between 1962 and 1966 in Syria, there were 5 coups, when the nationalization of the main sectors of the economy was carried out and canceled.
In 1967, the Six Day War took place. The Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. Israeli air strikes have caused enormous damage to the economy. The government was unable to ensure the restoration of industry, anti-government actions began. In November 1970 Saleh Jadid's group was removed from power. Syria became the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR provided Syria with assistance in modernizing the economy and the armed forces.
In 1973, Syria, along with other Arab states, launched the Yom Kippur War, military operations on the Syrian front were fierce, especially the battle for El Quneitra, called the “Syrian Stalingrad”. El Quneitra was held, but the Golan Heights remained with Israel. By decision of the UN Security Council, at the end of the war in 1973, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. At the moment, the Golan Heights are controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.
In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered the country to stop the civil war. The war ended in 1990 with the establishment of a government in Lebanon that maintains friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988.
After the death on June 10, 2000 of Hafez al-Assad, who had ruled the country for almost 30 years, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president.
Bashar al-Assad
Civil War
Riots and revolutions in the Middle East have spread to Syria. Speech began with demands to change the existing regime. The country's leadership made serious changes: it canceled the law on the state of emergency, the laws on the media and political parties, and embarked on democratic reforms.
In 2013, there were street battles with the use of heavy weapons in several large cities of the country, including the capital. More than 500,000 Syrians have fled their country as a result of the fighting. Refugees find shelter in Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq.
Currently, the civil war in Syria is being fueled by some Western countries.
Russia voted against the draft resolution "The situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic". It was co-sponsored by a number of countries, including the UK, France, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. 123 countries voted for the adoption of the draft, 46 countries voted against.
“The proposed draft resolution goes against the logic of a political and diplomatic settlement, placing the main responsibility for what is happening in the country on the government, while not it, but the foreign opposition needs to be pushed to start negotiations with the authorities,” the representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry emphasized.
SYRIA. STORY
The modern Syrian state appeared after the First World War, when France received from the League of Nations a mandate to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain - to Palestine and Transjordan. Until that time, the concept of Syria included all these four countries, plus small areas currently located in southern Turkey and northwestern Iraq. Thus, the history of Syria before the 1920s refers to a much larger area, sometimes called Greater Syria, than the current lands of the country, whose own political history begins only from this time.
Ancient culture and history. Excavations in the area of Tell Mardiha, immediately south of Aleppo, have shown that c. 2500 BC in this area was the capital of the rich and powerful state of Ebla. Its elected head and senate, which consisted of the nobility, ruled northern Syria, Lebanon and part of the territory of northern Mesopotamia, with the main enemy being the kingdom of Mari, which existed in the Euphrates valley. Ebla carried on an active trade in wood, fabrics and metal products with the small city-states of the Euphrates valley and northern Persia, as well as with Cyprus and Egypt; treaties of friendship were concluded between her and the Assyrian city of Ashur, in the north of Mesopotamia, and the city of Hamazi, in the north of Persia. In the 23rd century BC. Ebla was conquered by Akkad, its capital was destroyed to the ground. Around 1760 BC the territory of Syria was included in Babylonia, and a century later it was conquered by the Hittites. In turn, the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II challenged the Hittites, but his army failed to capture Syria, suffering around 1285 BC. defeat in the battle of Kadesh (in the vicinity of modern Homs). Over the next century, the Jordan Valley was settled by ancient Hebrew tribes, who soon began to fight the Philistines who inhabited the Mediterranean cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon and Gaza. At about the same time, most of the Mediterranean coast was in the sphere of trade influence of the Phoenicians, the Aramaeans were active in overland trade with the Indian Ocean region. In the 9th century BC. Syrian lands fell mainly under the rule of the Assyrians. They, in turn, were subjugated by the Chaldeans, whose most famous ruler was Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who captured in 587 BC. Jerusalem. After 50 years, the state of the Chaldeans was conquered by the Achaemenids, who continued their offensive to the west and subjugated the main regions of Syria and Anatolia. After the campaign of Alexander the Great in the 4th c. BC. Syria, under the Seleucid dynasty, enters the era of Hellenism. His influence affected primarily the nobility of the Syrian cities, which was Hellenized, and they themselves entered into rivalry with the cities of Asia Minor and Alexandria. By the end of the Seleucid era, several small kingdoms emerged in the region, such as the State of Israel created by the Maccabees. In the 1st century BC. Syrian territory was conquered by Rome. For the next seven centuries, it was an important province, first of the Roman and then of the Byzantine empires. The Syrians were famous in the Mediterranean for their merchants, military leaders, scientists, jurists, priests and officials. The semi-Syrian dynasty of Sevres ruled Rome for almost 40 years from 193 to 235 AD. Syria turned out to be the center of the formation and spread of Christianity: the Patriarchates of Antioch and Alexandria were the oldest and most influential in the East until the primacy passed to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the 3rd century AD, as political fragmentation intensified, various kingdoms and tribes fought for the possession of Syria in the Mediterranean zone. Some of these states, such as Palmyra, Edessa and Hatra, were Arab and had close political and economic ties with the Bedouins of Northern Arabia and Transjordan. For the loyalty of the Arab leaders of southern Syria, first the Roman governors fought, and then the kings of Sasanian Iran. When in the middle of the 6th c. the Byzantines began building new fortifications, the Sassanids launched a large retaliatory offensive, as a result of which Antioch was devastated. The war in the southern regions of Syria lasted 50 years and ended with the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614. Sassanian commanders ruled Syria until about 630, when Byzantium regained the largest cities in the region and tried to revive the alliance with the Bedouins of eastern Syria and northern Arabia. The intervention of the Byzantines in the affairs of the tribes inhabiting the areas bordering Syria became an obstacle to the spread of Islam from central Arabia and southern Iraq. The Islamic rulers of Mecca and Medina for a long time maintained good relations with the merchants of the Syrian cities of Bostra and Gaza, whose caravans transported grain and spices between Yemen and Transjordan. In order to secure these trade routes and persuade the South Syrian Bedouins to accept Islam, the Prophet Muhammad, beginning in 631, sent several expeditions to the desert regions around Damascus and Gaza. After all attempts to achieve a convincing victory over the Byzantines and their allied tribes ended unsuccessfully, the most talented Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid was transferred from southern Iraq to Damascus in 634. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fahl and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bostra and Damascus, and in 635 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. However, the Byzantine army of approx. 100 thousand people, which also included Armenians, residents of Aleppo and Antioch and Syrian Bedouins, launched a counteroffensive. In the autumn of 636, she met in a fierce battle at the Yarmuk River with much smaller forces of Muslims, on whose side women also fought in this battle. The defeated Byzantines fled, and their victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 637, shortly after the fall of Jerusalem and Gaza, Aleppo, Antioch, Hama, and the strategically important city of Qinnasrin surrendered to them. In the mountainous regions around Caesarea, Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon, Muslim resistance continued until the mid-640s.
First Muslim period. Even during the lifetime of the generation that conquered Syria, the wealth, the level of development of crafts and the population of Syrian cities prompted the supporters of Islam to move the center of the Islamic state to Damascus (from Mecca and Medina). Starting from 661, when the ruler of Syria, Muawiyah, declared himself caliph, and up to 750, Damascus remained the seat of the Umayyad dynasty and the capital of the Arab Caliphate. The Umayyad state was ruled by the Syrians, both Muslims and Christians, and the Syrian soldiers fought with the troops of the Byzantine emperors. Arabic replaced Greek as the official language. However, elements of the Hellenistic heritage survived as the Arabs gradually adopted the culture, social organization and political system they encountered in the Syrian cities. In the 8th c. regional, religious and dynastic contradictions led to the fact that Damascus, and with it Syria, lost their significance. The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of Syria has decreased, the wealth of local cities has faded. Over the next three centuries, amid relative impoverishment and political instability in the region, many Syrians converted to Islam. Arabic came into use, although Aramaic continued to be spoken in some remote villages. Christians, fearing for their safety, whole communities moved to the mountains. With the onset of the decline of the Abbasids, the northern borders of Syria became more vulnerable to Byzantine attacks. Small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to Baghdad or Constantinople for help. Various heretical sects flourished, Shiism spread widely, becoming the basis of the teachings of the Alawites and Druzes. From Egypt (the center of the Fatimid Ismailis), Persia (the center of the Assassins) and Mesopotamia, secret teachings penetrated that preached revolutionary political, social, religious and philosophical views. The general intellectual potential of the country contributed to the creativity of poets and writers. At the Shiite court of the Hamdanids in Al-Farabi, the philosopher al-Farabi created treatises on the worldview of Plato and Aristotle, wrote books on medicine, mathematics, occult sciences and music. At the same time, the great Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani lived, the compiler of the anthology of Arabic-language poetry of the Book of Songs, which was called "the fundamental source for the study of fiction." The largest representatives of the Syrian culture of that era were the poets Abu-l-Ala al-Maarri and al-Mutanabbi. The former received particular fame for his Epistle of Forgiveness, many of the quatrains from which had a strong influence on the poetry of Omar Khayam, and a number of experts believe that Dante's Divine Comedy was written under the influence of this work. Al-Mutanabbi was a Hamdanid court poet whose flamboyant style still makes him the most popular classical poet in the Arab world.
Invasion of the Seljuk Turks. The period of the revival of Syria, which fell on the 10th - early 11th centuries, was slowed down by the conquest of its interior regions by the Seljuk Turks, who came from Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamia. The tribes that invaded Syria were part of the huge Persian power of the Seljukids, but soon broke off their vassal relations with it and created two independent states, with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. The Seljuks never penetrated into southern Syria, which remained under the rule of local rulers such as the Tanukids, or was in vassalage to the Egyptian Fatimids. At the end of the 11th century, as a result of the invasion of the crusaders who arrived from Western Europe, there was a further fragmentation and weakening of Syria.
Crusades. At the end of the 11th c. European knights appeared in the country, landing in Antioch, and then in other points on the Mediterranean coast. By the beginning of the 12th century. Four crusader states were created on Syrian territory: the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Edessa. Following the Christians, the Seljuks rushed into the region. The governor of Mosul, Emir Maudud, organized a campaign in northern Syria and in 1111 laid siege to Aleppo. The Seljuks were opposed by local Turkic and Arab leaders, in particular the ruler of Damascus, who hired the Assassins to raid the Seljuks. However, with his death in 1128, cooperation between the city authorities and the Assassins ceased, and the new Mosul emir Zengi immediately invaded the northern regions of Syria and occupied Aleppo. After that, the Zengid dynasty, with the support of Kurdish cavalry hired as a strike force, under the pretext of an impending threat from the crusader states, established its control over all of Syria. One of the Kurdish commanders Salah-ad-Din (Saladin), who became famous for his campaign in Egypt in the 1160s, after the death of Nur-ad-Din ibn Zengi in 1174, became the head of the Zengid state and at the same time opposed the crusaders and the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq. In 1187, his troops defeated the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but were exhausted by the ensuing 3rd crusade, led by Richard I, Philip II Augustus and Frederick I Barbarossa. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control of the interior of Syria, but were forced to fight hard against the Seljuk Sultanate of Konya in the north, the crusader states in the west, and various Turkic states that existed in the Mosul region and western Persia in the east. In 1260, the declining Ayyubid state was invaded by the Mongols led by Hulagu Khan, who captured Aleppo and Damascus, but was stopped by Mamluk forces led by Qutuz at the Battle of Ain Jalut, in northern Palestine.
Mamluk rule. Immediately after the defeat of the Mongols, Qutuz was killed by Baybars, who assumed the title of Sultan and laid the foundation for the Mamluk dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria. During the 1260s Baibars captured the most important of the remaining Ismaili strongholds in the mountains of Syria. At the end of the century, Sultan Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last Crusader strongholds on the Syrian Mediterranean coast. Already during the first century of Mamluk rule, an effective administrative system was established in Syria, trade was restored both with East and West, and the rise of handicrafts and agriculture began. Syria reached its peak when it was ruled by Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalaun (1310-1341). But already under his immediate successors, due to the plague that swept through Syria and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and North Africa, the Mamluk state entered a period of relative decline, which opened the way for the Turkic-Mongolian commander Timur (Tamerlane) to capture Aleppo and Damascus. Having occupied them in 1401 for a short time, Timur began to move talented artisans from these cities to his capital Samarkand. Meanwhile, the Mamluk sultans in Cairo turned their eyes to Arabia and the lands on the shores of the Red Sea, and northern Syria became the object of the claims of the Timurids, the Ottomans and other Turks. By the end of the 15th century the rivalry between the Mamluks, the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavids grew into a real war. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were raiding the Red Sea zone, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Selim I in 1516 easily conquered Syria.
Ottoman period. For the next four centuries, Syria was part of the Sultanate and ruled from Istanbul. Soon after the Ottoman conquest, it was divided into three provinces: Tripoli, Aleppo and Damascus, which included all the lands south of Damascus to the borders with Egypt. Later, several more provinces were created, including Sidon and Acre (modern Akka). At the head of each province was a pasha, who was directly subordinate to the metropolitan administration. Each pasha governed his subject territory with the help of local cavalry detachments and a cohort of civil and judicial officials who enjoyed a significant degree of independence. The order established in the region contributed to the revival of trade and production in the 16th century, but after 1600, as a result of the struggle between the authorities on the periphery, the central treasury in Istanbul and large trading houses, the economy began to degrade. The growth of Dutch and English trade in the Mediterranean and in the countries of the Indian Ocean hastened the decline of the Ottoman economy. In the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut have become the main trading centers of Syria; colonies of European merchants were established in several cities (most of the trade with Europe passed through their hands). Missionaries began to arrive in large numbers to work among the local Christians, especially Franciscans and Jesuits. Contacts between missionaries and local authorities led to further stratification of Syrian society. Taking advantage of the situation, strong local clans broke away from the central Ottoman government. Internecine strife intensified, and as a result of one such conflict, a defeated Druze sect moved to an isolated mountainous region southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was called Jabal ed-Druz. At the end of the 18th century much of southern Syria fell under the rule of Ahmad al-Jazzar, Pasha of Acre, who tried to modernize the administrative system and promote the economy. By the end of the 18th century European powers began to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Syria, establishing their own spheres of influence. Thus, the French supported the Maronites and other Syrian Catholics, the Russians declared their right to defend the Orthodox, and the British offered their friendship to the Druzes. In 1798-1799, the troops of Napoleonic France, unable to capture Egypt, landed on the Syrian coast. Al-Jazzar, with the help of the British fleet, managed to stop the French at Acre, forcing Napoleon to return to France. The success of Syria in the development of branches of material production and trade attracted the attention of the powerful Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali, whose army invaded the country in the autumn of 1831. The Egyptian military leader Ibrahim Pasha established a centralized government oversight of the Syrian economy. Commerce and agriculture continued to develop, but they were no longer controlled by the local nobility. Trade with Europe flourished, passing in particular through the port of Beirut. The import of cheap British fabrics destroyed the local textile crafts in Aleppo and Damascus, while the increased demand for olive oil, cotton and silk in European states and Egypt strengthened the position of Syrian Christian traders. Clashes between Egyptian troops stationed in Syria and Ottoman forces in Anatolia forced the European powers to intervene in 1839 in order to maintain the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. British and Ottoman agents pushed the Druze to revolt against the Egyptian army. At the same time, the combined Anglo-Austrian fleet established a blockade of Beirut, which forced Ibrahim Pasha to withdraw his troops from the country in 1840. With the restoration of the power of the Sultan, Syria fell under the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the imperial market for European goods. Their influx destroyed the main branches of handicraft industry and prompted urban merchants and nobles of the country to start actively buying up agricultural land. The trend towards their transfer to the possession of townspeople who did not live on their estates intensified after 1858, when a new law was passed in the Ottoman Empire, allowing the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership in exchange for payment of higher. In the last quarter of the 19th century French companies received numerous concessions in Syria in exchange for granting loans to the Ottoman Empire. The French invested in Syrian ports, railways and roads. As material production declined, anti-Christian and anti-European sentiment began to grow. This trend led to increased European interference in the political life of Syria, which contributed to the growing dissatisfaction of the local Arab elite with Ottoman rule. In the 1890s, societies arose in Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut to advocate Syrian independence from the Ottoman Empire. The number of these societies increased rapidly at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Arab national sentiment reached its peak after the July Revolution of 1908 in Istanbul, which brought the Young Turks to power. When it became obvious that the Young Turks would primarily protect the interests of the Turkic-speaking population, the Syrians stood at the head of several organizations that advocated the autonomy of the Arab provinces.
World War I. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Ottoman high command transferred the Arab divisions of the 4th Ottoman army to Gelibolu (in Europe). Many leaders of the national movement, the military governor of Syria, Jamal Pasha, ordered the arrest or deportation. Nevertheless, support for Arab nationalists on the ground continued to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy caused by increased taxes on military needs and the British blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. The impetus for the further upsurge of the movement was the uprising, which was raised in Arabia, with the support of the British, by the sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali, who thus hoped to create an independent Arab kingdom. When the Arab army, led by his son Faisal ibn Hussein, entered Damascus in October 1918, she was greeted as a liberator. The city was declared the seat of the independent government of all Syria. Simultaneously, Beirut established its own Arab administration. In both cases, people from Syria who gained managerial experience in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt were appointed to responsible posts. Both administrations sent their representatives to the General Syrian Congress, convened in July 1919 in Damascus, which adopted a resolution calling for the declaration of full independence for Syria, the creation of a constitutional monarchy led by Faisal, and legal protection for all minorities. While Syrian nationalists advocated autonomy, British and French representatives began to discuss the question of the future state structure of the country. The agreements between them were embodied in the decisions of the San Remo conference in April 1920, according to which the Faisal government in Damascus was dissolved, France received a League of Nations mandate to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain to govern Palestine and Transjordan. The news of the decisions of the San Remo conference provoked mass protests in the largest Syrian cities, and representatives of the national bourgeoisie suggested that Hashim al-Atasi, a large landowner, head an openly anti-French government. Faisal tried to act as an intermediary between the militant nationalists and the French, recognizing in July 1920 the mandate of the League of Nations and using recruits to suppress uprisings in the cities. When the French troops undertook a campaign against Damascus in order to take power, a group of volunteers led by Yusuf Azme took up defensive positions in the area of the city of Maisalun, trying to stop their advance. Azme's detachment was defeated, and at the end of July the French established control over all of Syria. (In 1921, the British declared Faisal the king of Iraq, for which they also received a mandate, and made his older brother Abdallah first emir and then king of Transjordan.)
French mandate. The French authorities in Syria tried to suppress the Arab national movement, using the principles of "divide and rule." To do this, they strengthened religious minorities and contributed to strife on a confessional basis. The Maronite region in Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the predominantly Muslim Beqaa Valley and the cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida and Sur (Tyre). The rest of Syria was divided into five semi-autonomous units: Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (area of the Alawites), Jabal ed-Druze (area of the Druze) and Alexandretta (modern Iskanderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939). In addition, in the extreme northeast of the country, in the region of Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a separate district was allocated, which was controlled directly from the center. The political affairs of these territories were in charge of the High Commissioner in Damascus, who appointed all government and local officials and was responsible for the state of emergency introduced in 1920. The terms of the mandate opened the Syrian market for free access to it by all member states of the League of Nations. As a result, the country was flooded with overseas goods. Imports played a particularly disastrous role for the Syrian textile industry: between 1913 and 1926, the number of weavers in Aleppo was reduced by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3. Due to unemployment, which reached almost 25% in the cities, and the influx of a large number of Armenian refugees from Turkey, who were looking for even low-paid work, there was a drop in wages. In 1925, the Druze from Jebel ed-Druz rebelled against the French. In October, the leaders of the national movement organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, but after two days of artillery shelling of Damascus, which led to the death of 5,000 Syrians, it was crushed. In 1926-1927, against the backdrop of the ongoing struggle of the Druze, the first wave of protests of workers, dissatisfied with their plight, swept across the country. Separate spontaneous strikes began in Aleppo and Homs, which soon spread to Damascus, but they were brutally suppressed by armed force. The strangulation of the labor movement led to an increase in sympathy for the People's Party. This liberal nationalist organization was created by the urban bourgeoisie and supported by small urban merchants and rural landlords, who were in a difficult position as a result of the economic policies pursued under the mandate. Soon the People's Party established control over the Constituent Assembly, convened by the administration in 1925 in order to bring down the wave of popular discontent. In 1928, the successor to the People's Party, the National Bloc, put forward a draft constitution for the country, which provided for the reintegration of Syria and left no room for colonial authorities in it. Following this, the high commissioner dissolved the Constituent Assembly, and in 1930 put into effect a new constitution that confirmed French control over the country, but provided for an elected president and a unicameral parliament. In 1935, the authorities approved a new labor law, which limited the list of professions whose representatives were allowed to join trade unions, and placed workers' syndicates under strict state control. In response to the adoption of this law, a second wave of workers' protests swept through the country. In 1936, the Damascus trade unions united into a single trade union, and two years later, the General Federation of Trade Unions was formed in Damascus, Aleppo, and Homs. The actions of the workers' organizations created the conditions for the adoption by the National Bloc in January 1936 of the "National Pact", which again raised the question of declaring independence and drafting a new constitution. The publication of this pact coincided with a fifty-day general strike that paralyzed markets, schools, utilities, and factories throughout the country. The French authorities tried to suppress the strike, but in vain. As a result, the High Commissioner was left with no choice and began negotiations with the National Bloc. As a result of the negotiations, an agreement was prepared, according to which the independence of Syria was de jure recognized and a new parliament was convened, but at the same time the broad rights of the French in the military and economic fields were confirmed. In the November 1936 elections, Hashim al-Atasi was elected president of the country, and the National Bloc received most of the seats in parliament. The suppression of the Arab uprising in Palestine in April 1936 split the national liberation movement in Syria along class lines. Workers and urban merchants, under the auspices of various Islamist groups, organized the collection of food, money and weapons to send to Palestine, and also held strikes in support of the rebels who opposed British rule and Jewish immigration. Wealthier merchants and industrialists, in particular in Damascus, tried to limit the amount of Syrian aid: their main concern was to protect the most profitable markets and convince the British of the need for Syrian independence. They also feared that the uprising in Palestine would push the Syrian workers and peasants into political action. Dissatisfaction with the moderate position of the National Bloc on the Palestinian issue ultimately led to the alienation of the pan-Arab wing, whose center of activity was Aleppo, and to a split in the ruling coalition. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the French again introduced a state of emergency in Damascus, and in 1939 the High Commissioner suspended the Constitution, dissolved Parliament, and arrested some of the most active leaders of the national movement. In managing the internal affairs of the country, the government was replaced by the Board of Directors. World War II and the Declaration of Independence. After the capitulation of France in 1940, there were shortages of bread, sugar, and gasoline in the country, which hastened the revival of the national movement. In February 1941, the National Bloc, headed by Shukri Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus; it soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike continued for two months, forcing the high commissioner of the Vichy government in France to dissolve the previously appointed Board of Directors. Instead, a Committee was formed, headed by the moderate nationalist Khaled al-Azem, who ruled Syria until the autumn of 1941, when British and Free French troops occupied the country and restored the Constitution. An agreement was reached between Kuatli, the Free French authorities, and British representatives, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943. They were again won by the National Bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union), which won the overwhelming majority of seats in parliament. The new government included prominent figures of the national movement from Damascus, Aleppo and Homs, but at the same time representatives of Hama, Alawites and Druze were left behind. As a result, there was a consolidation of forces in opposition to the government around the leaders of Hama and the mountainous territories in the west and south of the country. Akram Haurani, a firm opponent of the landlord elite, who dominated the leadership of the National Patriotic Union, was elected to parliament. Meanwhile, separatists from the Alawite and Druze areas called for autonomy for them. Various Islamist organizations began campaigning among poor artisans and small traders in the cities of the north and among the inhabitants of the poorest Damascus quarters, where migrant peasants from the villages settled. The socialists, led by Michel Aflaq, demanded economic security for both the workers of Damascus and the impoverished small proprietors in the western and southern regions of the country. There was also a weakening of the positions of the former Syrian leaders as a result of the toughening of the French policy towards their political opponents and the break after 1944 of Damascus' trade and financial ties with Beirut and Haifa due to the creation of autonomous states in Lebanon and Palestine. Nominally, Syria became an independent state in 1945, when the creation of a national army was announced, and the country joined the United Nations and the League of Arab States. However, full independence was gained only after the final evacuation of French troops, which ended on April 15, 1946. The collapse of the parliamentary form of government. With the withdrawal of the last French troops from the country, the unity that had previously existed among the leaders of the national movement disappeared, and four forces arose that began to fight for control of the state. Large landowners and wealthy merchants, who profited from the shortage of grain and manufactured goods during the war, controlled the National Party and parliament. Independent small-scale producers concentrated in the Alawite and Druze areas, as well as the poor and landless peasants of the central plains, criticized the corruption and nepotism that prevailed among the former leaders and advocated the implementation of political and economic reforms. In early 1947, a peasant movement led by Akram Haurani initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Shukri Kuatli, who was elected president in 1943, introduced a state of emergency and restricted the activities of the Arab Socialist Party of the Haurani and the pan-Arab Arab Renaissance Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din Bitar. This ensured the victory of the candidates of the National Party in the parliamentary elections in July 1947 and the re-election of Kuatli as president. Since 1948, the party began to split along the regional principle (Damascus and Aleppo). Both factions sought favor with the large landowners, who were able to attract votes from the rural electorate. The political infighting over the government's efforts to amend the constitution in a way that would allow President Kouatli to serve a second term has made it difficult for Syria to resist the escalation of the civil war in Palestine. After the proclamation of the State of Israel in May 1948, the Syrian brigade invaded Northern Galilee, being the only Arab military unit that managed to move forward during the first Arab-Israeli war. However, immediately after the ceasefire in parliament, the executive branch was accused of incompetence and misappropriation of funds. At the end of November, the strike of schoolchildren and university students escalated into riots. The government was forced to resign, and the chief of the general staff, Colonel Husni al-Zaima, ordered the troops to restore order. After gaining independence, the creation of their own armed units became a means of improving the economic and social situation for people from various Syrian minorities. This was especially evident among the Alawites and Druze, who, starting from 1946, actively entered the military academy in Homs. There they were introduced to new political ideas, in particular the Ba'ath Party and local communities. Young graduates of the academy gradually became more and more intolerant of the old elite, from which they were separated by their class origin and regional affiliation. Growing discontent within the army spurred the high command, many of whom were Sunni townspeople, to come out in support of social change and to rally with leaders of the nationalist movement in neighboring Arab states. In the winter of 1948-1949, on a wave of dissatisfaction with the population and deputies of parliament over a military defeat in Palestine, a group of senior officers led by al-Zaima, disillusioned with the previous regime, overthrew the legally elected government. Having come to power in March 1949, al-Zaima repealed the 1930 Constitution, banned the activities of political parties, and began to rule by decree. In June, he proclaimed himself president, but already in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in the armed forces, during the second military coup. The leader of the coup, Colonel Sami Hinawi, announced the restoration of the civil regime and the holding of elections for the People's Council, which was to create a new constitution. In these elections, which for the first time allowed women to vote, the Aleppo branch of the National Party, calling itself the People's Party, after an organization active in northern Syria in the 1920s, won a parliamentary majority. Its deputies, many of whom had close trade and financial ties with the northern regions of Iraq, advocated a political union with that country. However, opponents of the union, in particular hardline Syrian nationalists such as Haurani and senior army officials, blocked the normal work of the newly elected parliament during the last two months of 1949. As a result, on December 19, young officers, led by Colonel Adib Shishekli, in an attempt to find a way out of this situation replaced Hinawi. Şişekli resumed the activities of the parliament and asked him to continue working on the draft constitution. The new Constitution, promulgated on September 5, 1950, proclaimed a parliamentary form of government, declared broad civil rights and the implementation of socio-economic reforms. However, Shishekli and his associates, behind the cabinet leapfrog of 1950-1951, resorted to harsh measures in an attempt to control the resurgent trade unions and the peasant movement. In November 1951 they dissolved Parliament and suspended the Constitution. For six months, the leadership of the country was carried out directly by the military in the absence of a government. In April 1952 political parties were banned. In 1953, Shishekli promulgated a new constitution and became president as a result of a referendum. The military-civilian coalition, which came to power in February 1954, nominated Sabri al-Asali for the post of prime minister, whose government restored the Constitution of 1950 and allowed the activity of political parties. In September 1954, parliamentary elections were held, in which the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, which was formed as a result of the merger of the Arab Socialist Party of Haurani and the Arab Renaissance Party of Aflak and Bitar, won a significant part of the mandates. However, the left could not agree on a coalition-based government, which was eventually formed by Faris al-Khoury. In February 1955, al-Khouri was replaced as prime minister by the leader of the National Party, Sabri al-Asali. The government immediately announced broad reforms in industry and the agricultural sector. Frightened by this prospect, and by demands from the PASP and the Communists for further dramatic changes, conservatives in parliament blocked the proposed law on the rights of agricultural workers and began campaigning in favor of former President Kouatli, who soon returned to the country from Egypt, where he was in exile. In the August 1955 elections, Kuatli was elected president with the financial support of Saudi Arabia. In the early 1950s, as a result of the US Middle East policy, Syria was drawn into the Cold War. In 1955, the country joined Egypt in its struggle against the Baghdad Pact (later the Central Treaty Organization, CENTO) created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the United States and Great Britain. In December, Syria became the second (after Egypt) state in the Arab world to sign an agreement with the USSR on the supply of military equipment. In 1955 and 1956, Syria reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of military command and the creation of a common Military Council. The Suez Crisis of 1956, which led to a joint British-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt, further strengthened bilateral ties. The country's close ties with Egypt, along with attempts by the US and Iraq to undermine the position of its leadership, led by President Kouatli, have strengthened the influence of the head of Syrian military intelligence, Colonel Abd al-Hamid Saraj. His agents in 1956 uncovered a carefully prepared conspiracy behind which stood the secret services of Baghdad. The danger of the situation became apparent in August 1956, when Iraqi weapons were secretly transferred to Jabal al-Druz. In December, 47 prominent People's Party members with close ties to Iraqi traders were court-martialed on charges of treason. Prime Minister al-Asali removed the People's Party from his cabinet, replacing them with anti-American independents. The US tried to destabilize the new government by offering American wheat in the traditional Syrian markets of Greece and Italy. This led to increased popular support for the PASW, which accused the US of interfering in Syria's internal affairs. Meanwhile, the revelation of American plans to overthrow Kouatli and seize power by a pro-Western military junta forced Saraj and the Chief of the General Staff to visit Cairo to discuss possible Egyptian assistance. At the end of 1957, the political games of pro-American, pro-Egyptian and pro-Syrian leaders led to the postponement of municipal elections. In January 1958, the chief of the general staff, Afif al-Bizri, made a secret trip to Egypt, turning to Abdel Nasser with a proposal to immediately unite Syria and Egypt into a single state. In February, Kuatli flew to Cairo, where the creation of the United Arab Republic (UAR) was announced.
Union with Egypt. The Syrians enthusiastically approved the creation of the UAR in a referendum on February 21, 1958. The Interim Constitution of the Union State was adopted, providing for a single president and government, as well as the existence of separate Executive Councils for the two regions of the UAR: Northern (Syrian) and Southern (Egyptian). In 1959 the Egyptian National Union Party was declared the only legal political party of the UAR. Saraj became the interior minister and head of all Syrian intelligence agencies. By his order, trade unions and peasant organizations were crushed. The desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries provoked a widespread increase in discontent in Syria. In Cairo, it was considered possible to mechanically extend to it development programs designed and suitable only for the Nile Valley. When the nationalization and redistribution of property began to be carried out in Syria in the summer of 1961, Syrian small and medium-sized urban traders began to agitate for leaving the UAR. Even the left-wing PASV spoke out against socialist innovations, motivating its position with a desire to soften criticism of the process of unification of the two states and referring to the fact that these measures would rather lead to increased centralized control over the economy than to achieve social justice. Widespread opposition to the unification and the weakening of the pro-Egyptian forces in Syria after the transfer of Saraj to work in Cairo helped a coalition of civilian politicians and the military to achieve the country's withdrawal from the UAR in September 1961.
Parliamentary Interregnum. From the end of 1961 to the beginning of 1963, three party coalitions operated on the Syrian political scene. The socialists, led by Haurani and Khaled al-Azem, advocated maintaining state control over heavy industry and greater citizen participation in political life. Large landlords, wealthy merchants and financiers called for the restoration of private enterprises and the political order that existed in the 1950s. The moderates, including the wing of the PASW led by Aflaq, advocated the preservation of the political and economic system of the UAR period. The Syrian political parties that had functioned until 1958 were destroyed by the Egyptian secret services, and the old National and People's Parties no longer enjoyed the support of the people. At the same time, the Nasserists still occupied the highest positions in the trade unions and the central state apparatus. Under these conditions, the leaders of the supporters of disengagement were initially unable to nominate a candidate for the post of head of the new Syrian cabinet of ministers. In the end, Maamoun Kuzbari, who had previously served as general secretary of the National Union of Damascus, was entrusted with forming a government that included former members of the National and People's Parties. This coalition did not receive the support of the country's main political forces, but due to a split in the left camp, the National and People's Parties managed to win a majority in parliament in the December 1961 elections. enterprises. The decisions made in the UAR, which had led to the expropriation of British, French and Belgian property, were canceled, and the UAR law on land reform was revised. These changes were opposed by peasants and small-scale rural producers from the outlying governorates. They were supported by young officers who shared Baathist principles, a group of whom, led by recent supporters of the separation of Syria and Egypt, in March 1962 arrested the bulk of the members of parliament and tried to force them to continue the previous reforms. Nasserist officers from the garrisons of Homs attempted a counter-coup, but were unsuccessful. In April, the commander of the Syrian army, Major General Abdel Kerim al-Din, convened a meeting of top commanders in Homs, at which it was decided to remove the socialist left from the armed forces and restore civilian rule. Simultaneously, Parliament was dissolved and al-Din was appointed Minister of Defense. In September, the Military High Command restored Parliament and appointed Khaled al-Azem as Prime Minister. He formed a government of representatives of all parties and groups, with the exception of those that advocated reunification with Egypt. At the same time, al-Azem firmly spoke out against the further participation of the military in the political life of the country. The current situation, which was aggravated by popular protests initiated by the Nasserists and the Islamists who were gaining strength in January 1963 in Damascus and the geographical region of Hauran (southwest of the capital), provoked a new military coup in March 1963.
Ba'athist regime. This coup was organized by the Military Committee of the Baath Party, which was not officially considered part of the party organization, but shared the goals of its leadership. During the first months after coming to power, the leaders of the March coup nationalized banks and insurance companies and began a new agrarian reform, limiting the size of private landholdings. Prime Minister Salah al-Din Bitar said that private property will remain "in the efficient sector of industry." However, in May 1964, militant socialists from the provincial party organizations nationalized a number of large industrial firms in Aleppo and Homs and introduced a system of self-government over them. By the summer, they had convinced the government to allow the formation of nationwide trade unions and to agree to a new labor law that increased the role of the state in protecting workers' rights. In the fall, the General Federation of Peasants was founded, and in mid-December the government decided that all future oil revenues in Syria should remain in the hands of the state. These measures created the basis for a radical transformation of the economy in 1965. In January, the "Ramadan Socialist Decree" was adopted, placing all the most significant Syrian enterprises under state control. Over the next six months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. In the course of it, the ties between the trade unions and peasants, who formed the backbone of the PASV, and the artisans and merchants of large and small cities, who began to deviate from the nationalist principles proclaimed by the party, were finally broken. Tensions between these two categories of the population resulted in riots and demonstrations that engulfed the cities during the spring and summer. This marked the beginning of a struggle between moderate Baathist figures associated with Interior Minister Amin Hafez and Baathist left-wing leaders led by General Salah Jadid to determine the future course of the Baathist revolution. Amin Hafez, who headed the government in mid-1964, turned to the national (pan-Arab) leadership of the party for support. In turn, Salah Jadid strengthened his positions in the regional (Syrian) leadership, placing his associates in strategically important positions in the Syrian army. At the end of February 1966, Jadid's supporters, including the commander of the air force, General Hafez Assad, managed to finally eliminate Amin Hafez and his supporters from power structures. The new government set about creating state cooperatives, approved measures to concentrate wholesale trade in the public sector, and in 1968 introduced a system of central planning. The new regime entered into an alliance with the Syrian Communist Party, and prominent communists were included in the government. Such a course was opposed in the provincial towns by representatives of the middle strata, who were forced to obey party directives under the supervision of the numerically growing people's militia. In the spring of 1967, anti-Baathist speeches began, provoked by an editorial in the army weekly, which was perceived by the general public as atheistic in content. In response, the ruling regime mobilized its armed supporters in the workers' militia, as well as parts of the Palestinian partisans based in Syria since 1964, who sought to re-engage the Arab world in their liberation struggle. The spiral of militarization that began to unwind helped them push Syria into the war with Israel in June 1967. Israeli air strikes on large Syrian enterprises and the oil refinery complex in Homs caused great damage to the country's economy, and Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights, in southern Syria, seriously undermined the reputation of the cabinet ministers Jadid, who was responsible for the defeat of the Syrian army and air force in the June 1967 war. popular uprisings was a militant Islamist organization led by Marwan Hadid from Hama. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite. The radicals who grouped around Jadid set the task of strengthening the state's influence on the economy and offered to subordinate the military to the civilian wing of the PASV. The pragmatists united around Assad sought to create conditions for the development of private enterprise and preserve the autonomy of the army; at the beginning of 1970 they managed to achieve the adoption of a number of decrees on subsidizing private enterprises and easing restrictions on the import of certain goods. These measures contributed to the economic recovery of the country and created the prerequisites for a coup, which in November 1970 brought Hafez al-Assad to the top of power.
Assad regime. The new leadership opted for a development strategy that included funding and state control of large capital-intensive enterprises, while at the same time supporting trade and investment in the private sector, especially in construction and agriculture. The Assad government developed a five-year economic recovery plan for the first half of the 1970s. The October 1973 war with Israel, during which Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated attack on the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, although it was a costly action, it demonstrated that the Syrian armed forces were significantly stronger than in 1967. In addition, in 1974 Israel withdrew its troops from a number of areas in the Golan Heights, including the city of El Quneitra. Private firms that emerged in Syria in the early 1970s benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab oil-producing states after 1973, as well as from increased ties with Lebanese banks and light industries. Syrian entrepreneurs with close ties to Lebanon and the oil-producing Gulf states benefited from Assad's intervention in the post-1976 Lebanese civil war and from increased diplomatic ties with wealthy Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which provided generous economic aid to Syria in the late 1970s. However, the use of public funds to support the regime's leading supporters, as well as the size of the profits they received from connections with state companies, led to accusations against senior officials of corruption and patronage of the Syrian Alawites, to which many of them belonged. These accusations, together with the growing competition between state enterprises and private firms, gave impetus to the revitalization of the Islamist movement in the late 1970s. In early 1976, members of several independent Islamist movements launched a campaign against the ruling regime. In 1977-1978 they organized a series of attacks on government facilities and assassinations of prominent state and party figures. These attacks, as well as the response to their suppression, accompanied by the use of force, led to mass protests and strikes of artisans and merchants in the cities. By 1980, a full-scale civil war had unfolded in Syria. In the spring of 1980, there were serious clashes between government troops and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs. After that, the central authorities made a number of conciliatory gestures, but already in July they declared membership in the organization of Muslim Brotherhood a criminal offense. A group of influential religious figures brought together leaders of militant Islamist organizations in November in an attempt to create an Islamic Front to coordinate opposition to Ba'athist leaders. In response to the challenge thrown to him, the regime began to strengthen its position, strengthening the public sector of the economy. The government raised wages at state-owned enterprises, whose dependence on Damascus, according to the adopted official decrees, was reduced, and responsibility to the local administration increased. Private companies engaged in the manufacturing industry were subject to higher taxes. A set of measures has been implemented, especially in the northern and central governorates, to divert the flow of raw materials from small private firms to state-owned enterprises. In 1981, the government made it mandatory for importing merchants to obtain licenses for the right to import goods from abroad at the Ministry of Trade and apply for the necessary loans exclusively to state banks. Merchants who tried to circumvent these rules were arrested on charges of smuggling and tax evasion. Faced with such an attack on their rights, in February 1982 small traders from Hama raised an open rebellion against the authorities with slogans aimed at establishing an Islamic order in Syria. The rebellion was crushed by the army after three weeks of bloody battles, in which thousands of inhabitants were killed and most of the old buildings were destroyed. The result of the speech in Hama was the creation of the National Union for the Liberation of Syria, which included groups united in the Islamic Front and other underground organizations opposing the regime. The charter they adopted called for an end to corruption, free elections to the Constituent Assembly, and liberalization of the constitution. However, the opposition failed to build on the initial success. The government brought the country's economy under even greater control in an attempt to cope with a growing shortage of productive investment and foreign exchange, and Assad's opponents turned their attention to foreign affairs, in particular to the issue of Syria's support for Islamist Iran during its war with Iraq (1980-1988). ). In the early 1980s, the economic boom of the previous decade came to an end. While Syria's military spending has skyrocketed, especially since the start of the massive Israeli offensive in Lebanon in June 1982, world oil prices began to fall, which significantly reduced foreign exchange earnings. The reason was not only a decrease in income from the export of liquid fuels; there was also a reduction in cash receipts from Syrians who worked in the rich Arab oil-producing states. As control over the country consolidated, the Assad government began the second stage of economic liberalization in the late 1980s. The final Statement of the PASV congress held in January 1985 criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state sector of the economy, and a proposal was made to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates in order to reduce illegal currency circulation and losses from illegal black market transactions. In the spring of 1985, the country's new prime minister, Abdel Raouf Qasem, began negotiations with Western states and foreign financial institutions in an attempt to attract foreign investment in agriculture and the service sector. At the same time, the government continued to assert that such a course is consistent with the official plan for the economic development of Syria. In the mid-1990s, the Assad-led Ba'athist regime was still struggling with a deficit in the country's balance of payments and budget, but it managed to stay in power by providing additional opportunities for the development of private enterprise while suppressing existing and potential political opposition.
Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
