The vowel system at the beginning of the written period. The system of consonant phonemes of the Old Russian language of the end x - the beginning of xi in

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Introduction

The discipline "Old Church Slavonic" occupies an important place in the philological training of a language teacher.

The Old Church Slavonic language, being the first written and literary language of the Slavs, played a huge role in the development of the Russian literary language as a complex interaction of the living Russian language and Church Slavonic elements genetically related to the Old Church Slavonic language.

In the discipline "Old Church Slavonic", according to the established tradition, the history of the phonological system and the history of the morphological structure of the ancient language as a book source of all Slavic languages are studied. It is this discipline, acting as a historical and linguistic introduction to the scientific study of Russian and other Slavic languages, that is the basis for further work of students on the course "History of the Russian Language".

Students need to memorize paradigms of declension of nouns, nominal forms of adjectives, conjugation of verbs (in order for this memorization to be meaningful, it is desirable to connect morphological issues with phonetic phenomena). Knowledge of phonetic and grammatical features will help in the analysis of texts of the Old Church Slavonic language.

Lectures of the theoretical course

Lecture No. 1 (2 hours)

According to linguists, initially there was a single language on Earth. With the development of human society, the endless migration of ancient tribes, and due to socio-geographical changes, this first proto-language was divided into several families uniting related languages. All modern languages of the world are divided into several families, which, in turn, consist of groups. One of the most representative families is the Indo-European family of languages, conditionally divided into 16 groups: Romance, Italic, Germanic, Iranian, Baltic, Slavic (represented by three "branches": South, West, East Slavic), etc. In any family of languages, along with the “living” languages that function at the present stage, there are also languages that are conditionally called “dead”. In the Indo-European family, these are Sanskrit, Latin, Old Church Slavonic. "Dead" in linguistics refers to languages that have fallen into disuse and are known on the basis of written monuments or records that have come down from the time when they were alive [LES].

In Slavic linguistics, the term "Old Church Slavonic" is used to refer to the language of the most ancient Slavic monuments of the 10th-11th centuries that have come down to us, which continued the tradition of those translated in the 9th century. from the Greek Cyril and Methodius of liturgical and canonical books. The term "Old Church Slavonic" is used conditionally to refer only to the language of translated liturgical books and does not indicate a specific language and people who would be its bearer. The basis of the first book language of the Slavs, as researchers suggest, was the South Slavic Thessalonica (Moravian) dialect. It was this dialect that was owned by the Greek brothers Cyril and Methodius, who came to the Slavic land at the request of the Moravian prince Rostislav.

The Old Church Slavonic language was specially created for the needs of the Christian church as the language of Slavic writing, as a literary language. For a long time, this particular language, remaining the only written book language, performed the function of an international language. However, already in the Middle Ages, the Old Church Slavonic language came under the influence of the lively speech of scribes and gradually absorbed the features of local dialects - Bulgarian, Serbian, Moravian, Old Russian, etc. ancient Russian books. These later varieties of the Old Church Slavonic language are usually called the Church Slavonic language of a certain (Bulgarian, Serbian, Old Russian) edition or the language of the editions.

Since the Old Church Slavonic language was created for the translation of liturgical books, i.e., as a written language, one can speak about its phonetic structure conditionally. The sound structure is restored from the letters recorded by the monuments of writing. It is believed that the alphabet for the Slavs was composed by the monks-enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, who lived and preached Christianity on the territory of Moravia and the Blaten principality. According to researchers, the elder brother Cyril invented the alphabet for the Slavs, which later became known as the Glagolitic alphabet. It is believed that by origin, many of the letters of this alphabet are associated with the Greek letter, and some letters are based on the characters of the Samaritan and Hebrew letters. It is believed that the Glagolitic alphabet was invented by Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) even before leaving for Moravia (863 or 855). This alphabet was widely used in the 60s. 9th century in Moravia, and then penetrated into Bulgaria and Croatia, where it existed until the end. 18th century Occasionally used in ancient Russia. The original form of this alphabet can only be judged presumably, since the Glagolitic monuments that have come down to us are not older than the 10th century: “Kyiv leaves, or Kyiv missal” (X century) - the Moravian type of literary language, the Zograf, Mariinsky, Assemanian gospels , "Collection of Klots", "Sinai psalter" - Ohrid (Western Macedonian type), and "Sinai breviary" (XI century).

Most researchers believe that Cyrillic much younger than Glagolitic, and its creation dates back to the reign of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon (893-927). Probably, the Cyrillic alphabet was already compiled by the disciples of Methodius (Clement of Ohrid?) on the basis of the Greek (Byzantine) uncial writing. The letter composition of the Cyrillic alphabet as a whole corresponded to the ancient Bulgarian speech. Examples of written monuments are "Savvin's book", the Suprasl manuscript, the Eninsky apostle - the Preslav (Eastern Bulgarian) type of literary language. The total number of Old Slavonic book monuments is 16, including small ones. A valuable addition to the parchment corpus of the monuments are the inscriptions on the stone (the oldest one is the Dobruja inscription of 943).

It is significant to note that in the Slavic speech of that period there were sounds unknown to other ancient languages, for example, Latin and Greek. Therefore, the compilers of the Slavic alphabets had to come up with letter designations for hissing, [ts], nasal vowels, etc. Therefore, all Slavic alphabets (both ancient and modern) are distinguished by their phonemic orientation, i.e. almost every sound has its own letter.

Slavic dialects of the 8th-10th centuries differed little from each other, although certain differences were already clearly outlined by the 9th century. However, before that time, about 11 millennia, there was a period of kinship, defined as the Indo-European and Proto-Slavic periods.

Linguists of the 19th century, comparing the current state of the language, its dialects with written monuments, related and geographically close languages, discovered the comparative historical method of studying languages. The result of these studies was a complete and detailed description of the sound changes that took place in different Indo-European languages. This method is directly related to the reconstruction of the language, in our case, the base language or parent language. Reconstruction in comparative historical linguistics is a set of techniques and procedures for recreating unattested linguistic states, forms, phenomena by historical comparison of the corresponding units of a particular language, group or family of languages. Znbkom reconstruction is usually an "asterisk" - * , i.e. if a phoneme, word or word form is given with this sign, therefore, they are recreated by scientists and are not recorded in any written monuments. This is due to the fact that ancient languages are being reconstructed, the early period of which is characterized by the absence of writing. A base language or proto-language is a language from whose dialects a group of related languages, otherwise called a family, originated. G.A. Khaburgaev pointed out: “Proto-language” can remain a convenient working term for designating a reconstructed linguistic community that has left its mark on the fundamental unity of regular linguistic correspondences that unite a group of so-called “related languages”. For Russian, as well as for a number of Western European and Indian languages, Indo-European is considered to be such a base language in a broad sense. The Indo-European language is an ancient restored source language, from which dialects emerged that spread to the territory of India, modern Europe, parts of Asia, and in the last 5th century. - North and South America. The Indo-European language-base includes several groups of languages, united on the basis of similarities (and differences) of phonological-phonetic, morphological and lexical units.

In the Slavic language, isolated from other Indo-European languages, in the 1st century AD. e. spoke tribes that by that time inhabited vast territories from the Elbe (Lyaba) to the middle reaches of the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathians. These tribes were not homogeneous and, probably, already in this period had dialectal features of the language.

The language of the ancient Slavs of the period from the 1st millennium BC. - I century. n. e. can be designated as Proto-Slavic, and the language of the period of the 1st centuries AD. e. - the era of the first written monuments - as a common Slavic.

In linguistics, the term Proto-Slavic language is also adopted, which characterizes the language of the ancient Slavs during the period of dialect division of the Indo-European language-base.

Lecture No. 2-3 (4 hours)

History of the alphabet. Graphic arts. Phonetics

According to T.A. Ivanova, when considering the names of Slavic letters, the attention of researchers focused mainly on the question of their origin. This is the content of the old work of D.I. Prozorovsky "On the names of Slavic letters", which was published in 1888 in the "Bulletin of Archeology and History". The same issue was raised by other scientists in general articles and small notes on the origin of the Slavic alphabets. The names of Slavic letters, built mainly according to the acrophonic principle, were of three types:

1. Names are mnemotechnical, i.e. predominantly Slavic words with the corresponding initial sounds:, etc. Some of these names are words of not entirely clear origin. Such, for example, are the names of the letters frt, chrv.

2. Phonetic names, that is, those that identify sound and letter in different ways.

3. Names borrowed from other alphabets.

Different types of names of Slavic letters turn out to be sufficiently dependent on their relationship with the sounds for the transmission of which certain letters served. For the Glagolitic alphabet, which should be considered the oldest Slavic alphabet, it is possible to restore two rows of letters for back-lingual consonants and, accordingly, two types of their names: a) velar, named in Slavonic in accordance with the general type of Slavic names of letters and sounds common with Greek ; c) palatal, not named in Slavic, like other sounds borrowed from Greek.

The phonetic system of the Old Church Slavonic language of the second half of the ninth century

The phonetic system of the Old Slavonic language, according to the written monuments, can be represented by the following schemes.

Vowel system

Rise/Row front middle rear

upper[and][s][y]

medium[e][b][k][o][b][o]

lower[m](["a])[a]

The vowels of the Old Church Slavonic language differed in row (front, middle, back), rise (lower, middle, upper), quantity (long - [and], [s], [y], [k], [o], [m] , [a]; short - [e] and [o]; reduced - [b] and [b]), labiality ([y], [o] ([o]), nasalization ([o] and [k] ).

Vowels [b] and [b], falling into position before [j] and [and] became tense [and], [s]. Therefore, the letters i (i) and s denoted long vowels [i], [s] in a position not before [j] or [i]. In cases where the same letters denote vowels that sound in the position before [j] or [i], these vowels, as a rule, were reduced (tense), i.e. [and], [s]. At the same time, the vowels [i], [s] at the end of the word form also became tense (reduced).

For example: s@dii [s[?]d . ii], imhni ~ [im . pl . and je], red [red . nyi].

Reduced vowels are usually opposed to other vowels. The latter are usually called the full vowels. This is due to the fact that the number of vowels of the complete formation did not depend on their position in the word form; on the contrary, the duration of the sounding of the first translated monuments reduced in the era was no longer the same. As the researchers suggest, in this era, the reduced [b] and [b] in certain positions were pronounced less distinctly; such positions are usually called the weak position of the reduced ones. Consequently, in other positions, the reduced ones acquired a strong position.

Positions of the reduced

For example:

house [house] - Russian. house,

day[d] . нн . b] - Russian. day, but dn" [d . н" . a] - Russian. days;

get off [from . ц "ь] - Russian father, father" [from . ts "a] - Russian father;

Particular attention in the system of the Old Slavonic language deserves combinations of reduced with smooth ones. The following spellings are found in the written monuments: vrkh (Russian top), plk (Russian regiment), vlk (Russian wolf). It is generally accepted that such a spelling with the “correct”, traditional pronunciation (as in Russian) is associated with the reflection of the principle of ascending sonority and openness of the syllable in the Old Slavonic language and the special syllabism of the smooth sonorant. At the same time, words are also known in which the order of the smooth and reduced coincides with the pronunciation and reading of these words. For example: tear (tear), blah (flea). The reduced in such combinations could act both in a strong position and in a weak one.

In Cyrillic written monuments of the XI century. often there is a mixture of reduced< ъ>and< ь >, as well as their "pass" or absence. These changes are associated with the restructuring of the phonetic system of the Slavic dialects. The process of loss of syllabicity by reduced vowels is commonly called the process of falling reduced vowels. In a strong position, as a rule, these vowels cleared into full vowels, that is, they coincided with [o] and [e], and in a weak position they ceased to be pronounced. However, until 1918, the reduced ones were retained at the end of words, performing the function of a word boundary indicator.

consonant system

The consonant system of the Old Church Slavonic language, according to the written monuments, can be represented as follows.

Solid consonants: labial [b], [n], [m];

labio-dental [in];

front-lingual [d], [t], [s], [h], [n], [l], [p];

back-lingual [g], [k], [x].

Soft consonants: middle language [j];

anterior lingual [c "], [ ? "], [s"], [s"], [w "t"], [w "d"],

[n "], [l"], [r"] [g "] [w "] [h"].

The back-lingual consonants [r], [k], [x] could not be in position before the front vowels and [j], since in their place, due to the law of syllable harmony, soft consonants appeared as a result of palatalizations. However, such combinations are found in written monuments, but only in words of Greek origin. The preservation of such words and combinations is explained by the method of translating liturgical literature (often this is the method of tracing - letter-by-letter or morphemic translation of borrowed words).

For the same reason, it also occurs<ф>, which was absent in the original Slavic system.

The quality of the consonant sound was determined by the quality of the next vowel. In this case, the differential features of both phonemes should have coincided. So hard consonants combined with non-front vowels<а>and<у>. If the consonant fell into position before the front vowels [i], [b], [m], then the consonant moved to a more forward zone: consonants [d], [t], [s], [n], [l] , [p], [b], [p], [c] could acquire semi-softness in this case.

For example: be - beat [life . i - b . it . and]; day - day [d . нн . b - bottom]; lhсъ [l . ms]; blue - son [with . in . uu - son]; enter [in . md . mt . and].

After soft consonants, vowels [o], [b], [s] were impossible, and [m] was used only after [c "], [ ? "], [with"].

An essential feature of the consonants of the Old Church Slavonic language was the absence of opposition on the basis of hard - soft (and deaf - voiced), since both characterized different words (different morphemes), i.e. did not fall into the same position (for example, the end of a word, before the next deaf or voiced consonant, etc.). The softness and hardness, deafness and sonority of the consonants of the Old Slavonic language were their constant (constitutive) feature. In the modern sense, the processes of stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word and before the next deaf and voicing before a voiced consonant were absent; softening before a soft consonant due to the absence of such positions.

For example: [email protected] b [h? b b] - Russian. tooth [ze P]; send away [shut off" l . ts "b] - Russian otluchnik, the one who left (sometimes - the deceased); t # gotn [t . kgot . нъ] - Russian. burdensome [t "bgtnyj], heavy [t" and uh zhulyj];.

Late written monuments reflect some of the changes that took place in the area of consonants. For example, the curing process is sizzling. According to G.A. Khaburgaev, in this regard, in writing, after the letters that denoted hardened consonants, non-otated vowels a, q, b (in place of b) appear. However, the spelling of ъ in place of ь, from our point of view, rather reflects the process of the fall of the reduced, which began in the Old Church Slavonic language around the 9th century. (for the East Slavic - Old Russian language - this process has been noted since the 11th century). Change of affricate [ ? "] > [z"] reflects not only the coincidence of two sounds in one, but also the further hardening [z"] > [z]. This phenomenon is indicated by the mixing of the letters z / z ([z]) and s (originally used to designate [ ? "]).

An essential process, reflected in the monuments of writing, was the merging of two identical consonants, which appeared side by side after the loss of a weak reduced one.

The structure of the Old Church Slavonic syllable

The Old Slavonic language inherited and preserved, according to the evidence of written monuments, the structure of the Proto-Slavic syllable, a characteristic feature of which was uniformity in construction - all syllables were built in accordance with the principle of ascending sonority and syllabic synharmonism.

Speech sounds within a syllable could only be arranged in the following order:

fricative. /bow.(explosive or affric.)/ sonor.(or in)/smooth/vowel

([c][x])/([p][b][d][t][c][s][h][pcs][k]) /([m][m"][n] [n "]) / ([r] [r"] [l] [l "]) / ch. ([j], [c]) [k] [g] [c]

Consonant in, ascending to the Proto-Slavic non-syllable [* u], in terms of sonority it was equal to sonorants and could be used before smooth [p], [r "], [l], [l"], like any other consonant: vrhm #, and, as sonorant, could be after a noisy consonant before a vowel: svht, zv@k.

When constructing a syllable, a more sonorous consonant could not be in front of a less sonorous one, and two identical sounds could not be side by side. However, there were exceptions. For example, at the junction of prefixes on -з-, -с- and the root of the word, there could be two fricatives nearby: exit, vst @ drink, or two front-lingual ones: izdrati. This is due to the rule of using these prefixes, which never had a reduced one at the end, unlike other prefixes (compare: ot-"ti, sibirati").

Graphic designation of sounds in written monuments. Cyrillic. Numeric value of letters

Of the two Slavic alphabets, the Cyrillic alphabet is of the greatest interest, since it is it that forms the basis of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian writing, as well as the writing of Bulgarians, Serbs and other (not necessarily Slavic) peoples.

The Cyrillic alphabet is based on the Byzantine uncial, has 43 letters, among which 19 designate specific Slavic sounds that were absent in Greek. Several Greek letters were also preserved in Cyrillic, reflecting a specific sound that was uncharacteristic of Slavic speech (for example, k, j). The main function of these letters was to designate numbers, but sometimes they were used when writing Greek words: jalom [psalm], alekandr [alyaeksandr ]. In cases where it was necessary to write a number, a superscript “titlo” was placed above the corresponding letter, and dots were placed on both sides. For example: *a* = 1; *in* = 2.

Units were transmitted by one letter. To denote the numbers of the second ten, "i-decimal (i)" was added to units with pra in a. For example: = *ai* === 11. *i* =18

To designate the numbers of the third and following tens, separate letters were used (k = 20; 6 = 40) and combinations - tens were added to units, and hundreds to tens on the left (*li* = 38; *md* = 44; *kv* = 22 ).

To designate thousands, the same letters were used as for designating units, but a special thousands sign (sometimes called a “hash”) was added in front of the letter at the bottom left.

For example: # *a* = 1000; # *** = 6000.

In the Old Slavonic written monuments, the superscript sign "titlo" was used both to denote the abbreviated word (ic / - Jesus, where is the Lord, sn - son, ba - god), and to indicate the number. At the same time, titles could have different styles ¬, ~, etc. The shackle was used as a title when one of the missing letters (usually denoting a consonant) was written under it.

Among the diacritical marks often found in written monuments, one can name "paerok", denoting the omission of reduced ъ and ь; a special sign corresponding to the modern apostrophe - ", which was used to indicate the softness of the consonant; signs of aspiration, copied from ancient Greek books, but did not mean anything in Slavic books, placed above vowels in the form of brackets or commas -" and ?.

A sample of the tasks of control work No. 1

1. Explain the alternation of sounds in words:

1) jumping - skipping[o] ////// [a]

In these words, there is an alternation in the root [o] // [a]. Quantitative alternation [*o, *r] // [*f, *v], arose during the formation of the Proto-Slavic unity as a result of the different fate of long and short vowels of the Indo-European language.

2) weave - flesh [ e ] // [about], i.e. * m // *o* ?

In these words, there is an alternation in the root [e] // [o]. It is explained by the Indo-European qualitative alternation of short sounds [*m] // [*o, *g]

3) son - son [oh] // [s]

This alternation is caused by the transformation of the diphthong during the period of the law of the open syllable in the Proto-Slavic language. Alternation developed in the affixal morpheme. The sounds [y] // [ov] alternate. Both alternating elements go back to the diphthong * oi, which in the word son ended up at the end of a word, so it monophthongized into a sound [ oy], and in the word son, it appeared before a vowel sound, therefore it broke up into two sounds: the syllable-forming sound [o] remained within the given syllable, and *and changed into [v] and moved to the next syllable. All syllables are open.

4) zvonz- zv@kъ [he] || [@]

This alternation is caused by the transformation of the diphthongic combination *op during the period of the law of the open syllable (Proto-Slavic language). Alternation developed in the root morpheme, sounds alternate [ is he ] and[@]. Both alternating elements go back to the diphthongic combination *op, which in the word sound @ kъ appeared before the consonant sound [k], therefore it was monophthongized in [@], and in the word ringing, it appeared before the vowel, so the vowel sound remained in this syllable, and the consonant went to the next syllable, as a result of which all syllables became open.

5) bhrg - shore [ph] /// [here]

The alternation [ph] /// [re] arose as a result of the transformation of the diphthongic combination *eg during the period of the law of the open syllable. The original root *berg-. In the word brhg - Old Slavonic disagreement [рh], and in the word shore the Old Russian combination is here-.

2. Determine the origin of soft consonants in these words

Parsed word	consonant	changes	result changes	changes
	secondary	primordial
friendship					pre-Slavic period. language
			I (from a diphthong)		last period language
					last period language
					After the VI century., Yu / sl. group of languages (st/sl. form)

Workshops

Practice 1

Introduction. The concept of the Old Slavonic language as a science The emergence of writing among the Slavs. Slavic alphabets

I. Questions

1. The concept of the Old Slavonic language, the meaning of studying it.

2. The history of the emergence and development of Slavic writing. Activities of Cyril and Methodius.

3. The question of two Slavic alphabets.

4. The most important monuments of Old Slavonic writing.

5. The numerical value of the letters.

II. Practical tasks

1. What were the letters b, b called? What sounds did they designate in the Old Slavonic language in the 9th century.

2. What are the names of the letters @, #? What sounds did they designate in the Old Slavonic language? What sounds of the Russian language do they correspond to?

3. Read the words: d @ b, s @ b, r @ ka, p # t, m # co

4. Why is the letter and called “And octal”, and the letter i is called “And decimal”?

5. The Old Slavonic sound [y], as in the Greek letter, was transmitted by a combination of two letters q

6. Read the words: drqg, qchenik, last

7. What were the names of the letters k, j? What sounds did they make?

8. Read the words: alekandr, jsalter

9. What were the letters F, F called? What sounds did they represent?

III. diacritics.Numericletter meaning

1. What is the name of the sign above the word, indicating the abbreviated spelling of this word?

2. Read the words: for, chk, mts, apl

3. Set the numerical value of the letters *A*, *B*, *D*, *KV*, *RLD*

4. Write the numbers in Old Church Slavonic: 5, 7, 10, 33.

Terms and concepts:

Indo-European Proto-Slavic

Diacritics

Titlo

paerok

Literature:

Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. - M., 2005. - S. 5-63.

Practice 2

The system of vowels and consonants of the Old Slavonic language of the second half of the 9th century

I. Questions

1. The system of vowel sounds.

1) What was the structure of the syllable in the Old Slavonic language?

2) Indicate the similarities between the vowel system of the Old Slavonic language and the corresponding system of the modern Russian language, indicate the differences.

3) Name the front vowels. Not front. How do front vowels differ from non-front vowels in their effect on the preceding consonant?

4) Name the nasal vowels. What letters were they? What Russian sounds correspond to @, #?

5) What sound does the letter h mean? Describe it by row and rise.

6) Name the reduced vowels of the Old Slavonic language, tell us about the strong and weak positions b, b. Determine the positions b, b in the words:

2. The system of consonant sounds.

1) Describe consonant sounds in terms of articulation.

2) Describe the affricates. Name the complex sounds of the Old Church Slavonic language.

3) Tell us about the deafness / voicedness and hardness / softness of the consonants of the Old Church Slavonic language.

4) What quality could [p], [l] be in the neighborhood with b, b?

II. Practical tasks

1. Describe the vowel sounds, in the words: kniga, sto, prhd.

2. Give a description according to the scheme:

a) at the place of formation (front, non-front row)

b) according to the method of formation (upper, middle, lower rise)

c) according to the participation of the lips (labialized / non-labialized)

d) according to the participation of the nasal cavity (nasalized / non-nasalized)

e) in terms of education (full education or reduced)

3. Indicate which of the consonants were only solid? Only soft ones?

Terms and concepts:

Articulation

Round(sound)

Hazalized(sound)

Rinduced(sound)

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. - M., 2005. - S. 64-76.

Practice 3

Phonetic processes of the Proto-Slavic era

I. Questions

1. Proto-Slavic language: its periodization. Characteristics of the Proto-Slavic phonetic system of the ancient period.

1) Vowel sounds, their quality and quantity. Open and closed syllables. Diphthongs, diphthongic combinations with nasal and smooth consonants.

2) Consonant plosives (voiced and voiced, aspirated and non-aspirated, posterior lingual labialized and non-labialized, palatal and non-palatal) fricative and sonorant. The absence of affricates and hissing sounds, the possibility of combination with j.

2. Sound processes that developed in the early and late periods of the Proto-Slavic language

1) Sound processes before the law of open syllable.

a) The emergence of Proto-Slavic vowels in place of the long and short vowels of the Indo-European language.

b) Simplification of the system of explosive consonants (loss of aspiration, loss of labialization of back lingual consonants).

2) Sound processes associated with the action of the emerging tendency to open syllables (Law of the open syllable):

a) The concept of a diphthong. What was the syllable ending in a diphthong? What happened to diphthongs during the period of the law of an open syllable (AOS) in the position of the end of a word and before a consonant? In position before vowels?

b) Diphthongic combinations with nasal consonants. Change them before consonants, at the end of a word and before vowels.

c) Changing diphthongic combinations with smooth consonants. The history of Old Slavic non-vowel combinations -ra-, -la-, -ph-, -lh-, initial combinations of ra-, -la-.

II. Practical tasks

1. Explain the alternation of sounds in words:

kq \ - forge, domq - domovi, slqti - glory, memory # t - remember, them # - names

Sample: kq\ - forge,

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Alternation developed in the root morpheme. The sounds [y] and [ov] alternate, both alternating elements go back to the diphthong *ou, which in the word kq \ turned out to be before the consonant [j], therefore it was monophthongized in [y], and in the word kovatidiphthong *ou turned out to be before the vowel, therefore the sounds diphthongs were redistributed among syllables, the vowel was within this syllable, and *u changed into [v] and moved to the next syllable. All syllables are open.

2. Write down in Old Slavonic the words tree, coast, peas, milk, malt. Restore the Proto-Slavic forms of these words.

Terms and concepts:

DiphthongDiphthong combination

Monophthongization Non-vowel combinations

Full vowel combinations

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. - M., 2005. - S. 76-80.

Laboratory studies

Lab 1

Two Old Slavonic alphabets. Cyrillic

Features of Old Slavonic writing

1. Consider the Cyrillic alphabet in comparison with the Byzantine uncial and the Glagolitic alphabet (Ivanova T.A. Old Slavonic language. S. 24-25) What letters of the Greek (Byzantine) uncial are used in Cyrillic? What source of the Cyrillic alphabet do scientists point to?

2. Match the Cyrillic letters, denoting Slavic speech sounds that were absent in the Greek language sh, m, zh, h, ts, b, @, #, s, with the corresponding Glagolitic letters. Are there similarities between them? How did these letters change? Which alphabet is easier to write?

3. State the question of the two-Slavic alphabets. Give proof of the seniority of the Glagolitic alphabet.

4. Learn the Cyrillic alphabet. What letter is called a ligature. Write out all the ligatures from the Cyrillic alphabet. Write down the doublet letters of the Cyrillic alphabet (that is, different letters denoting the same sound). Explain the reasons for the presence of doublet letters in the Cyrillic alphabet.

5. Features of Old Slavonic writing. How words were recorded in the monuments of Old Slavonic writing.

a) were there intervals between words;

b) whether punctuation marks were used;

c) how individual sentences or phrases were delimited;

d) for what purpose were superscripts used (what were they called?)

e) name the types of diacritics and their meanings;

e) open the title, write down the following words in full:

chk, sn, b, apl, glati, g, ots, is.

6. Numerical value of letters:

a) how were the numbers indicated in the monuments of Old Slavonic writing?

b) how were two-digit numbers from 11 to 19 designated?

c) write the numbers in Old Church Slavonic: 5, 7, 12, 48, 77, 245. 1104.

d) using the table, set the numerical values of the letters:

·D·, ·and·, · i· , ·about·, ·md , rld .

7. Reading and translation of text No. 4 from control work No. 4 of the UMKD.

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. pp. 24-41.

2. Moiseeva, L.I. Workshop on the Old Slavonic language. Lab 2

3. The system of vowels and consonants

4. Old Church Slavonic language of the second half of the 9th century

I. Vowel system

From the Cyrillic alphabet, write down all the letters denoting vowel sounds. Give the name of each and the sound value.

How many vowels were there in Old Church Slavonic? Compare them with the vowel system of the modern Russian language by drawing 2 tables.

Name the labialized sounds, label them with letters. Unlabialized sounds.

Name the nasalized sounds, label them with letters. Non-nasalized. What sound in Russian corresponds to the sound denoted in Old Slavonic by the letter @? #? Read the following words and write them down in Russian:

P#t, zv@k, m#so, zv#tsati, >zyk.

Name and write down the letters of the incomplete vowels. Why are they called that? Name and explain the doublet terms for them. How to pronounce b, b?

Complete task No. 1 of practical lesson No. 3 from the workshop on the Old Church Slavonic language Moiseeva L.I. with. fourteen.

II.consonant system

1. Answer the questions:

What could be the consonant sounds in the Old Slavonic language in terms of hardness / softness?

What consonants were only solid? What consonants could be hard and semi-soft?

In what position were they hard, semi-soft? Give examples.

What consonants were originally soft?

2. Do exercise. No. 4 of practical lesson No. 3 from the workshop on the Old Church Slavonic language p. fifteen.

3. In what role could the sounds P, L be in the syllable? In what position did they act as consonants? In what two meanings were P, L in combinations -Pb-, -Lb-, -Pb-, -L-? What method can be used to determine when in these combinations oh and act as consonants, and when as smooth syllables?

4. Do exercise. No. 3 of practical lesson No. 3 from the workshop on the Old Slavonic language Moiseeva L.I., p.15. Set the nature of the letter combinations -Rb-, -L-, -Rb-, -L-.

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. pp. 81-90.

2. Moiseeva, L.I. Workshop on the Old Slavonic language.

Lab 2

2. Complete tasks:

2.1. on schedule

a) Indicate what sounds denoted by the letters b, b, h, #, @, \, >?

b) Why were there two varieties of letters: e and ~, @ and \, # and >, a and "?

c) What is the name of the ~ sign above some words of this text? Read these words.

2.2. phonetics

a) From the top five lines, write out the words with reduced b and b. Label their positions.

b) Write out 5 words from the text in which the vowels Y, And in some cases acted as full vowels, and in others they were reduced.

c) Write out from the text the words in which the phenomenon of I, II, III palatalization occurred, explain the reason for the transitional softening.

d) Find in the text the words in which the softening of consonants occurred under the influence of iota.

e) Write out from the text words with non-vowel combinations -ra-, -la-, -ph-, -lh-. Write down Old Russian correspondences with full-vowel combinations for them. Restore the Proto-Slavic form of these words.

e) Explain the alternation of sounds at the root of the words: pnni ~ -po ~ tb, start-beginning # s #.

g) Explain the origin of h in the words of the text:

on the country, sinners, many, on the nose, man, pnni ~.

Literature

1. Moiseeva, L.I. Workshop on the Old Slavonic language. pp. 59-60. Laboratory lesson 6

2. Noun. Pronoun. Adjective

1. Complete the control task on the topic "Noun", option 1, p. 38 workshops.

sent her slaves to her servants; sent her sons to them; dlatele always qzrhsh# son decides...

3. Determine if the letters b and b are used correctly at the end of nouns:

stronghold; sent to the dealer; mister.

4. Write out the pronouns from the sentences of this variant and make a morphological analysis of them.

5. Write out from text No. 2, p. 54 practice all adjectives and make a morphological analysis of them.

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. pp. 120-156.

2. Moiseeva, L.I. Workshop on the Old Slavonic language. P. 54 Lab 7

1. Make a table of verb tenses (with examples).

2. Complete the control task on the topic "verb", option No. 1, p. 52 workshops.

Literature

1. Ivanova, T.A. Old Slavonic language. pp. 164-190.

2. Moiseeva, L.I. Workshop on the Old Slavonic language. S. 52.

Block of evaluation and diagnostic tools and control and measuring materials

Independent work

Independent work (58 hours) involves preparing the student for practical exercises: reading the recommended literature, taking notes, preparing oral answers to questions, and completing written assignments. In addition, systematic work is being carried out with the dictionaries of the Old Russian, Old Church Slavonic, Church Slavonic languages, as well as with etymological and dialect dictionaries to prepare a linguistic analysis of the ancient text.

	Type of work	Form and term of control
	Glossary of terms	Terminological surveys and dictations During the year in practical classes
	Make a presentation in the PowerPoint program “Glagolic monuments of Old Slavonic writing”, “Cyrillic monuments of Old Slavonic writing”.	During the practical sessions
	Control tasks
	Chapter. Graphic arts Kondrashov N.A. and others. A collection of exercises in the Old Slavonic language and guidelines for their implementation: For 1st-year correspondence students, faculty. Russian lang. or T. ped. in.-tov / N.A. Kondrashov, L.K. Kuznetsova, K.A. Voylov; Ed. ON THE. Kondrashov. - M., 1988. - S.14 - 16
	Chapter. Phonetics. Kondrashov N.A. and others. A collection of exercises in the Old Slavonic language and guidelines for their implementation: For 1st-year correspondence students, faculty. Russian lang. or T. ped. in.-tov / N.A. Kondrashov, L.K. Kuznetsova, K.A. Voylov; Ed. ON THE. Kondrashov. - M., 1988. - S. 25 - 26; 28 - 29; 36 - 37; 42 - 44.	Checking completed assignments, interview.
	Chapter. Morphology. Kondrashov N.A. and others. A collection of exercises in the Old Slavonic language and guidelines for their implementation: For 1st-year correspondence students, faculty. Russian lang. or T. ped. in.-tov / N.A. Kondrashov, L.K. Kuznetsova, K.A. Voylov; Ed. ON THE. Kondrashov. - M., 1988. - S.91 - 94.	Checking completed assignments, interview.
	Chapter. Syntax. Kondrashov N.A. and others. A collection of exercises in the Old Slavonic language and guidelines for their implementation: For 1st-year correspondence students, faculty. Russian lang. or T. ped. in.-tov / N.A. Kondrashov, L.K. Kuznetsova, K.A. Voylov; Ed. ON THE. Kondrashov. - M., 1988. - S.101-104.	Checking completed assignments, interview.
	Preparation of abstracts for practical exercises.	Presentation in practical classes.

A set of tests for current and intermediate certification

MODULE 1

1. Choose the correct answer:

2. The Proto-Slavic language is ...

3. Choose the correct answer

4. Old Church Slavonic is ...

1) the language of local editions, editions

2) the language of the Slavs from the time of the formation of their ethnic autonomy to the division into separate scripts with independent, albeit related in origin, languages

3) the common literary language of all Slavic peoples, created on the basis of the dialects of the ancient Macedonian Bulgarians in the second half of the 9th century; the first written language of the Slavs

4) the base language that existed in V-IV vols. BC.

5. Choose the correct answer

6. Church Slavonic is ...

1) the language of local editions, editions

2) the language of the Slavs from the time of the formation of their ethnic autonomy to the division into separate scripts with independent, albeit related in origin, languages

4) the base language that existed in V-IVv. BC.

7. The oldest Cyrillic monument is:

1) Inscription of King Solomon

2) Dobrudzhan inscription

3) Apostle of Enin

4) Savina's book

8. Which statement is incorrect?

1) The terms "Old Church Slavonic" and "Church Slavonic" mean the same thing

2) Church Slavonic is the language of local editions, editions

3) Church Slavonic is related by origin to Old Church Slavonic

4) Church Slavonic - the language of the later monuments of Old Slavonic writing

9. Mark the correct statements

1) The concepts of "exodus" and "list" are synonymous

2) The concepts of "exodus" and "list" are not synonymous

3) There are different (Russian, Serbian, etc.) versions of the Old Church Slavonic language

4) Original and reprint are synonymous

10. Choose the correct continuation: “Most of the Old Slavonic monuments that have come down to us belong to ...

1) by the 2nd half of the 9th century

2) by the XI century

3) by the X century

4) by the XII century

11. In what century did the Proto-Slavic language split into three language groups: southern, eastern, western

12. What is the original basis of the Old Slavonic language?

1) Macedonian dialect of the Old Bulgarian language

2) Slovenian

3) Czech language

4) Polish language

13) Indicate the correspondence of the Slavic languages to a certain Slavic branch

1) Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper Lusatian, Lower Lusatian, Kashubian

2) Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian

3) Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Old Church Slavonic

a) East Slavic branch

b) South Slavic branch

c) West Slavic branch

13. Indicate the line in which all the listed languages belong to the South Slavic group of languages

1) Bulgarian, Belarusian, Polish

2) Macedonian, Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian

3) Slovenian, Slovak, Russian

14. Mark the wrong statement:

1) the Old Slavonic language was understandable to all Slavs of the 9th-11th centuries, since it was their common parent language

2) in the IX-X centuries. the Old Church Slavonic language spread throughout the Slavic world as the language of church Christian writing

3) the Old Church Slavonic language was the language of living everyday communication of all Slavs

4) Old Church Slavonic - the common literary language of the Slavs

15. In what series are the languages \u200b\u200bincluded in one subgroup of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bnamed?

1) Russian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Czech

2) Slovak, Czech, Polish, Kashubian

3) Kashubian, Bulgarian, Old Church Slavonic, Serbo-Croatian

4) Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovenian

16. Which series reflects the chronological sequence of the emergence of one language from another?

1) Proto-Indo-European Common Slavic Old Russian

2) Old Slavonic Old Russian Russian

3) Proto-Slavic Old Russian Belarusian

4) Proto-Indo-European Old Slavonic Ukrainian

17. Choose the correct continuation: “At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. ... "

1) there is a collapse of the Proto-Slavic linguistic unity

2) there is a separation of the Slavic tribes from the Indo-European unity and the addition of the Proto-Slavic language

3) the addition of the Indo-European language takes place

4) the formation of the Old Slavonic language takes place

18. Which series reflects the chronological sequence of the emergence of one language from another?

1) Proto-Indo-European > Old Slavonic > Old Russian

2) Proto-Slavic > Old Slavonic > Old Russian

3) Proto-Indo-European > Proto-Slavic > Old Church Slavonic

4) Proto-Slavic > Old Russian > Old Church Slavonic

19. Choose the correct continuation: “To the VI century. AD ... "

1) there is a collapse of the Proto-Indo-European language

2) refers to the formation of the Old Church Slavonic language

3) there is a collapse of the Proto-Slavic language

4) the formation of the Proto-Slavic language

20. Choose the correct continuation: "The importance of learning the Old Church Slavonic language is due to the fact that ..."

1) Old Church Slavonic - the oldest written language of the Slavs

2) the Old Slavonic language is a parent language common to all Slavs

3) Old Church Slavonic is closer than all other Slavic languages to the Proto-Slavic language system

4) Old Church Slavonic - the language of the church

21. When were the first monuments of Old Slavonic writing created?

1) at the end of the 8th century.

2) in the 2nd half of the 9th century.

3) in the 1st half of the X century.

22. In what series are the languages representing all three subgroups of the Slavic languages \u200b\u200bnamed?

1) Polish, Czech, Macedonian, Old Church Slavonic

2) Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Slovak, Kashubian

3) Macedonian, Kashubian, Lusatian, Slovenian

4) Bulgarian, Polish, Russian, Ukrainian

23. What is the name of the sign () above the word, indicating the abbreviated spelling of this word?

1) apostrophe

24. What number was transmitted by the designation *G*

25. Specify a match

UNIT 2

1. How many letters were there in Cyrillic?

1) 33 letters

3) 43 letters

2. How many vowel phonemes were in the Old Church Slavonic language

3. Name the front vowels. Which line has the correct answer?

1) a, o, e, b, s

2) o, Q, y, a, b

3) e, k, i, h, b

4) e, k, a, o, b

4. Name hard consonants that do not have soft pairs. Which line has the correct answer?

2) w, railway, piece

5. Indicate in which series consonants in the Old Church Slavonic language were only solid

6) Indicate in which series consonants in the Old Slavonic language were only soft

6. Paired in hardness-softness were consonants:

7. Set the correspondence of consonant sounds at the place of formation

1)b, p, m, c

2) d, t, h, s

a) back lingual consonants

b) front lingual consonants

c) labial consonants

8. Indicate the series in which the vowels of the same series are given

1) i, e, e, b, k

2)e, a, o, b, Q

3) k, Q, b, b, o

4) s, e, b, a

9. In which row are vowels of both monophthogic and diphthongic origin

1) s, e, y, a

2) o, a, i, b

3) b, b, o, a

4) y, o, a, b

10. In which group of words h is of diphthong origin?

1) velhty, time, scary

2) lhto, thlo, drhvo

3) beast, thlo, brhg

4) dhti, phti, noh

11. In which group of words are the results of monophthongization of diphthongs preserved?

1) heat, send, charge

2) name, squeeze, knit

3) sing, forge, children

4) gather, drink, reap

12. Which of the following phonetic patterns begins to operate in the late period of the Proto-Slavic language?

1) a tendency to syllabic vowel harmonism

2) a tendency to open the syllable

3) a tendency to change quantitative differences into qualitative ones

4) a tendency to fall reduced vowels

13. Indicate a series in which vowels of the same rise are given

1) i, e, s (h), b, k (#)

2) h (h), o, b, Q (@)

3) h (h), Q (@), s, b

4) e, b, k, o, b, Q (@)

14. Signs of the back row, upper rise, labialized, non-nasalized, full formation - inherent in the vowel

15. Signs of the front row, lower rise, non-labialized, non-nasalized, full formation - inherent in the vowel

16. In a weak position are reduced in all words of a series

1) knizhnik, sewed, sto, boards

2) short, books, pick up, evil

3) two, svht, book, hail

4) come, day, father, son

17. In a strong position are reduced in all words of a series

1) s, dva, day, sn

2) dusky, slave, father, n

3) vys, someone, come, dashti

4) tb, tshta, nb, mnii

18. Choose the correct answers. The reduced ones are in a weak position...

1) in a position before a syllable with a full vowel

2) in the initial syllable under stress

3) in the position of the absolute end of the word

4) in a position before a syllable with a reduced one in a weak position

19. Choose the correct answers. The reduced ones are in a strong position...

1) in the initial syllable under stress

2) in monosyllabic words, except for prepositions

3) in a position in front of a weak reduced

4) in a position before a syllable with a full vowel

20. Which of the following words is not Old Church Slavonic in origin?

4) milky

21. Which of the following words is not Old Church Slavonic in origin?

2) milky

3) transformation

22. Which of the given Old Slavonicisms exists in parallel with the Russian word, but diverges from it in meaning?

23. In which group are all the words Old Russian?

1) candle, citizen, south

2) autumn, city dweller, bearish

3) one, temper, enlightenment

4) knot, loneliness, birth

24. Match these words of the Slavic branch of languages

1) city, one, candle, leader

2) bloto, svieca, krova, miedza

3) barrier, plant, captivity, unit,

education

a) West Slavic branch

b) South Slavic branch

c) East Slavic branch

25. In which of these groups there are non-vowel combinations

1) limit, store, woody

2) moisture, weak, title

...

Reduced vowels and their positions

Reduced vowels are sounds of incomplete formation, super-short. They could be pronounced more or less clearly, depending on the position they occupied in the word. There are two positions of reduced vowels: strong, when they are pronounced relatively distinctly, and weak, when they are hardly pronounced at all. In Old Church Slavonic, vowels were constant reduced b and b in addition, two vowels - s and and could perform in a certain position - if they were in front of and or before j- as reduced.

Reduced vowels

ъ (extra short vowel [o])
and ь (extra short vowel [e])

Strong position (marked with a sign b, b) :

Weak position (marked with , ):

Notes

From the second half of the tenth century, reduced vowels begin to be lost. Initially, this process was observed only in relation to reduced b and b. These vowels in a strong position turn into full formation sounds ( b > e, b > o), and in a weak position they are lost: bird-reduced takes a weak position (because it is in front of a syllable with a full vowel), so it is lost; words(them. falling. plural) - the reduced one occupies a strong position (in the first syllable under stress), so it goes into the sound of a complete formation - tears.

Reduced vowels s and and also experienced the process of falling. At the same time, after the loss of the reduced ones (X-XI centuries), strong and and s switched to the sounds of complete education: reduced shock and– into the sound of a complete education e(w u? a - neck) , reduced unstressed and– into the sound of a complete education and (blue i i - blue); shock s moved to about(m~ t - washes), unstresseds- in s(good and kind).

Features of the use of vowels at the beginning of a word

Not all vowels could be used equally at the beginning of a word. According to the peculiarities of the use of vowels at the beginning of a word, they can be divided into two groups:

words used at the beginning: a, oh, and,@: az, window, iti,@ gl.
words not used at the beginning: b, e,# , h, b, s, oh. If the word had to begin with these vowels, then a prosthetic consonant developed before the initial vowels: before b, e,# , h – [ j] , before s, oh - [in]. Vowel b could begin a word in the Proto-Slavic period of language development, but in this case a consonant sound also appeared before it j. The resulting combination * jb turned into sound and. From here: * jbmon> them@ – cf. old-timer take@ ; > ty, otter - cf. other ind. udrah, ~ ding, yun, drink. To denote iotized h there was no special letter in the alphabet, so it was transmitted with an ordinary letter h: hhati.

consonant system

According to its composition, the Old Slavonic language had the same consonants that are known to the modern Russian language. However, some of them require special remarks.

Consonants R and l in the Old Slavonic language they could act as syllable-forming, i.e. approach in their sonority to vowel sounds and, like vowels, form a syllable. In the Proto-Slavic era, there was a special icon to indicate their syllable-forming function: * w k ъ, * t g ъ. In the Old Slavonic language, such a sign did not exist, and to designate a syllable-forming function after consonants R and l wrote vowels b or b, although the vowel was pronounced before the consonant: vlk(Russian wolf), trg(Russian auction).

There were two complex consonants in Old Church Slavonic: railway and m, secondary in origin.

The consonants of the Old Church Slavonic language were classified according to the following criteria:

By place and method of education:

education		Place of education

anterior lingual	middle language	back-lingual
explosive			d–d? t-t?
fricatives
affricates

Notes

2. By hardness / softness: three groups of consonants were distinguished. The first group included consonants, which were always only solid: to, G, X. The second group included consonants, which could only be soft: w, w, w, m , c, h,j. The third group of consonants was divided into two subgroups: a) consonants, which could be hard, soft, and semi-soft: r, l, n. Before non-front vowels, they acted as solid: Nora, low g; before front vowels they became semi-soft: lh sj, neither t; before j they were soft: bow R?a; b) consonants that could be hard and semi-soft: b, p, c, m, e, t, h, s. They were solid before non-front vowels: house, here about god, and before front vowels - semi-soft: zi ma, withhdhti.

3. By deafness / sonority: in the Old Slavonic language there were both deaf and voiced consonants. Their distribution in sonority was the same as in the modern Russian language, however, they did not form correlative pairs, since there was no position of neutralization in the Old Slavonic language (a position in which a voiceless and voiced consonant would coincide in one sound. Compare in the Old Slavonic language h@b- consonant b stands before a vowel ( b) and therefore is in a strong position on the basis of deafness / voicedness; in modern Russian in the word tooth consonant b is at the absolute end of a word, i.e. in a weak position on the basis of deafness / sonority; at the end of the word, the voiced and voiceless consonants coincide in one - voiceless - consonant sound [ P]).

Phonetic processes of the Proto-Slavic era

In the Proto-Slavic language, there were two main phonetic laws that determined the entire phonetic structure of the language: law of syllabic harmony and open syllable law.

The essence of the law syllabic vowel harmony consisted in the fact that only sounds close in their articulation could be combined in a syllable, i.e. hard consonants could only be combined with hard consonants or non-front vowels, and soft consonants could only be combined with soft consonants or front vowels. If sounds that were heterogeneous in articulation fell within the limits of one syllable, then either the consonant or the vowel changed, leading to their likeness in articulation.

According to the law open syllable, all syllables had to be open, i.e. end in a syllabic element. In the Proto-Slavic language, all vowels were syllabic, as well as smooth * r, * l, if they had a syllable-forming function: * w/ chb, *w/ wb(these words have two syllables, both syllables are open, because they end in a syllable-forming element).

In addition, by law open syllable all sounds in a syllable had to be arranged according to the principle of increasing sonority, i.e. in this order:

consonant had the least sonority with; then the rest came voiceless consonants; then voiced consonants; followed by consonants R, L and finally vowels.

For example: *no-ga; *se-stra.

If the law of the open syllable was violated, then transformations took place in the syllable.

Changes in the Proto-Slavic period associated with the operation of the law of syllabic vowel harmonism

In the Proto-Slavic era, often consonants that could not be soft ended up in a position before front vowels or before a soft consonant * j. This violated the law of syllabic vowel harmonism, and the consonants underwent a transformation: they changed their quality and turned into soft consonants (they are usually called secondary).

In the history of the Slavic languages, two softenings (palatalizations) to, g, x are distinguished: the first softening is the transition to soft hissing consonants, the second softening is the transition to soft whistling consonants. The first and second softening took place in different eras: the first softening was earlier, and the second softening was a later process associated with the monophthongization of diphthongs.

The change in consonants under the influence of * j was also not only a manifestation of a tendency to soften, but also one of the manifestations of the law of an open syllable, since when a consonant sound was placed before * j in the Proto-Slavic language, a closed syllable appeared: * nos - ja.

The first softening (palatalization) of back-lingual consonants k, g, x

The first mitigation k, g, x is understood as their transition before the front vowels into soft hissing consonants: k> h", g> g", x> w ": * tichina > silence; * nog ь ka > leg; * reket ъ > speech.

The second mitigation (palatalization) of back-lingual consonants k, g, x

The second palatalization is a change in back-lingual consonants into soft whistling ones: k> c", g> z", x> s ". It could occur under two conditions.

The first condition: back-lingual ones turned into soft binders if they appeared before the front vowels and and h, formed from Proto-Slavic diphthongs (and< * e , h < * o , a ): * druge >drugi > drowsy; * pastuche > pastuchi > pastousi; * ka na > k h na > q h on.

The second condition: back-lingual ones turned into soft whistling ones if they appeared after the vowels ь, и, #: * star ь k ъ > old; * k u ning ъ > ґн # зь.

The back-lingual consonants k, g, x could not be combined with the Proto-Slavic * j, since they were always only hard, and * j - only a soft consonant. If, nevertheless, such a combination appeared in a word, then it violated the law of syllabic vowel harmonism and the back-lingual consonants changed their quality, passing, just as during the first palatalization, into soft sibilants: k> h", r> zh", x> sh " : * duchja > dousha; * drugjon > drouz @ ; * sekja > cutting.

In addition to back-lingual consonants, some more consonant sounds in the Proto-Slavic and Old Slavonic languages could not be soft and, being in front of * j, changed their quality. So, the whistling consonants z and s in the position before * j turned into soft hissing ones: * z + j > j "; * s + j > sh": * nosja > burden; nozj ь > knife.

The labial consonants b, p, c, m also could not be soft and in the position before * j, highlighting the intercalary consonant l ", formed combinations bl", vl", pl", ml ": * korabj ь > ship; * zemja > land; * lowja > fishing; * zatopjen ъ > flooded.

The front-lingual consonants d and t could also only be hard and semi-soft, therefore, being in front of * j, they changed their quality and turned into other sounds. Since the process of their transformation took place after the 6th century, that is, after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language into groups of dialects, the result of the change in different Slavic languages turned out to be different: among the southern Slavs (hence, in the Old Slavonic language) * t + j > m "; * d + j > jd": * pitja > pi m a; * wodj ь > leader. Among the Eastern Slavs (hence, in the Old Russian language) * t + j > h "; * d + j > j": * pitja > pich; * wodj ь > vozh.

In the Proto-Slavic language, whole combinations of consonants could also be changed due to the operation of the law of syllabic synharmonism: * sk, * st could not stand before * j. Once in front of him, these combinations changed into a complex sound m ": * iskj et ъ > and m et; * pustja > po m a.

Proto-Slavic combinations *kt, *gt could not be placed before front vowels. If, nevertheless, such a combination arose in the word, then it was subjected to a transformation that took place after the 6th century BC. and therefore in different Slavic languages it had different results: among the southern Slavs * kt, * gt > m ", among the Eastern Slavs * kt, * gt > h": * legti > in old sl. lang. - le m and, in ancient. lang. - treat; * nokt b > in old words. lang. - but m b, in ancient times. lang. - night.

Proto-Slavic combinations * kw, * gw could not be placed before the vowel h, formed from the diphthong (* o, * a). Once in front of h, they changed their quality and turned into combinations * kw > tsv, * gw > sv: * kwo t ъ > tsv h тъ; * gwo zda > sound h zda.

Table No. 1 schematically shows the formation of secondary elements as a result of the law of syllabic vowel harmonism.

Check the pronunciation of vowel sounds in the Cyrillic alphabet.

Some scholars speak not of the two conditions of the second palatalization, but of the second and third palatalization, meaning that the second palatalization is associated with a change in the posterior linguals according to the first condition, and the third - according to the second condition.

Diphthongs form a closed syllable, which contradicts the law of an open syllable, therefore they are monophthongized, i.e. turn into one sound: * e > and; * o > h . See more on this below.

The Proto-Slavic vowel *u turns into ъ, the diphthongic combination * i n forms a closed syllable, monophthongizes and turns into #, after which the second palatalization occurs.

Table No. 1

		* g e, i,# , h, b; 2) in verb forms before a, (formed from h, a h- from e) z + j
		* ch(first palatalization: 1) before vowels e, i,# , h, b; 2) in verb forms before a, (formed from h, a h- from *e)
		* k(first palatalization: 1) before vowels e, i,# , h, b; 2) in verb forms before a, (formed from h, a h- from e) k + j * t + j(in the language of the Eastern Slavs) * kt, * gt(before vowels e, i,# , h, b in the language of the Eastern Slavs)
		* k(second palatalization: 1) before and,h ascending to diphthongs * e, * oi, * a; 2) after # , and, b
			vowel + nasal consonant n or m

Note: Old Slavonic nasal vowels in modern Russian correspond to pure vowels "a and at: *semen > semen# > seed; *zwonkъ > sound@ kj > sound.

Formation of full-vowel and non-vowel combinations

In the Proto-Slavic language there were diphthongic combinations of vowels * o and * e with consonants * r and * l. They could be in the word between consonants. For convenience, it is conventionally accepted that any of the consonants between which these diphthongic combinations were located is denoted by the letter * t. So combinations * or, * ol, * er, * el in the position between consonants look like this: * cake, * tolt, * tert, * telt. In the early period of the Proto-Slavic language, consonants * r and * l in these combinations they had a syllable-forming function, and therefore the diphthongic combination of a closed syllable did not form: * go/ / db, * be/ / za. However, by the VI century, i.e. by the time the Proto-Slavic language broke up into separate language families, consonants * r, * l ceased to be syllable-forming, and diphthongic combinations began to form a closed syllable, since the syllable division passed after the consonant: * gor/ db, * ber/ za. This was contrary to the law of the open syllable. Diphthongic combinations underwent transformation, which proceeded differently in different Slavic languages (since the single Proto-Slavic language ceased to exist and each language family developed in its own way). Among the southern Slavs, and consequently in the Old Slavonic language, there was a lengthening of the vowel sound with its subsequent rearrangement with a smooth consonant * r, * l: * cake > tort > trot > spend; * tolt > tolt > tlot > tlat;* tert > tert > tret > trht; * telt > telt > tlet > tlht. Among the Eastern Slavs, a smooth consonant was lengthened, however, since the Slavs did not distinguish between consonants in longitude and brevity, this longitude was soon lost, and instead, after a smooth consonant, an overtone of the same vowel developed that stood before * r and * l. Over time, this overtone turned into a full sound: * cake > to t > toraboutt > torot; * tert > tet > teret > teret and under . As a result, the southern Slavs formed discordant ( -ra-, -la-, -rh-, -lh- ), while the Eastern Slavs have full-vowel combinations ().

Table No. 4

Note: - talk about dissonant combinations ( -ra-, -la-, -rh-, -lh-) is possible only if there are parallel full-vowel combinations ( -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -barely-, -elo-) : enemy - enemy; gold - gold; plhskati - rinse; Wedhyes - middle and under. In this case, these combinations are secondary. For example: city - city; -ra-//-oro-; therefore, the form appeared in the Proto-Slavic language *gord. If there are no parallel forms, then the combinations were primordial, Proto-Slavic: pagehla< * strela.

Proto-Slavic vowel *o a.

Proto-Slavic vowel *e in Old Church Slavonic goes into a vowel h.

Of particular note is the fate of the combination *telt in the language of the Eastern Slavs; the result of its transformation depended on the hardness or softness of the first consonant and consonant * l: if both consonants were hard, then * telt > tolot: * melko ® milk; if both consonants were soft, then * telt > telet: * gelzo ® iron (the back lingual consonant * g before the front vowel, as a result of the first palatalization, turned into g "); if the first consonant was soft, and the consonant * l was hard, then * telt > telot: * chell ъ ® shelom (back-lingual consonant * ch before the front vowel on the first palatalization turned into sh").

Formation of secondary initial combinations

Diphthong combinations * or, * ol could be at the absolute beginning of a word before a consonant (in this case they were conditionally designated * ort, * olt). After the loss of their syllable-forming function by smooth consonants in the 6th century, diphthongic combinations began to form a closed syllable, which contradicted the law of an open syllable. Therefore, diphthongic combinations underwent a transformation, the result of which depended on the quality of intonation: ascending or descending. With rising intonation in all Slavic languages, the vowel lengthened with its subsequent rearrangement with a smooth consonant: * or>or > ra, * ol>ol > la. With descending intonation among the southern Slavs, and therefore in the Old Slavonic language, the change was the same as with ascending intonation, while among the Eastern Slavs, when a vowel and a smooth consonant were rearranged, the length of the vowel was lost, and the combination * or > ro, and the combination * ol > lo.

Table No. 5

Notes

combinations ra-, la-, ro-, lo- are called secondary initial combinations;
say that the initial combinations ra-, la-, ro-, lo- secondary, it is possible only in the presence of parallel forms: equal - equal; ra-//ro- *ort (*orwyn); boat - boat; la-//lo-, therefore, they are secondary and go back to *olt (*oldii). If there are no such parallel forms, then the combinations are primordial, Proto-Slavic: army< * ratb.

The fate of combinations * dt , * tt

Combinations * dt, * tt at a syllable division in the Proto-Slavic language, they should have been part of one syllable. In this case, the principle of increasing sonority was violated, i.e. law of the open syllable: the voiced consonant preceded the voiceless ( * dt) or the same consonants were nearby, and the sonority was even ( * tt). Therefore, combinations * dt, * tt changed: they moved into * st: * ple/ tti> weave; *kra/ dti> steal.

Note: combination st in a word it can be secondary: if it alternates with a consonant d *dt; if it alternates with a consonant t, then in its place in the Proto-Slavic era there was a combination *tt; if there are no such alternations, then the combination st primordial: to lead - I lead; st//d, hence the combination st secondary and goes back to *dt (*wedti); revenge - meta; st//t, hence the combination st secondary and goes back to *tt(*metti); carry - carry; combination alternations st neither with a consonant d, nor with a consonant t no, therefore combination st primordial ( *nesti).

The fate of combinations * dl , * tl

Combinations * dl, * tl in the Proto-Slavic language, with a syllable division, they also turned out to be part of one syllable. In the case when smooth consonants did not have a syllable-forming function, in their sonority they approached those consonants next to which they appeared. As a result, the law of the open syllable (the principle of increasing sonority) was violated. the sonority of adjacent consonants turned out to be the same. Therefore, combinations * dl, * tl changed: explosive element was lost * d and * t: * ple/ tlb > plel; *kra/ dlb > kral.

Note: consonant l in a word it can be secondary: if it alternates with a consonant d *dl; if it alternates with a consonant t, then it goes back to the Proto-Slavic combination *tl; if there are no such alternations, then the consonant l original: led - I lead; l//d, hence, l secondary and goes back to the combination *dl (*wedl); chalk - meta; l//t, hence, l secondary and goes back to *tl (* metl); walked - walk; alternations l with d or t no, therefore agreeable l native ( *chodil).

1.2.5. Phonetic processes of the Proto-Slavic period

Key words: Paleo-Slavistics, Old Russian language, language system, Proto-Slavic language, phonetic processes, Proto-Slavic period

Upward sonority trend

Throughout the Proto-Slavic era, a number of changes take place in the language, very different in appearance, but based on one general trend, which can be characterized as upward trend- the establishment within the syllable of the mandatory distribution of sounds in accordance with their acoustic-articulation characteristics according to the principle of increasing the sonority of each subsequent sound.

This trend was noted by F. F. Fortunatov, who wrote about the desire of the language in the Proto-Slavic era to “avoid”. However, such an explanation was incomplete, one-sided, since it said nothing about the fate of the consonant groups. N. Van Wijk gave a broader interpretation of this phenomenon, considering it as a tendency to build a syllable according to the principle of ascending sonority, that is, to establish an obligatory distribution of sounds in the syllable in accordance with their acoustic and articulatory characteristics, according to the principle of increasing the sonority of each subsequent sound: the establishment of an obligatory progression from weaker to stronger.

It is the action of the tendency to ascending sonority that determines such phonetic processes as:

loss of final consonants;
simplification of consonant groups;
re-arrangement of syllables;
monophthongization of diphthongs and diphthongic combinations;
the fate of diphthongic combinations with nasal consonants;
changing vowel combinations with smooth consonants

The sonority is determined by a number of factors: the work of the vocal cords, the degree of tension of the articulatory organs, a greater or lesser density of the barrier during the articulation of consonants.

The trend itself remains unexplained. It is obvious that it did not develop immediately. It is possible that the tendency towards ascending sonority, which began its action in the language, determined certain phonetic changes, the results of which, in turn, strengthened the tendency, causing the need for further changes. Apparently, the initial impulse of the trend was the desire of the language to maximize contrast vowels and consonants. The full realization of this trend, which was not achieved, should have resulted in all consonants being in intervocalic position and all vowels in interconsonant (i.e., structures like CVCV or VCVC). Nevertheless, groups of consonants have been preserved, and certain hierarchical relationships are developing in them, which are manifested in clear and strict rules of compatibility within one syllable.

The action "tendency towards ascending sonority" was functionally connected with another phonetic trend of the Proto-Slavic period - the trend of syllabic synharmonism; there was a certain typological similarity between them.

Rules for the compatibility of consonants within consonant groups in the Proto-Slavic period

In the Proto-Slavic period, as a result of the tendency to ascending sonority, certain hierarchical relations develop within consonant groups that regulate the possible sequence of consonants, depending on their quality - clear and strict rules for the compatibility of consonants within the same syllable.

It was especially important word start position in view of its stability, determined by the fact that it is the beginning of the word that is associated with the root, with the main carrier of lexical meaning. At the beginning of a word in the Proto-Slavic period, the following combinations of consonants were possible:

Thus, at the beginning of a word, a clear regulation of the compatibility of consonants is formed, which has not yet spread to other positions. At the beginning of a word, a certain phonemic rhythm appears in the organization of the consonant group. As a result, the following sequence of consonants and syllable-formers at the beginning of a word is established: fricative - stop - sonorous(including and ) – syllabic. This order becomes a model for the structure of consonantal groups and syllable-formers in other parts of the word.

In position end of word there is a loss of final consonants.

In position middle of a word in groups of solas, various changes occur, which could be accompanied by a change in syllable boundaries, which allowed sounds within one syllable to line up according to the principle of ascending sonority.

The law of syllabic vowel harmony

A number of phonetic processes of the Proto-Slavic era (consonants), as well as some processes of an earlier, Proto-Slavic period (the fate of labialized vowels in combination with c * j) are the result of a single trend, called tendencies towards syllabic synharmonism. Its essence lies in the fact that the sounds within the same syllable should have been articulatory close to each other. The syllable sought to line up in patterns: non-palatal consonant + non-front vowel; palatal consonant + front vowel. The quality of sounds within one syllable in this case can be characterized in terms.

Because of this, in words that contradicted this trend, there were corresponding changes aimed at localizing the syllable in a single articulatory zone:

forward movement of the articulation of the vowel under the influence of the palatality of the consonant;
palatalization of the consonant under the influence of the front vowel or [j].

In contrast to the earlier, Proto-Slavic period, which is characterized by a different syllable structure, there is active interaction between sounds within the same syllable, intense and palatalization.

Between the two main phonetic trends of the Proto-Slavic era, which determined the phonetic system of the dialect, which formed the basis of the Old Slavonic language, as well as the formation of phonetic systems of other Slavic languages - the trend towards ascending sonority and the law of syllabic synharmonism - there is a certain connection.

Typological similarity between the two main trends of the Proto-Slavic period

The main phonetic trends of the Proto-Slavic period are the tendency towards ascending sonority and the law of syllabic synharmonicity. There is a certain typological similarity between them:

Both trends were aimed at turning the syllable into a single integral structure, at automating and unifying the articulatory program within one syllable; the tendency to ascending sonority develops a strict sequence of segments in a syllable. The tendency towards syllabic synharmonism determined a single zone of articulation within the syllable (anterior - non-anterior).
It can be considered that the tendency towards ascending sonority largely determined the action of the tendency towards syllabic synharmonism, since it was it that led to the unification of vowels and consonants within a syllable into a single integral structure, which created the prerequisites for syntagmatic interaction between them, to their maximum. This statement is supported by the fact that all changes associated with syllabic vowel harmonism occur within the new syllable, already built according to the principle of ascending sonority. There is practically no impact across the boundaries of the syllable division. An exception is the third palatalization of the posterior palatine consonants, but this phenomenon is quite late.

Qualitative differentiation of long and short vowel phonemes

In the Proto-Slavic language, quantitative oppositions in the vowel system, characteristic of the original vocal system, are gradually being lost. It was a long process that ended already in the history of individual Slavic languages.

original vowels	Duration	St.-sl. vowels
a, o		[o]
a, o		[a]
*e
*e		[ê]
*u		[b]
*u		[y]
*i		[b]
*i		[i]

Thus, the quantitative opposition of the vowels of the original phonetic system in Proto-Slavic was lost. However, since Proto-Slavic vowels go back to vowels that are opposed in terms of duration and brevity, it can be assumed that vowels of different origin retained quantitative characteristics in the phonetic systems of both Proto-Slavic and Old Church Slavonic.

Origin of the vowel [o]

Probably, in the Proto-Slavic period, in place of the Indo-European short * - *, only one short vowel [o] was known: Slavic [o] corresponds to * - * in others:

Origin of the vowel [a]

Probably, in the Proto-Slavic period, in place of the Indo-European long * - *, only one long vowel [a] was known: Slavic [a] corresponds to * - * in others:

Origin of the vowel [e]

The Indo-European short vowel in the Proto-Slavic period does not undergo qualitative changes:

Origin of the vowel

The fate of the Indo-European long vowel after hard and soft consonants was different. After hard consonants, he gave , and after soft consonants, he coincided with ["a]:

Usually, the different fate after hard and soft consonants is explained by dispalatalization ['] , ['] . Wed:

Origin of the vowel [ъ]

Indo-European * в corresponded to the vowel [ъ]:

In some endings, Slavic [ъ] comes from *, which developed from Indo-European * in the position of a final closed syllable:

Origin of the vowel [y]

Indo-European * in the Proto-Slavic language corresponded to the vowel [y], if it was before the consonant and at the end of the word:

Origin of the vowel [ь]

In place of the original phonetic system in the Proto-Slavic, we have the vowel [b]:

Origin of the vowel [i]

Indo-European [i] in the Proto-Slavic language is preserved without any qualitative changes:

Re-decomposition of syllables

In the Proto-Slavic language, the pattern according to which noisy ones could not cover a syllable extended to syllables in the middle of a word. Under the influence of a tendency to ascending sonority in the middle of a word, syllables are re-decomposed: noisy consonants that covered a syllable go everywhere to the next syllable, thus. syllables became open:

As a result, consonants that were previously in different syllables are now combined within the same syllable and began to form phonetic combinations, which should have been built according to the rules governing the construction of consonantal groups. In such groups of consonants, various changes occur, which in general can be characterized as a simplification of consonantal groups.

Simplifying consonant groups

Under the influence of the tendency to ascending sonority in the Proto-Slavic period, certain rules are formed that regulate the possible sequence of consonant sounds within consonant groups in the middle of a word. Consonant groups that did not comply with these rules were subjected to simplifications:

Consonant clusters consisting of plosive consonants different places of education, lost the first consonant:

"stop+fricative": group simplification was in favor of the spirant:

*ks > *kch >

BUT:

*kst>

"explosive + nasal": simplification was due to the first sound

"nasal + nasal": as a rule, the first consonant was lost:

"labial + labial": simplification was carried out due to the loss of the second consonant:

"*tl, *dl": the fate of these combinations in the Slavic languages was different. This indicates that the process took place later than the others and dialect differences were reflected in its results:

Southern and oriental languages	Western languages

Monophthongization of diphthongs

Diphthongs inherited from the Proto-Slavic era contradicted the trend towards ascending sonority: in their composition, a more sonorous element (syllabic vowel) preceded a less sonorous non-syllabic vowel. On Proto-Slavic soil, they underwent monophthongization, the result of which depended on the diphthong in the word form.

If the diphthong was before a vowel, then the diphthong broke up into two elements and its non-syllable component went to the next syllable:

In the same time before a consonant and at the end of a word the diphthong retained its integrity. What is important in this case is that on the basis of the formation of a new structure of the syllable, a prerequisite arises for a more intense interaction of sounds within the syllable, their assimilation. This is further exacerbated by the functional fusion of the diphthong, which ultimately led to assimilative fusion of its components: a non-syllable semi-vowel merged with a syllabic vowel:

The loss of diphthongs led to significant changes in the phonetic system.

The fate of diphthongic combinations with nasal vowels

The fate of diphthong combinations with [n], inherited from the Proto-Slavic era, is similar to the fate of diphthongs: they were preserved in the position before vowels(surviving the split into two elements and redistribution by syllables), but changed before consonants and at the end of a word form: they became monophthongized by assimilative fusion. At the same time, the nasal element, assimilating with the vowel, informed the latter of a nasal overtone, as a result of which long nasal vowels were formed.

In the Old Slavonic era, 2 nasal vowels were reflected:

In a number of cases, nasalization did not occur in the position of the end of a word; the influence of the position of the end of a word could lead to a narrowing of the vowel, a change in its row and, which prevented the formation of a nasal vowel. An example is the formation of the endings of the 1st person singular. numbers and 3rd person pl. aorist numbers:

The change in diphthongic combinations with nasal vowels influenced the phonetic system (new alternations arose).

Changes in the phonetic system of the Proto-Slavic language due to the monophthongization of diphthongs and diphthong combinations

As a result of the monophthongization of diphthongs and similar changes in diphthongic combinations, the following changes occurred in the phonetic system of the Proto-Slavic period:

Changing vowel combinations with smooth consonants

The trend towards ascending sonority did not correspond to diphthongic combinations with smooth sonorant consonants [r] and [l]. These diphthongs were influenced by the trend, but its implementation was hindered by the much less ability to assimilate [r] and [l], compared to the nasal consonants and and . Therefore, they were still preserved during the period of monophthongization of diphthongs, however, under the influence of all previous processes, the position of the end of a word begins to be perceived exclusively as the position of a vowel (and not a consonant or diphthong). Within the tendency to ascending sonority, the law of open syllables is formed, as if bringing the tendency to its full realization.

Under the new conditions, combinations with smooth ones are already recognized as closed syllables with descending sonority, which are to be removed as they do not correspond to the main systemic phonetic patterns. In this sense, the change in combinations with smooth ones is the pinnacle of the realization of the trend towards ascending sonority.

The fate of diphthongic combinations with smooth ones developed differently depending on the following factors:

the quality of the syllabic vowel in combination;
the position of the beginning or middle of a word;
the quality of the sound after the combination (vowel or consonant).

If the combination was in a position before a vowel, then, according to the general tendency to redistribute syllables, there was a change in the boundary of the syllable division, and, as a result, a redistribution of vowels and consonants between syllables:

After the completion of the changes in combinations with smooth ones, the principle that arose as part of the trend towards ascending sonority turned out to be fully realized: it did not appear in the language. On the other hand, the opening of syllables is the result of the full realization and completion of the tendency towards ascending sonority.

The fate of diphthongic combinations with smooth in the middle of a word between consonants

Changing diphthongic combinations with smooth in the middle of a word between consonants (combinations like , where t- any consonant) was reflected differently in the Slavic languages.

The closeness of the results of changing combinations of the *tort type in the Eastern languages and the Western languages of the Lechitic group can be explained by a certain convergence between these dialects in a certain period.

The results of changing diphthongic combinations with smooth ones of the *tort > trat type are usually called dissonance, and those of the *tort > torot type are called full agreement.

There are different opinions in the literature regarding the explanation of the mechanism of these changes.

Developed in place of diphthongic combinations with smooth dissonances coincided with the original combinations that were between consonants in one morpheme in words of the type.

To distinguish between these combinations, one should remember that the original ones sound the same in all Slavic languages; if the word contains a non-conformity that has developed as a result of the transformation of a diphthongic combination with a smooth one, then other combinations of sounds will correspond to it in other Slavic languages (in particular, full-vowel in the Eastern Slavic languages).

Explanation of the mechanism of changes in diphthongic combinations with smooth

Some researchers (for example, R. Nachtigal) believed that, due to the impossibility of convincingly explaining the mechanism for changing combinations of the *trt type, etc., only the initial and final stages of development should be fixed. F. F. Fortunatov connected the history of these diphthongic combinations with which element of the combination the longitude of the syllable was focused on. He showed that in the languages of the South Slavs, as well as in Czechs and Slovaks, the length of the syllable was focused on the vowel, therefore, changes such as *trt > *trt occurred, and then, to eliminate the closeness of the syllable, the elements of the diphthongic combination were redistributed between different syllables: *trt > *t -rt. In this case, the positional syllabicity of the smooth *t--t arose, but it was unstable due to the brevity, as a result, the vowel was lengthened: *trt. In the languages of the eastern and northwestern (Lechitic) languages, longitude was concentrated on the second element of the diphthong - on the smooth [r], [l] - and was lost due to the development of the vocal element after the smooth: *trt > *t-rt > *t --t > *tr o t. This vowel was like a vowel before a fluent. Further, the vowels were quantitatively equalized *tor o t > tor o t. In the Lechitic dialects, however, the development of the normal vowel after the smooth one was associated with the reduction and later disappearance of the vowel before the smooth one.

The fate of r, l combinations at the beginning of a word

The fate of diphthongic combinations *r, *l at the beginning of a word before consonants (in the root or prefix) is different from the fate of these combinations in the middle of a word.

Pregnant before vowels the combinations did not change, since the smooth consonant went to the beginning of the next syllable, and both sounds remained in the original sequence:

In the same position before consonants under the influence of the tendency to ascending sonority, these diphthongic combinations have undergone a change:

In a few words of the ancestors of the southern Slavs, another result arose: metathesis took place without vowel lengthening: *rt> rt: in the Suprasl manuscript, reflecting the features of the dialects of eastern Bulgaria, along with , we find:

Another trend was also reflected in the language of the ancestors of the Bulgarians - after a smooth development [ъ]: *lt > lъt:

It is assumed that the metathesis in the initial *rt, *lt occurred later than similar changes in combinations like *trt.

After the completion of the changes in combinations with smooth ones, the principle, within the framework of the previously formed trend towards ascending sonority, turned out to be fully realized: there was nothing left in the language.

Combinations of smooth consonants with reduced vowels ,

The combinations of smooth consonants with reduced vowels in the position between the consonants *trt , *tlt , *trt , *tlt did not correspond to the trend towards ascending sonority.

In Old Church Slavonic, the sequence "smooth consonant + reduced vowel" denoted sounds that were different both in quality and in origin:

The facts of the modern Russian language help to distinguish between these spellings.

Syllabicity, is already developing on Slavic soil. As is known, the syllabic consonants of the original phonetic system were lost during the Proto-Slavic period. We can assume the following scheme for the development of syllables in smooth v, reflecting the transition - into reduced supershort [b], [b], as well as their subsequent assimilation with smooth ones:

Syllabic consonants developed in the southern and a number of western Slavic dialects (of the Czech and Slovak area). In the eastern and northwestern dialects, the final stage - the development of the syllabicity of a smooth sonorant consonant - was probably not reached, as a result of which the combination of a vowel with a smooth one was restored quite early, as evidenced by the facts:

Palatalization of consonants

Palatalization of consonants before *j

One of the manifestations of the tendency towards syllabic synharmonism was that the consonant group within the syllable strove for articulatory uniformity, primarily associated with the zone of articulation. In this regard, if the consonant group included [j] (the only palatal consonant of the Proto-Slavic period consonant system), then the entire consonant group underwent qualitative changes. The process could only have a regressive character, since in the original phonetic system [j] (]) could only be at the end of the consonant group. [j] informed the previous consonant (or group of consonants) of a palatalized character, while he himself disappeared, as if dissolving in the articulation of the previous consonant. all consonants were subjected without exception; the zone of their formation in this case shifted towards the middle sky:

The labial consonants [m], [b], [p], [v] in the position before [j] developed an [l]-shaped overtone, which then turned into a full consonant -.

This process was reflected in all Slavic languages if the group "labial + [j]" was inside the root. At the junction of the root and the suffix or inflection, the process took place later, and its results were not the same in different Slavic languages: in a number of dialects, the combination of labial with also developed here, in other dialects (Bulgarian, Macedonian and West Slavic) [j] softened the previous consonant and assimilated with him: cf. Russian Earth, Polish ziemia, Czech. zeme, Bulgarians. land. The loss of the non-initial l-epenteticum was one of the later changes in the system of consonantism in the Old Church Slavonic language, reflected in a number of Old Church Slavonic monuments.

Changing consonant clusters before [j]

If there was a group of posterior palatine and dental consonants before [j], it generally tended to palatalize. This manifested itself in different ways in different groups:

Palatalization of consonants before front vowels

The palatalizing effect of front vowels on consonants was similar to the effect of [j], however, it was much less intense, which is probably due to the peculiarities of the syllabic structure of the Proto-Slavic period - the establishment of a mandatory distribution of sounds within a syllable in accordance with their acoustic-articulatory characteristics and, as a consequence, - the phonemic opposition of vowels and consonants. The general trend, determined by the law of syllabic vowel harmony, in this case was realized only in relation to the posterior palatine consonants, which were the most sensitive to palatalization processes. Back-palatal consonants in combination with front vowels were universally palatalized. As for all the other consonants, if there was a palatalizing effect of the front vowels, it did not lead to a change in their main articulation. Most researchers, following N. Van Wijk, believe that in this position there was a partial softening of the consonants, as a result of which they became semi-soft.

posterior palatine was a process that was relevant for a long time, due to which it went through several stages.

Consonant clusters before a vowel had a special fate; they also underwent certain changes.

First palatalization of back palatal consonants

The first palatalization of the posterior palatal consonants is the process of changing the hard posterior palatal consonants [k], [g], into soft sibilant anteropalatal consonants, (through the stage), in a position before the oldest front vowels (before monophthongization of diphthongs), which was the result of the tendency to syllabic synharmonicism :

The educated sounds , , in their origin were positional variants of the posterior lingual (their appearance was completely conditioned). But over time, they became independent phonemes. Their acquisition of an independent phonemic status was determined by the peculiarities of the phonetic system of that period:

The transition of the positional alternations of the posterior palatine and sibilants to morphological ones probably finally ended after the fall of the reduced ones, when the sibilants ended up in a position before the consonant: .

The first palatalization of back-palatal consonants led to the appearance in Slavic languages of the alternation of back-palatal and sibilant consonants in cases where the oldest vowel alternations were represented at the root, as well as at the end of morphemes during word formation and inflection:

The first palatalization covered all cases of position [k], [g], before front vowels of non-diphthongic origin - , , , . After the monophthongization of the diphthong, the posterior palatal consonants ended up in a position before the front vowels, but the first palatalization had already ended by this time, so the posterior consonants underwent other changes.

Transition * to ["a] in the process of palatalization of posterior consonants

The softening of the back palatal consonants during the first palatalization before * led to the fact that dispalatalization took place and the vowel changed its quality to and. Thus, instead of , which arose as a result of the qualitative differentiation of vowels in place of the original *, in this case we have [a]:

Second palatalization of back palatal consonants

The second palatalization of the posterior palatal consonants is the process of changing the hard posterior palatal consonants [k], [g], into sibilant consonants [c], [z] (via stade), [s] before front vowels of diphthongic origin. It had a special fate - the result of its change could be:

The effect of the second palatalization of the posterior palatals was due to the fact that after the monophthongization of the diphthong *, which began with a non-front vowel, the position for the posterior palatine consonants changed: they again appeared before the front vowels [i], . Since the action of the tendency towards syllabic vowel harmony remained relevant, the hard posterior palatals had to undergo palatalization.

The question of the degree of softening of the sounds [c], [z], [s], which appeared as a result of the second palatalization, does not have an unambiguous solution, which distinguishes them from the sounds that appeared in the process of the third palatalization. One can think that in terms of articulation, the results of the second palatalization represented the degree of softening, which is commonly called semi-softness: , , , [ . ]

Fate in the process of the second and third palatalizations

The results of the second and third palatalization of the posterior palatine for turned out to be different in dialects: in the southern and eastern dialects we find , in the western - :

Third palatalization of back palatal consonants

The third posterior palatal consonant is the process of changing the hard posterior palatine consonants [k], [g], into soft (palatalized) sibilant consonants , , under the influence previous front vowels. Just as in the process of the second palatalization, the result of the change could be and. The palatalization of *g went through the stage:

The third palatalization has a special, progressive character. Unlike the first and second palatalizations, here the process is not influenced by the subsequent vowel, but by the previous one. Since the law was in force in this era, we have in this case an inter-syllable effect.

according to A. M. Selishchev, some verb forms are undergoing a greater degree of reduction than the forms of names;
particles undergo significant reduction;
adverbs could be subjected to strong reduction depending on the frequency of their use (at the same time, not only the end of the word could be reduced, but the entire adverb as a whole);
the same changes could apply to account names and names used when referring to someone.

The results of the weakening (reduction) of the end of the word were manifested in the following phonetic phenomena:

Loss of final consonants

The loss of final consonants [t], [d], [s], [r], [n] is a rather early process of the Proto-Slavic era, caused by the action of a tendency towards ascending sonority. It consisted in the fact that groups of consonants at the end of a word begin to change.

As a result of the loss of consonants at the end of a word, a large number of open syllables appear.

Hardening of final consonants

In connection with the general tendency to weaken the final syllable, consonants hardened within it. This process took place in the Slavic languages at different times. An example is the hardening of t "at the end of 3 l. unit and plural of the present tense of verbs:

In the indicated verb forms, the phonetic phenomena of the position of the end of the word could lead to the complete loss of the final [t], which also did not occur simultaneously in different Slavic languages. In the Middle Bulgarian era, as evidenced by the monuments, forms without [t] were more often used; in modern Bulgarian dialects, the forms of the 3rd person singular do not have [t]. Only dialects in western Macedonia still present the 3rd person singular form with [t].

Qualitative changes in final vowels

In the position of the end of the word, there was an increase in the labialization of the middle vowel [*], which led to the fact that it became a high vowel. The vowel [*] turned into in the following final combinations:

Reduction of final long vowels

Long vowels that ended the word were shortened quite early in the Slavic languages:

Vowel alternation

In the original Indo-European phonetic system, vowels entered into non-positional qualitative and quantitative alternations (). inherited this system, but as a result of the qualitative differentiation of vowels in the Proto-Slavic language, new alternations appear, while the qualitative-quantitative alternations of the original phonetic system change into qualitative ones.

As a result, a new (compared to the Indo-European system) series of alternations was formed, which was the result of a long historical development:

Morphemes with a complete set of all alternating monophthongs are extremely rare. Usually several monophthongs alternate:

Alternating vowels could appear before sonants, and the monophthongization of diphthongs and diphthongic combinations produced fundamental changes in the series of alternations if sonorants were before consonants.

If sonorants were before vowels, a series of alternations could look like this:

However, it is known that in the Proto-Slavic period, the most significant factor that caused deep transformations in the system was the tendency to build a syllable according to the principle of ascending sonority: before consonants and at the end of a word, combinations of vowels with sonorants changed into monophthongs or changed their structure in a different way:

Consonant alternation

If vowel alternations originated in the Indo-European period and, having undergone changes, were reflected in Old Slavonic monuments, then consonant alternations arose in the process of development as a result of the law of syllabic synharmonicism:

The study guide on the historical grammar of the Russian language is designed to help correspondence students master the subject on their own during the intersessional period. The theoretical part is a summary of the main issues addressed in the course of the historical grammar of the Russian language (for more detailed coverage of a particular issue, see the recommended educational literature). The presentation of the theoretical material is accompanied by examples and tables. The manual contains verification tests on phonetics and morphology; the keys to the test tasks will allow part-time students to assess how fully and accurately the theoretical material is mastered. At the end of each section are exercises to help students prepare for the test and exam. The manual provides a plan for the morphological analysis of different parts of speech and the order of text analysis, as well as a sample of the analysis of the Old Russian text, which allows students to correctly complete one of the homework assignments and prepare for the exam.

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Exercises recommended for independent work: 1. Collection of exercises on the history of the Russian language /E. N. Ivanitskaya and others: No. 21; 2. Vasilenko I. A. Historical grammar of the Russian language: Sat. exercises: No. 34, No. 46. PHONETICS The sound system of the Old Russian language at the time of the appearance of writing (end of the 10th century - beginning of the 11th century) law - the law of an open syllable and the law of syllabic synharmonism. As a result of the operation of the law of the open syllable, all syllables in the Old Russian language were open, that is, they ended in a vowel sound (the law of the open syllable was terminated approximately by the middle of the 12th century due to the fall of the reduced ones). The law of an open syllable determined the fact that in the Old Russian language there could not be consonants at the end of a word, because in this case the syllable would be closed. The same law determined the limitations in the language of consonant combinations: in the Old Russian language, only groups of consonants, strictly limited in their composition, appeared, consisting mostly of two elements, the first of which was noisy, and the second - sonorant, although there could also be combinations of two voiceless or two voiced noisy consonants. Combinations of three consonants were less common, and in these combinations the sonorant or [v] was always the last element. These groups included [str], [skr], [smr], [skl], [skv], [stv], [zdr]. If several consonants were combined in the middle of a word, then they went to the next syllable (ce/stra). Separately, it is necessary to say about the phenomena of the beginning of the word. Even in the Proto-Slavic language, when the law of the open syllable began to operate, prostheses appeared in front of a number of initial vowels. Thus, [j] appears before the sound [e] (cf. the present tense forms of the verb being – are, are, are, are, are). As a rule, there are no words of Russian origin that begin with the sound [e]: the pronoun this 11 is a neoplasm, and as for interjections like eh, you need to remember that they can contain in their phonetic shell such sounds that are absent in the sound language system (interjections are on the periphery of the language). Words could not begin with [ы] or a reduced sound - already in the Proto-Slavic language in such cases a prosthetic consonant always appeared: before the reduced front row - [j], and before the reduced non-front row and [ы] - [ v] (cf. *udra and modern otter; alternation in the words teach - science - skill). The prothetic consonant [j] appeared before [a], with the exception of those words that, as a rule, were used after a pause - the union a, the interjections ah, ai, the word maybe (in Old Church Slavonic we observe the loss of [j] before [a] , and not only the prosthesis is lost, but also the original [j]). Before the sound [k], a prosthetic sound also develops, and here it could be both [j] and [v] (cf. etymologically related words bonds - to knit). Sometimes a prosthetic consonant also appeared before [o], which among the Eastern Slavs turned into [y] (cf. us - caterpillar). Before [i] there is also a prosthetic consonant [j], but it is not indicated in writing. Basically, words could begin with vowels [o], [u], and in the Old Russian language the number of words with the initial sound [u] increased. It should be noted that at the initial sound [o] with a special intonation, the prosthetic consonant [v] also appeared (cf. father - patrimony, eight - eight). Already after the separation from the Proto-Slavic language, a kind of intersyllabic dissimilation occurs in the East Slavic languages: when in the subsequent syllable there was a front vowel [e] or [i], then on the East Slavic soil the initial [j] is lost, and the vowel [ e] moves from the front row to the back row, i.e. [e] > [o] (cf. from Common Slavic edin- Old Russian odin). This also applied to borrowed names (Evdokia - Ovdotya, Elena - Olena). The law of the open syllable played a huge role in the formation of the phonetic system of the Slavic languages. The law of syllabic vowel harmonism was that only the sounds of one articulation could be combined in a syllable: after a soft consonant there could be only a front vowel, and after a hard consonant - a non-front row, and, conversely, before a front vowel there had to be a soft consonant, and before a non-front vowel, a hard consonant. Thus, the action of the law of syllabic synharmonism caused the change of back-lingual consonants before front vowels into hissing (according to the first palatalization) and whistling (according to the second and third palatalizations) consonants. The system of vowel phonemes of the Old Russian language (X-XI centuries) The system of vowel phonemes of the Old Russian language differed from the system of vowels of the modern Russian language in quantitative and qualitative terms. In the development of the Russian language, the system of vowels decreased, while the system of consonant phonemes increased. If in modern Russian there are 6 vowel phonemes (according to the Leningrad phonological school), then in the X-XI centuries. Old Russian had 10 vowel phonemes: 5 in front and 5 in front. In addition to the front vowels [e] and [i] inherent in the modern language, as well as the non-front row [s], [y], [o], [a], there were front vowels [m], [d] and reduced front row [b], reduced non-front row [b]. For the Old Russian language, such a characteristic of vowels as the front and non-front row (according to the formation zone) was very important, since the law of syllabic vowel harmonism continued to operate (in one syllable, a solid consonant could be combined with a non-front vowel, and soft consonant with a front vowel). Also, unlike the modern Russian language, the vowel system of the Old Russian language was characterized by the opposition of vowels of complete and incomplete formation (reduced vowels). The sound [m] differed in the Old Russian and Old Slavonic languages. So, among the Eastern Slavs it was a narrow, closed, medium-high rise sound, and in the Old Slavonic it was a wide, open, middle-low rise. You can learn about the fate of the sound [m] 1) by the reflexes of this sound: later this sound coincided with [e] in Russian (there is no transition e > 'o in the position after a soft consonant before a hard one under stress in modern Russian) , and in Ukrainian - with [and]; on the territory of the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, before a hard consonant in place of this sound, we find [‘a] (cf. Russian bread and Bulgarian bread); 2) according to these monuments - according to the mistakes that scribes made: in ancient Russian written monuments we observe a mixture of the letter h (“yat”) with the letter “e” or, in a later period, with “i”, and in the ancient Glagolitic alphabet (Old Slavic language) we find a mixture with the letter “a etovannye”. Reduced sounds were lost approximately in the second half of the 12th century. (for details, see p.20 - 39). Already by the middle of the X century. Eastern Slavs lost nasal vowels: in a position before a consonant (*menta > mint, *zvonkъ > sound) or at the end of a word (*vermen > time), diphthongic combinations became monophthongized, then the sound [o] coincided in sound with [y], i.e. *on > *[o] > [y], and [e] gave [d] (in modern language ['a]), i.e. *en > *[k] > [d] > ['a]. Thus, nasal sounds were formed from combinations of “vowel and nasal consonant” in the position before the consonant and at the end of the word, i.e. in the position of a closed syllable; in the position before the vowel, these combinations remained unchanged, because. the vowel from this combination went to the previous one, and the consonant to the next syllable, as a result of which all syllables remained open (*zvo|nъ|kъ > bell). Evidence that nasal sounds were lost as early as the 10th century. In the East Slavic languages, there is, for example, the work of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus “On the peoples”, which contains some East Slavic names of the Dnieper rapids, recorded by Porphyrogenitus as he heard them. The spelling of the names of the rapids Verutzi and Neasit does not convey nasal sounds (cf. Old Slavic spell shchi ‘boiling’ and don’t eat ‘pelican’). The confusion of the letters “yus big” and “yus small” with the letters “uk” and “a etovannye” already in the earliest written monuments (cf. the Ostromir Gospel) also testifies to the loss of nasal sounds in the 10th century. The fact that nasal sounds were known to the East Slavic languages is proved, firstly, by the presence of alternations (Old Russian pozhimati - pozhmu - pozhati (in modern Russian - pozhmat - pozhmu - pozhat); tugyi - thrust (in modern Russian language - tight-traction): see their explanation on p. we do not observe nasal vowels: compare Finnish word kuontalo 'tow' and Russian kudel); thirdly, with the help of correspondences with other languages (dr. rouka, lit. ranka). In the Slavic languages, nasal sounds have been preserved only in Polish and some dialects of Macedonia. Exercises recommended for independent work: 1. Vasilenko I. A. Historical grammar of the Russian language: Sat. exercises: No. 44; 2. Collection of exercises on the history of the Russian language /E. N. Ivanitskaya and others: No. 55, 58. The origin of vowels [a]< 1) *а и *о 2) на месте *е находим не [м], а звук [а] после мягкого согласного в глаголах 4-го класса (кричать); [о] < 1) *а и *o 2) в XII в. в результате падения редуцированных перешел в [о] в сильной позиции редуцированный непереднего ряда из *u; [ы] < *u; [у] < 1) дифтонга *ou (сухой), 2) дифтонга *eu (плюну) 3) о (буду, дубъ) – у восточных славян с середины X в.; [и] < 1) *i (иго), 2) *jь после гласных, 3) дифтонгов *ei, *oi (например, в Им. п. мн. ч. суще- ствительных с основой на *o, в повелительном наклонении глаго- лов I-II классов); [е] < 1) *e (медовый), 2) в XII в. в результате падения редуцированных пере- шел в [е] в сильной позиции редуцированный переднего ряда < *i (день), 3) позднее с [е] совпал также звук [м] < *е (мhлъ >chalk), diphthongs *oi (seed) and *ei (sin). Let us dwell on the history of diphthongic combinations: in a position before a vowel, they were preserved, because this did not contradict the law of the open syllable, but in the position before the consonant and at the end of the word, as a result of the law of the open syllable, diphthongs became monophthongized (*oi > [*i], [*e]; *ei > [*i]; *ou > [*u]; *eu > 15 [*'u]). The origin of this or that sound in most cases can be found out with the help of alternations in the modern Russian language. Exercises recommended for independent work: 1. Collection of exercises on the history of the Russian language / E. N. Ivanitskaya: No. 71; 2. Vasilenko I. A. Historical grammar of the Russian language: Sat. exercises: No. 104 - 110. Alternations in the region of vowels 1. Dry - dry - dry out - hyi - shhnuti - dry up); [y] from the diphthong *ou, which could alternate with its non-syllabic element both long and short *ou // [ *u] // [*u] *ou in the position before the consonant was monophthongized into [y], * u gave [s], and *u is a reduced non-front row, which later moved to [o] in a strong position. You can show this alternation for different periods of the language: Ind.-Heb. - *ou // [*u] // [*u]; other Russian - [y] // [s] // [b]; modern Russian lang. - [y] // [s] // [o]. 2. Send - ambassador - send *u], and the reduced non-front row - to [*u], i.e. we have a quantitative alternation, which, due to the fall of the reduced ones, was transformed into a three-term alternation [s] // [o] // [o ]. 3. Mouth - mouth In modern Russian, we find the alternation [o] // [o]; therefore, in Old Russian there was an alternation [b] // [b] (b< [*u]): в сильной позиции редуцированный непереднего ряда перешел в [о], а в слабой утратился (рътъ – ръта). 4. Конь – коня 16 Если в современном языке не наблюдаем чередования [е] или [о] / / [o];следовательно, [о] восходит к *o (cр. древнерусск. конь – кон а). 5. Волк – волка В современном языке не наблюдаем беглости гласных, но при анализе подобных примеров необходимо помнить, что в древнерус- ском языке для редуцированных в корне слова между согласными в сочетании редуцированного с плавным была абсолютно сильная позиция (вълкъ – вълка). Следовательно, после падения редуциро- ванных чередования [е] или [о] // [o] не возникало. В данном случае [o] восходит к редуцированному непереднего ряда в сильной пози- ции ([ъ] < [*u]). 6.День – дня В современном языке находим чередование [е] // [о]; следова- тельно, в древнерусском языке (дьнь – дьна) ему соответствовало чередование [ь] // [ь] ([ь] < [*i]): в сильной позиции редуцированный переднего ряда перешел в [е], а в слабой утратился. 7. Леса – лес В современном русском языке не наблюдаем чередования [е] / / [о]; следовательно, [е] не из редуцированного переднего ряда в силь- ной позиции; нет перехода [е] >[‘o] after a soft consonant before a hard one under stress, therefore, [e] is not from [*e]. In this case, [e] goes back to the sound [m], which coincided with [e] when the action of the transition [e] > [‘o] ended (lhsa – lhsb). 8. Honey - honey In modern Russian there is a transition [e] > [‘o] after a soft consonant before a hard one under stress, but there is no alternation with zero sound; therefore, [e] from [*e] (Old Russian honey - honey). 9.Tugoy - to stretch In modern Russian, the alternation of [u] // ['a] is explained by the fact that both sounds go back to diphthongic combinations of vowels with nasal consonants: [u]< [*о] < *on, а [‘а] < [д]< [*к] < *en (в свою очередь чередование *en // *on восходит к древнейшему индоев- 17 ропейскому качественному чередованию [е] // [о]). 10. Пожимать – жму – жать В современном русском языке чередование им // м // ‘а является результатом измененного в следствие падения редуцированных чере- дования [им] // [ьм] // [д] (пожимати – жьму – жати). Данное чередо- вание связано с историей носовых гласных. Перед гласным сочета- ние гласного с носовым согласным сохранялось, т. к. слогораздел делил это сочетание пополам, и ничто не противоречило закону от- крытого слога (в слове жьму редуцированный находился в слабой позиции, и поэтому утратился; [ь] // [и] на ступени удлинения редук- ции: это количественное чередование [*i] // [*i]). Перед согласным же происходилo изменение сочетания гласного с носовым согласным в результате действия открытого слога: *im < [*к] < [д] < [’а]. 11. Нужно различать 1) качественные чередования – чередова- ния гласных, разных по артикуляции (например, [*e] // [*o]) и 2) коли- чественные чередования – чередования по долготе и краткости глас- ных одной артикуляции ([*e] // [*м]). Количественные чередования име- ли ступень редукции, т. е. ослабленную ступень чередующихся глас- ных: ступень краткости ([е] // [о]) - ступень долготы ([м] // [а]) - сту- пень редукции ([ь] // [ъ]) - ступень удлинения редукции([и] // [ы]). Поэтому чередования в древнерусском языке типа беру – бьра- ти – отъборъ – собирати объясняются следующим образом: [е] // [о] – кaчественное чередование на ступени краткости (беру - отъборъ), [е] // [ь] – чередование на ступени редукции (беру - бьрати), ь // и – чередование на ступени удлинения редукции (бьрати - собирати). Подобные чередования можно показать для разных периодов языка: инд.-евр. – [*e] // [*o ] // [*е] // [*о] // [*i] // [*u] // [*i] // [*u]; древнерусск. – [е] // [о] // [м] // [а] // [ь] // [ъ] // [и] // [ы]; совр. русск. яз. – [е] // [о] // [а] // [и] // [ы]. Примечание. Присутствие всех ступеней чередования необя- зательно. На славянской почве индоевропейское чередование [е] // [о] может выступать в виде качественно-количественного чередования [м] // [a] (древнерусск. лhзу – лазити). Звуки [e] и [o] могли входить в состав дифтонгов [*i] < *ei || *oi >[m] and [and] (cf. crown - viti, pour over - pour over 18) or as part of diphthongs *ju< *eu || *ou > [u] (a miracle is a magician, where the former alternation of vowels turned into an alternation of consonants on Slavic soil). 12. Veite – twist In the modern language, we find an alternation of // and: in the position before the vowel, the diphthong *ei was preserved, and before the consonant, as a result of the law of open syllable, the diphthong became monophthongized. 13. Guard - guard - guard The alternation of ere // oro // ra arose as a result of the operation of the law of an open syllable from the combinations *tert, *telt, *tort, *tolt, and in different Slavic languages the syllable was opened in different ways: in In the Old Slavonic language, there was a permutation of the vowel and smooth and lengthening of the vowel sound (*ra is a non-vowel combination), in the West Slavic languages there was also a permutation of the vowel with a smooth, but there was no lengthening of the vowel (*ro), and in East Slavic languages, the vowel before the smooth vowel was preserved, and the opening of the syllable proceeded by developing the same articulation after the smooth secondary vowel (*oro is a full vowel combination). The alternation of oro // ere goes back to the ancient Indo-European qualitative alternation [e] // [o]. Exercises recommended for independent work: 1. Collection of exercises on the history of the Russian language / E. N. Ivanitskaya: No. 78; 2. Vasilenko I. A. Historical grammar of the Russian language: Sat. exercises: No. 41. 3. Dementiev A. A. Collection of tasks and exercises on the historical grammar of the Russian language: No. 5 (a, b), 6. History of reduced sounds 19 Determination of the positions of reduced sounds In the XII century. there was a process of the fall of the reduced ones, which consisted in the loss of the reduced ones in a weak position and their change into [o] and [e] in a strong position. It should be borne in mind that the reduced ones were pronounced differently in the strong and weak positions: by the time they were lost in the weak position, these sounds were pronounced very briefly, and in the strong, on the contrary, they began to approach the vowels of the full formation [o] and [e], which determined their future fate. The ability to correctly determine the positions of the reduced ones is a necessary condition for correct reading and understanding of the text. Weak (it is better to start talking about positions from the weak ones, because a strong position is due to the presence of weak ones) positions: 1. the end of a non-single word (house, horse); 2. before a syllable with a vowel of full education (stump, sleep); 3. before a syllable with a reduced one in a strong position (pirts, zhnts, die). Note. There is such a thing as an absolutely weak position (cf. in the words prince, many, when there are no cognate words in which the reduced would stand in a strong position). In such a situation there was a very early loss of the reduced ones. Already in the early written monuments we find the spelling of these words without the reduced one. So, in the inscription on the Tmutarakan stone (1068), the word prince is written without the reduced one. Strong positions: 1. before a syllable in which the reduced is in a weak position (zhnts, vys); 2. in the initial first syllable under stress, and the prefix often does not affect, because the root syllable is important (revenge is a noun in R. falling singular); 3. in monosyllabic words, excluding prepositions (for example, pronouns tъ, с, union нъ) - this position can be considered a variation of the previous one; 4. in combination with a reduced one with a smooth one between consonants at the root of the word, regardless of other conditions (targ, vlk, zrno). 20

Place of education Way of education	Anterior-lingual	middle language	Back-lingual	pharyngeal
explosive
fricatives	s s ’ s’ w’ w’ w’ h’ts’


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