Formation of the state of the Xiongnu.

The first mention of the Xiongnu in written sources dates back to 822 BC, when they make a grandiose campaign against China. In the III century. BC. Xiongnu attacks intensify, which forced the Chinese emperors to build the Great Wall. The Xiongnu in this period were a union of kindred clans headed by an elected leader. In 209 BC the son of the leader Tuman Mode declared himself a sengir - "the highest", and began active work to create the Xiongnu state. First, the eastern neighbors of the Xiongnu were defeated.

- Donghu tribes. Following this, the Xiongnu were subjugated by the Yuezhi and Usuns in the west, the Loufan and Bayan tribes in the south. The strengthening of the Xiongnu did not go unnoticed by China, where at that time a new dynasty, the Han, was established. The war between the Xiongnu and China ended in 188. BC. defeat of the Han troops. Emperor Gao-di, along with his troops, was surrounded by Mount Baiden. Only the generosity of Mode allowed the emperor to escape, and soon a peace was concluded, according to which China undertook to pay an annual tribute.

After Mode's death, the period of peace continued for several decades. The emperor Wu-di violated it. The war, which began in 123 BC, proceeded with varying success. The Chinese managed to oust the Xiongnu from the Ordos, however, in 90 BC. at Mount Yanshan they suffered a crushing defeat. Sengir Hulagu dictated the terms of the peace. However, peace did not last long. In 59 BC civil strife began in the state of the Xiongnu, connected with the struggle of the heirs of sengir for power, and skillfully fueled by Chinese diplomacy. In 47 BC The Xiongnu were divided into two parts - northern and southern. The former accepted citizenship of the Chinese Empire, the latter retained their independence. Part of the northern Xiongnu, stubbornly resisting Chinese aggression, were forced to migrate to the Kangar country. Thus, at the turn of our era, the mass migration of the Xiongnu tribes to the territory of Kazakhstan begins. In 93, the northern Huns, pressed by the Chinese troops, reached Tarbagatai, then the steppes of Central Kazakhstan and the banks of the Syr Darya.

Political system of the Xiongnu.

At the head of the Xiongnu state was a monarch, called "Born by heaven and earth, set by the sun and moon, the Xiongnu great sengir." Often, Sengirs also bore the title "tankir kut" - "possessing heavenly grace." The main form of succession to the throne was a will, although often power was transferred to a son. There were also frequent facts of usurpation of power and the election of a sengir by the nobility. Sengir performed military, diplomatic, religious functions, being not only the ruler, but also the high priest of the Xiongnu people.

Sengir belonged to the Si family, and only his representatives could claim the throne. In addition, there were three more noble families - Huyan, Xuybu, Lan, from which the sengir could take a wife. The highest ranks in the state were also occupied by representatives of these clans.

The hierarchy of officials in the state of the Xiongnu was very cumbersome and complex. The five upper classes of officials dealt exclusively with the relatives of the sengir. These are “wise princes”, “luli-princes”, “great commanders”, “chief managers”, “great bosses”. The next ranks were occupied by members of noble families. All ranks were divided into “left” and “right”, which also meant “senior” and “junior”. In addition to the tribal aristocracy, there was also a serving nobility - "kutluga", who were "assistants", and the nobles did all the work of governing the country. In total, there were 24 senior officials in the Xiongnu state apparatus, each of whom had his own squad (from 10 to 2 thousand people) and, for the duration of their duties, received appanages from the sengir for administration. The noble families were ruled by their princes, whose power was based on authority.

Over time, the genus of sengir increased and in order to provide their relatives with positions, the rulers expanded the bureaucracy. So new ranks appeared - the great juikyu and the zhichzho prince.

In the state of the southern Xiongnu, the system of government has changed somewhat. The first two classes of ranks remained unchanged and were combined into the "four horns". These positions belonged to the relatives of the sengir. This is followed by the "six horns" - zhizhuo, vynyuydi and zhangyandi, from noble families. The next in importance were kutlug and zhichzho-kutlug, and after them were “chiefs”, “managers” and shukyuy. In addition, a new system of succession to the throne was established in the southern Xiongnu, when brothers alternately occupied the throne, and then their children. Custom was the main source of law for the Huns. The Chinese noted that the laws of the Xiongnu were "easy and convenient to enforce." The trial lasted no more than 10 days, the number of people detained at the same time did not exceed ten people. The most important crimes were punishable by death. For theft - the confiscation of the property of the criminal, for minor offenses, cuts were made on the face.

At the same time, codes of laws appeared among the ancient nomads. Thus, the code created by Mode-sengir punished by death for violating military discipline and evading military service.

State of the Huns. Attila.

Part of the northern Xiongnu in the 1st c. AD entered the territory of Kazakhstan. Soon they found themselves between the Volga, the Don and the Aral Sea. Here, in a small space, the Xiongnu, Alans and Kangars roamed for three centuries, entering into political relations (both peaceful and military) with the great powers of antiquity Iran and the Roman Empire. By this time they had lost their ethnic identity and assimilated with the local nomadic tribes. A new ethnic group was formed, which, unlike the Xiongnu, we will call the Huns. So they were called by Western sources.

In 375, the Huns, led by Balamber, who then roamed the steppes of the lower Volga region, crossed the Don and defeated the tribal union of the Ostrogoths. The Visigoths who lived to the west of the Ostrogoths, fleeing the Huns, crossed the Danube and settled in Thrace, within the Eastern Roman Empire. Thus began the Great Migration of Nations. Gradually, the Huns penetrated further and further to the west, often invading the Eastern Roman Empire. In 305 they brought them to the walls of Constantinople, in the same year they raided Transcaucasia and Mesopotamia. From unorganized predatory raids, the Huns move on to major conquests. The onslaught of the Huns on Roman lands was especially intensified under King Rugil (the first third of the 5th century), who managed to capture the rich Roman Danubian provinces. From now on, Pannonia (the territory of modern Hungary) becomes the center of the Hunnic state. The Eastern Roman emperor undertook to pay Rugila 350 pounds of gold annually, hasty wars with the Romans enriched the Hunnic nobility, which made it possible to live in luxury, own a large number of cattle and slaves.

In 434, after the death of Rugila, power passes into the hands of his nephews, the sons of his brother Mundzuk-Blede and Attila (Edil). In 437, the Huns defeated the Kingdom of Burgundy - an event that formed the basis of the plot of the Nibelungenlied. In 445, Attila, having killed his brother Bleda, became the sole ruler. The period of his short but eventful reign began.

Attila brought down his first blows on the Eastern Roman Empire, which he forced to pay an annual tribute in 448. Then, uniting the Germanic tribes of the Heruls, Ostrogoths and Gepids, he began a war against the Western Roman Empire, in alliance with which the Visigoths, Alans, Burgundians, and Franks acted. The battle that took place in 451 between the two armies ended in the defeat of Attila, but the very next year his troops approached Rome and forced the emperor to flee the capital. After the death of Attila in 453, his power fell apart.

Discord began between his sons. The conquered tribes took advantage of this. The first to revolt were the Gepids, who lived in Pannonia and the Carpathians. In the battle on the Nedar River, the Huns were defeated. Attila's eldest son, Ellac, died. The younger son, Irnak, left the territory west of the Carpathians with the remnants of the Huns and went to the Black Sea region. Here the unified Hun state broke up into separate possessions - Khazar, Uturgur, Kuturgur, Sabir. These tribes, occupying the territory from the Danube to the Volga, were often at enmity with each other.

With the massive penetration of the Huns into the territory of Kazakhstan and the further movement of the Hun and Kangar tribes to the west, the change in the anthropological type of the indigenous population and the spread of the proto-Kipchak dialect of the Turkic language are associated.

Social system and economy of the Xiongnu and Huns.

The Xiongnu had a well-organized army. It was based on mobile and maneuverable cavalry. Patriarchal-tribal relations in the Xiongnu society reached their peak, but new social relations were already brewing in its depths. There was private family ownership of livestock. Materials of excavations, burials of the Xiongnu nobility indicate property inequality.

In property rights, we see features that are characteristic of most nomadic societies. Each Xiongnu family owned a strip of land on which they farmed. Mountain forests were considered common property and were in the use of individual clans. Deserted and inconvenient for farming lands were owned by the state. Among the Usuns, the land was owned by the family, there were forbidden "royal" lands.

The Xiongnu, like other nomads of Eurasia, lived in yurts, winter dwellings. The dwellings of the Huns had a heating system - the chimneys of the hearths, laid horizontally against the walls, heated the houses. Over the chimneys, sun loungers or bunks were arranged.

Xiongnu clothing was made mainly from leather and wool. Chinese silk and cotton were also used.
Cattle breeding played the main role in the economy of the Xiongnu. Almost all livestock was kept on pasture all year round. Among them are known settled tribes of farmers.

The crisis of the early states of Kazakhstan.

Further development of productive forces, ethnic processes that took place in Central Asia led to a crisis and the collapse of the ancient states of Kazakhstan. The Xiongnu occupied the lands of the Kangars and Usuns and founded the state of Yueban in the central part of southern Kazakhstan. In the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, the Hephthalites, Semirechye, in the 5th century, fortified. submitted to the Central Asian state of Zhujan. In 490, the Yuebans were defeated by the Teles tribes, who founded the state of Gaogui in East Kazakhstan. It was divided into two parts, the northern ruler bore the title of "Heavenly Emperor", the southern - "Hereditary Sovereign". However, six years later this state was defeated and fell under the rule of the Rourans. So, by the middle of the 5th c. AD the ancient states of Kazakhstan practically ceased to exist.

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Hun writings
(origins of domestic writing)

At the top is the "Dengizikh Dish", with an inscription - an example of domestic (Russian) writing of the first half of the 5th century, probably a polyethnic runic, which allows for its Indo-European (including Slavic - one of the many variants of the correspondence alphabet is given), Türkic (Türkic translation is given) and Finno -Ugric interpretations. The ethnic appearance of Attila's son (in the form of Prince Varahran) is also more polyethnic. On the reverse side of the dish there is a tamga reminiscent of Khorezmian, but differing from it in details, which was previously known from the coins of the emperors of Great Scythia (for example, Skilur and Farzoy). Slavic and Finno-Ugric variants are specified directly by the artifact.
Turkic translation: "Beware of the blow of King Dikkiz the Wise! Retreat to the god of the underworld!" Although the inscription is engraved in excellent handwriting, it turned out - for example, for Turkologists - the most difficult to reproduce and translate. The fact is that, in general, the inscriptions of the above-mentioned vessels are of a religious nature and are to some extent identical, while the inscription of the vessel (its No. 53) differs sharply from them in content and is completely unique in this sense.
Judging by the peculiarities of the graphics and the design of the words, not to mention the presence in the inscription of the name of King Dikkiza - (in the sources the name is still Dengizikh, which clearly speaks of "money"), the son of the ruler of the state of "Scythia and Germany" Attila, the inscription refers to the language of Western Huns. The first word is the title "king" in contrast to the legends of Turanian coins, where it is minted in the form of kingu, in the inscription of the bowl it is engraved as kink - with the letter k at the end, and the word as a whole ends in the consonant r, which is an indicator of the form of the accusative case, those. the word is translated as "king".
The first letter of the second word - the name Dickiz - is peculiar. This is an interdental d, reminiscent of the pronunciation of both d and the letter from the Turanian alphabet. Having seen Attila and his sons with his own eyes, the Byzantine Priscus of Ponia in his travel notes gives the name of Attila's second son as Diggizih. The third word iki - in the ancient Turkic language uga - means "wise" (Baba Yaga of the Slavs), therefore in this case this word is a title.
The name of the son of Attila given by Priscus in the form of Diggizikh, apparently included the title. The fourth word kiser - "cut" - has at the end a diminutive-excretory particle kiya (Kiy of Russian chronicles), which gives this word the meaning of a "special" or "favorite" blow with a sword.
In the dictionary of M. Kashgari, sak sok (in the inscription of the bowl sokh sokh) is translated as "be vigilant!", "beware!". Some stunning of consonants is explained by the peculiarity of the language of the Huns. The next, sixth word of the skhnyl inscription can be read as sakhynyl and as sykhynyl (sokhynyl), but depending on the permutation of the vowels a or y (o), the meaning of this word changes. Judging by the content, the second option is more consistent with the meaning of the inscription.
In the ancient Turkic language, syk or juice means "to push" (in battle) or "to stick" somewhere. The word syhynyl with the end of the passive voice can be translated: "be repressed" or "be stuck in." The last phrase gur tengriga means "to the God of the underworld".
Literature:
Azgar MUKHAMADIEV. TURANIAN WRITING // Problems of linguistic and ethnohistory of the Tatar people. Kazan, 1995. pp. 36-83.
http://www.russika.ru/t.php?t=2528

Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnia
http://www.lenpravda.ru/blog/1506
http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus/Prisc/frametext.htm
http://forum.boinaslava.net/showthread.php?t=11289&page=12
http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_Ru/03/hm3_5_4b.html
Now in the Hermitage. Sasanian Iran
Known as the Dish "Varahran on the hunt" End of IV - beginning of Vc.

Nowadays, there are several points of view on the origin of the Late Antique Imenkovo ​​culture of the Middle Volga region [Mukhamadiyev A.G., 1990, 65]. VF Gening, who discovered it, believed that it was formed as a result of the influx of Turkic tribes from the east. However, along with the eastern sources, there were western sources of this culture, which became more intense especially after the formation of a strong western power of the Huns (III-V centuries), which included the tribes of the Khazars and Bulgars, and the Slavs.
The number of vessels from the Volga and Ural regions that have only come down to us is several dozen copies. In the scientific literature, the Kama silver was called Sasanian silver after the dynasty that ruled in Iran from 268 to 651, but researchers have long noticed that the finds of Sasanian items made of precious metals in Iran itself are numbered in units. Reliable cases of finds do not exceed three copies [Orbeli I.A., Trever K.V., 1935, II; modern clarifications are needed]. Based on the Turanian (Central Asian) inscriptions, on some vessels of religious symbols associated with the content of the inscriptions, Turkologists believe that it would be fair to call the vessels found in the Volga and Ural regions Turanian metal. The imported vessels of Byzantine and Arabic origin belong to a later period and complement the above-mentioned corpus of vessels. There is a high probability that we have before us the products of the polyethnic culture of the Huns, who inherited the traditions of the cultures of the polyethnic Sarmatia and Scythia.
Interest in various kinds of ancient things, especially from precious metals, intensified under the Romanov dynasty, when many mounds and even ordinary burials were opened by the Cossacks, who, "exploring new lands", organized artels of several hundred people for predatory excavations. Ancient vessels made of precious metals were mainly remelted. Only since the 18th century they start collecting. Some of them entered the Peter's Kunstkamera.
Artistically executed vessels made of precious metals from the Volga and Ural regions, discovered in the pre-Soviet period, were published in two consolidated pre-war works with illustrations [Smirnov Ya.I. 1909; Orbeli I.A., Trever K.V., 1935].
On the edges of some bowls or vessels there are fairly clearly engraved inscriptions in Turanian letters. Ya.I. Smirnov in his introductory article regarding the mentioned inscriptions writes: "The inscriptions on the group of cups (42-47, 286), apparently ending with the designation of weight, are not readable, according to Academician K.G. Zaleman, as they are written apparently in some unknown language.
He attributed them to the late period of the "Indo-Scythian kingdom" III-VII centuries. and found analogues on some images on bowls to deities, on Indian coins of the Gupta dynasty [Smirnov Ya.I., 1909, 6-7). This version needs to be developed.
S.P. Tolstov, examining the inscriptions, noted that "all the signs of the coins turned out to be presented on the bowls and only a few signs on the latter are missing on the coin legends" [Tolstov S.P., 1948, 193]. Although he carefully examined the various images of people, animals and plants engraved on the vessels, he could not clearly read any single word from the inscriptions placed on them.
Ya.I. Smirnov mentions in his work seven silver and gilded bowls with inscriptions, although in fact there are more of them.
Another find is known, which came to the museum in 1951, a silver dish with a rather long inscription [Bader O.N., Smirnov A.P., 1954, 15]. Perhaps, in the funds of museums in Russia and other countries, where they were exported from the Volga and Ural regions, there are much more of them. As the contents of the inscriptions show, they are mainly of a religious nature. Consequently, many bowls with peculiar images of animals, plants, etc., i.e. symbols associated with religious ideas belong to the same circle of "Turanian" metal. The images of people on some bowls, judging by the inscriptions, refer to the rulers of Turan or the Huns. Images of wild and predatory animals in a state of struggle among themselves or in majestic peace against the background of a sacred tree, water and earth on bowls without inscriptions directly go back to the Hun-Turkic world of views, and to the Scytho-Sarmatian animal style ..
Greco-Bactrian art also had a noticeable influence on the decoration of Turanian type vessels, especially for the early periods.
Judging by the Hindu content of most of the inscriptions on the vessels, the presence on some of them of a four-armed deity holding a scepter, a club, a symbol of the moon and the sun, which the Huns, including the Turans, worshiped, is not accidental.
Hinduism, presumably, especially during the period of Kushan rule, deeply penetrated into the beliefs and culture of the Turans. Apparently, vessels made of precious metals were in great demand as special ritual objects with images of gods and drawings of religious symbols minted on them. But at the same time it is evidence of the spread of such cults in the north of ancient Scythia and Sarmatia.
The distribution area of ​​such vessels is quite wide: from Perm and Orenburg to Nizhny Novgorod, where before the appearance of the latter there was a Bulgar city. But, basically, they are found in the Kama region. The neighborhood of the Tatar village of Bartym, Perm Region, located on the right bank of the Bartym River, is recognized as the richest place of finds. Perhaps the very name of the village retained echoes of ancient rituals. According to M. Kashgari, a philologist of the 11th century, the word bart in the ancient Turkic (Oguz dialect) language meant "vessel", "goblet".
Ancient vessels made of precious metals sometimes come from settlements or burials. There are known cases of finding them near the settlements of the Lomatov culture. There are also two relatively late Arab vessels found in the burial ground [Bader O.N., Smirnov A.P., 1954, 20]. The conditions for finding vessels are often random. For example, in 1925, a Byzantine dish was found by a peasant from the village of Bartym G. Davletshin while plowing. In 1947, a resident of the same village, tractor driver H. Kaprizov, found a boat-shaped silver bowl. In 1949, in the same field, a massive silver goblet was found by foreman Kaliullin, and in 1950, by the collective farmer Faizkhanov, a large silver bowl containing 264 silver coins was found. In 1951, a student of the Kopchik school (the village of Kopchik is located near Bartym) M. Salikhov, near the village of Bartym, found a silver gilded dish with figures of two lions and with a Turanian inscription.
Subsequently, the researchers, by interviewing local residents, established the places of all the finds. However, their dispersal and reconnaissance pits and excavations have shown that under the arable layer 25-30 cm thick lies continental loam, and there are no traces of the presence of a cultural layer [Bader O.N., Smirnov A.P., 1954, 7].
The presence of Indian gods on some vessels, apparently, prompted Stralenberg, a Swedish officer who was captured at Poltava, to try to prove the existence in antiquity of a great trade route from India to Biarmia and to the White Sea. Perm collector V.F. Teploukhov suggested that the ancient inhabitants of the northern regions used ancient silver in pagan sanctuaries, and some ethnographers described cases when metal plates and coins of European origin were used in Ostyak sanctuaries [Bader 0.11., Smirnov A.P., 1954, 21]. These versions are also viable.
Ya.I. Smirnov in a brief introduction to his atlas of "eastern silver" I.A. Orbeli and K.V. Trever, as well as O.N. Bader and A.P. Smirnov adhere to similar positions. True, these facts and descriptions by ethnographers of the use of metal bowls in pagan sanctuaries are late, secondary, and nothing indicates their direct connection with ancient cult rites.
If such connections existed, then - the Turkologists note - we would know about such a massive use of Khazar, Bulgar or Golden Horde vessels and coins for cult purposes, i.e. cult objects of the intermediate periods, but these are not known.
The Bartym localities show that the objects were found in different places where there were no dwellings or settlements. Therefore, their appearance - most likely - is associated with the activity of nomads. If it were otherwise, there would be ancestral settlements of forest tribes, and not just sanctuaries. The clan was small and included no more than 45-50 people [Gening VF, 1967, 37]. Therefore, highly artistically made vessels made of precious metals and clearly descended from the banquet tables of the rulers of nomadic empires or world powers were hardly accessible items for such families.
In one of the burials of the Bartymsky burial ground, a well-preserved copper coin was found, minted on behalf of the king of Turan Sakassak, i.e. alphabetically identical with the inscription of bowls from Bartym [Mukhamadiyev A.G., 1990, 58].
The presence of artistically executed symbols and inscriptions of a religious nature on the bowls indicates that they were made not for sale to wild natives, but for themselves, for complex cult rituals, for a population with a fairly high culture and a developed written civilization.
Reading the above inscriptions is often preliminary. The main difficulty in reading inscriptions is that the signs are not always exactly copied by the publishers. Visual acquaintance with the inscriptions of bowls scattered over various funds is necessary. Therefore, after direct acquaintance with them, some letters that are not very clearly readable, and possibly individual words, can be corrected.
The next difficulty in reading inscriptions is that, unlike coins, they are unique; are rare, and in the design of the inscription, much depended on the literacy and skill of the chaser who engraved the inscription. Some inscriptions are made so gracefully and competently that they can be used to clarify the correct spelling of individual letters, while other inscriptions resemble a complex riddle - a puzzle.

The Dengiz (Varahrana) dish was discovered in 1893 in the village. Kerchev, Cherdynsky district, Perm province. Gilded silver, diameter 28 cm.
On the inside of the dish there is a classical image of King Varahran (?) on horseback, chopping a boar that attacked him with a straight sword. On the king's head is a crown in the form of ram's horns. Above the horns is a circle (the sun). The king's face is bearded, his mustache is twisted up, and on his right visible ear is an earring.
On the reverse side of the dish there is a tamga reminiscent of Khorezm, but differing from it in details. Further, the Turanian inscription is engraved in magnificent handwriting and competently.

http://barda-perm.narod.ru/perm/tarih/animal_style_3.jpg
Rice. 11. Dish with an inscription with the name Diggizikh.
Inscription style (Fig. 11):

Transliteration:

Translation: Beware of the blow of King Dikkiz the Wise! Retreat to the god of the underworld!

Although the inscription is engraved with excellent handwriting, it turned out to be the most difficult to reproduce and translate. The fact is that, in general, the inscriptions of the above-mentioned vessels of a religious nature are identical to some extent, and the inscription of the vessel differs sharply from them in content and is completely unique in this sense.
Secondly, judging by the peculiarities of graphics and word design, not to mention the presence in the inscription of the name of King Dikkiz - the son of the ruler of the state of "Scythia and Germany" Attila, the inscription refers to the language of the Western Huns.
The first word is the title "king" in contrast to the legends of Turanian coins, where it is minted in the form of kingu, in the inscription of the bowl it is engraved as kink - with the letter k at the end, and the word as a whole ends in the consonant r, which is an indicator of the form of the accusative case, those. the word is translated as "king".
The first letter of the second word - the name Dickiz - is peculiar. This is an interdental d, reminiscent of the pronunciation of both d and the letter from the Turanian alphabet. Having seen Attila and his sons with his own eyes, the Byzantine Priscus of Ponia in his travel notes gives the name of Attila's second son as Diggizih.
The third word iki - in the ancient Turkic language uga - means "wise", therefore in this case this word is a title. The name of the son of Attila given by Priscus in the form of Diggizikh, apparently included the title.
The fourth word kiser - "cut" - has at the end a diminutive-excretory particle kiya, which gives this word the meaning of "special" or "favorite" blow with a sword.
In M. Kashgari's dictionary, sak sok (in the inscription of the bowl sokh sokh) is translated as "be vigilant!", "beware!". Some stunning of consonants is explained by the peculiarity of the language of the Huns.
The next, sixth word of the skhnyl inscription can be read as sakhynyl and as sykhynyl (sokhynyl), but depending on the permutation of the vowels a or y (o), the meaning of this word changes. Judging by the content, the second option is more consistent with the meaning of the inscription. In the ancient Turkic language, syk or juice means "to push" (in battle) or "to stick" somewhere. The word syhynyl with the end of the passive voice can be translated: "be repressed" or "be stuck in." The last phrase gur tengriga means "to the God of the underworld".
The inscription on bowl 53 is somewhat reminiscent of Attila's speech delivered by him in June 451 before the Battle of Catalunya. Encouraging the Huns and the Gothic warriors subordinate to him in the battle with the Roman legionnaires, he concluded his speech with the words that he would be the first to hit the enemy himself and that if someone else calmly stands still (does not run) when he strikes, consider that he is buried (in the afterlife) [Jordan, 1960, 238].

The earliest vessels with Turanian inscriptions appear in the 4th-6th centuries, i.e. mainly belong to the Hunnic period and are associated with the penetration of the early Turks into the Volga and Ural regions. The carriers of such a written civilization were, apparently, the Imenkovsky tribes, who, judging by the archaeological data, brought a peculiar and higher culture to the Volga and Ural regions. Large Imenkovo ​​settlements of the 5th-7th centuries, as noted, with a thick cultural layer and bronze casting workshops, where ingots were made - the earliest metal money in Eastern Europe, already resemble real early feudal cities [Mukhamadiyev A.G., 1990, 64] .
In the beliefs of the Imenkovites, apparently, a large place was occupied by Buddhism and Hinduism even before their merger, mixed with the paganism of the early Turks. Judging by the inscriptions of the vessels, great importance was attached not to the teachings of the Buddha, but to the very process of conducting religious ceremonies. This can be seen from the fact that not a single bowl contains a single quotation from the Buddhist teachings, but there is only a "living word" that can only make sense in the process of communicating with Tengri, i.e. with God.
One of the Buddhists of the early period wrote that "... our doctrine of the law - dharma is based on concentration and wisdom ... Students who master this idea should not say that the originally existing concentration became wisdom or that concentration and wisdom differ from each other from a friend" [Andrushkevich O.V., 1990, 75].
The modern researcher of Buddhism L. Abegg characterizes it this way: "We either feel, or philosophize, or pray, while in East Asia a person does it at the same time" [Andrushkevich O.V., 1990, 77].
Similar cult rites were performed, apparently, at the sacred fire, with countless utterances of religious phrases or incantation words. Various symbols were also used in everyday life, in particular, the swastika sign - a symbol of the sun and life. A similar sign is also found on the bottoms of the Hunnic ceramics of ancient times and on Turanian coins. One medieval Uyghur religious work says: suvastik akat from tag, i.e. "the swastika (by significance) as a sacred fire" [DTS, 1969, 31]. It should be added that in one of the Imenkovo ​​burials, an archaeologist
E.P. Kazakov discovered a bronze swastika talisman approximately 5x5 cm in size (the materials of this rich burial have not yet been published).
The time of penetration of artistically made vessels in the Volga and Ural regions is also recorded by numismatic data. The early coins accompanying the vessels date mainly from the 5th-6th centuries, and the appearance of both coins and vessels is undoubtedly associated with the formation of a strong union of the Imenkovites. For example, coins of the 3rd-4th centuries are quite rare. [Mukhamadiev A.G., 1990, 34].
Khorezmian coins of the 5th-6th centuries. were minted mainly from copper and therefore rarely went beyond the boundaries of the cities where they were produced. However, relatively often they are found in the Volga and Ural regions.
More common here for the 5th-6th centuries are the Sasanian coins. In the catalog of A.K.Markov, for example, the earliest of them belong to the coinage of Varahran V (420-438). Sassanid coins discovered in recent years during archaeological excavations also fit into this chronological framework, i.e. belong to the 5th-6th centuries. Sasanian coins of the 7th century BC are rare.
The new finds make it possible to clarify exactly when the import of Sasanian coins becomes more intense, and on the basis of this, to draw certain conclusions about when the contacts of the Imenkov tribes with Iran, which began during the reign of Varahran V, become more intense. For example, in the Bolshevik burial ground of the Chernomozsky district of the Perm region, among the 17 Sassandian drachmas found in burials, the earliest are 5 coins of Peroz (457, 459-484). The next 10 coins belong entirely to the VI century. and minted on behalf of five rulers, and only 2 drachmas belong to the 7th century.
In the Pevolinsky burial ground of the Kungursky district of the Perm region, out of 14 coins discovered, one drachma belongs to the coinage of Peroz, 6 - to the coinage of Khosrov I (531-579), and 5 drachmas - to the coinage of Khosrov II (591-628). One coin of Khorezmian minting belongs to the 6th century, one is indeterminate.
Coins from the Bartymsky burial ground in the Berezovsky district of the Perm region show the same chronological picture. Of the 8 coins, 2 belong to Peroz and 4 drachmas to Kavadu (488-531). One Byzantine coin belongs to the coinage of Justin II (565-578), and one Khorezmian coin of Sakassak, minted no later than the 6th century BC. (Mukhamadiyev A.G., 1990, 35].
Thus, the beginning of the penetration of Sasanian drachmas into the Volga and Ural regions dates back to the 20s of the 5th century, and a more abundant supply - to the 6th century. and ends in the 7th century. Byzantine, Arab coins and vessels from the Volga and Urals belong to relatively late times and are already associated with other historical and political events that took place in the region.
The desire to explain the import of precious metal to the Volga and Ural regions by the activity of Sogdian merchants, traced in the historical literature, does not stand up to elementary criticism and is not based on anything. First, as noted, many of the vessels clearly came from the tables of the crowned persons of Turan or Iran, i.e. this is a luxury, and it was not available to every Sogdian merchant.
Secondly, it should not be forgotten that in the early Middle Ages such long-distance trading operations were simply inaccessible to individual merchants due to the lack of roads and regular settlements to replenish food supplies. Even later in the tenth century, according to Marvazi, for example, the journey only from Khorezm to the land of the Bulgars took three months. This was also known to Ibn-Fadlan, who reports that they "stocked up with bread, millet, dried meat for three months" [Zakhoder B.N., 1967, II, 36].
It seems that such concepts are generated by an underestimation of the role of the state formations of the Volga and Ural regions. This region, rich in natural resources, was an economically powerful center not only of the Kazan Khanate or the Bulgar state, but also of such world powers of the early and late Middle Ages as the Khazar Khaganate or the Golden Horde.
Ancient intensive trade relations arose not only because there was some important product for export or for trade, but also because more developed tribes appeared - traders or strong tribal unions or states created by them. In the Volga and Ural regions, indeed, there was a product that was in great demand - furs. However, in the Middle Strip from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, there were fur-bearing animals everywhere, and witnesses of intensive exchange - coins and metal ingots of the early Middle Ages - are found only in the Volga and Ural regions. Judging by the numerous archaeological data, the Imenkovtsy were such a trading people. The weights of "commodity-commodities" - the early metal money of the Imenkovites (bronze ingots) - were associated with the drachma. Ingots were cast with a weight of 25 drachmas. They also became widespread in more northern regions and, curiously, continued to circulate there later, even in the Khazar-Bulgarian period [Mukhamadiyev A.G., 1990, 71].
Judging by the inscriptions on the bowls, it was not only a trading people, but also a people with a higher written civilization associated with Turan. Probably, not only the early, but also the subsequent history of the Imenkovtsy is closely connected with the history of Central Asia.
http://www.trinitas.ru/rus/doc/0211/008a/02111107-zolin.pdf

What were these tribes called? It seems that the self-name of these fairly well-known and strong tribes could not disappear without a trace from the pages of written sources. The Bulgars appear on the Volga somewhere at the beginning of the 8th century. These were the ruling or "royal" tribes, to which many other Turkic clans were subordinate. In the Scythian period, according to Herodotus, the Escolots were "royal", in the Sarmatian period - the Sarmatians, and later, according to Byzantine sources, the "royal Scythians" were already the Huns. Consequently, among the tribes that were subject to the Bulgars, there should have been those tribes that were indigenous or more ancient inhabitants of the Volga and Ural regions.
Arab authors mention the Barsil and Askel tribes, subordinate to the Bulgars (Zakhoder B.N., 1967, 102]. The Barsils in the role of the Imenkovtsy disappear for the reason that their history is closely connected with the history of the Khazars in the North Caucasus. The Barsils and Khazars are also mentioned in the runic monument of the 8th century from Mongolia [Klyashtorny S.G., 1990, 91], but it seems that they did not leave a special trace in the Middle Volga region.

The Barsils resemble the Bersite Slavs in the lands of Byzantium, as well as Barsilia (Versitia) - a kingdom that played a significant role in the formation of Khazaria and the early medieval history of Russia.

Barsils (versils in Russian?) and Askels were kindred peoples. Turkologists pay attention to the presence in the names of both tribes of the ancient Turkic word al - "union", although they are decorated differently. The name of the first one is often given by Arab authors as bersula, i.e. apparently, barsale is a "union of leopards", and one of the early Arab authors Ibn Rust cites the second one in two ways: asgel or askel (Khvolson D.A., 1869, 95).
Consequently, in the second case, the word al is connected with the name of the tribe by an outdated, more ancient Hunnic way of declension: asyg al, i.e. "union of aces". Ases or ases are known from more ancient sources. The double spelling can be explained by the peculiar pronunciation of the letter c in the As language. The expression "steppe basics" is found in the Tonyakuk monument of the beginning of the 8th century. [Malov S.E., 1951, line 23]. V.V. Bartold considered it possible to compare the Azov with the Asians - the generation of the Turgeshs of the 8th century. [Bartold V.V., 1943, 21].

It should also be said that in the very name of the Turgeshes, which in runic texts is transmitted as trgs and trgis, one can see "state" or "state-owned aces", in contrast to, say, "steppe basics", the phrase, by the way, in the runic text similarly to the word trgis, it is translated as chulgiz [Malov S.E., 1951, 23].
The Imenkovskaya culture occupies a vast territory between the Belaya, Kama and Volga rivers. Unfortunately, the names of fairly large Imenkovo ​​settlements of the early Middle Ages have not come down to us. It can only be assumed that the very word Siberia, which goes back to the name of the city of Isker, has retained distant echoes of times. Like the names of the cities Bulgar, Bilyar or Suvar, connected with the names of the tribes, Isker could also mean "the city of Ases". On the map of the Pitsigani brothers in 1367, the city of "Sibir" in the form of a small fortress is placed on the left bank of the Kama above the cities of Bulgar and Sakatina (Zhukotina), i.e. on the main lands of the Imenkovtsy.
Probably, the advance of the tribes with the Turanian written culture to the north began as early as the 4th century BC. and was associated with the collapse of the Kushan and the growing influence of Iran. A significant part of its lands was torn away from the Kushan kingdom by Iran: Sakastan, Turestan, etc. It seems that the main reasons for the resettlement were religious oppression by the fire-worshipping Persians after they seized the Turanian lands.
The liberation struggle against Sasanian Iran was started by the southern nomads Kidarites and the inhabitants of the north, the White Huns - Ephthalites. The Hephthalites professed Buddhism, borrowed from the Kushans. By the way, the Kushu tribes themselves were also part of the Turgesh tribes [Klyashtorny S.G., 1964, 162].
Borders of Iran in the first half of the 5th c. took place in the north of Turkestan. Further north were the lands of the Hephthalites. According to Menander, the Hephthalites lived in cities, and Procopius of Caesarea wrote: “Although the Hephthalites are the people of the Unn tribe, they are not mixed and do not communicate with the Unns known to us, because they have neither an area adjacent to them, nor do they live near them: but they neighbor with the Persians in the north, where the city called Gorgo (Urgench - A.M.), at the very Persian outskirts; here between them and the Persians there is often a war for borders, because they are not nomads and like other Unn tribes, but since ancient times inhabit a fruitful country, therefore they never attacked the Roman lands except together with the Median army. Of all the Unns, they alone are white in body ... "[Procopius of Caesarea, 1876, 20-25].

The Ephthalites in this period were "royal", i.e. ruling tribes to which many other tribes were subject. Byzantine authors, speaking of the White Huns, call them Hephthalites, although the letter f is absent in the language of the Huns. Therefore, it must be assumed that in the Hunnic language the word ephtalit was pronounced differently, with interdental s. Judging by the inscriptions of coins, for example, Afriha, the interdental Turanian with in its name (Athrix) is transmitted by foreign authors through f as Afrig. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Ephthalites of early Byzantine authors (varieties of naftal, eftal, eptal, abdel) are the same askels that remained in the Volga and Ural regions and retained their nominal name. The letter t at the end of the word eftalit is an indicator of the plural in the ancient Turkic language, i.e. the word can be translated as "askels". A similar use of the name of the tribe in the plural was typical for other tribes. For example, F. Simokatta, a Byzantine author of the 7th century, gives the name of the tribe Barsil in the form barselt [Theophylact Simokatta, 1957, 160]. Thus, the Hephthalites of Iranian and Byzantine authors could well be the very Askels who had a rich written civilization and left a higher archaeological culture in the Volga and Ural regions, subsequently dissolving among the kindred Bulgar tribes.
http://barda-perm.narod.ru/perm/kladi-nadpisi.htm
http://forum.eurasica.ru/topic1588s20.html?start=20

The same Procopius believed that the Slavs, as it were, continue their Hunnic way of life.

Curious Approaches
Monuments of the Slavic syllabary about the possible resettlement of the ancestors of the Slavs
By runes 21:22. Rubric Historical comments
Monuments of the Slavic syllabary
about the possible resettlement of the ancestors of the Slavs
V.A. Chudinov

Azgar MUKHAMADIEV gave the following transcription of the text:

KiNgeG DiKKiZ ;K; KeSS; – KiJU SaX SaX SaXN;L G;R T;NgR;G;

And spelled

KNgG DKKZ ;K; KSS-KJU SX SX SXN;L GR TNgR;G

Its goal is to show the Turkic writing of ancient times on the territory of Turan, which is often also called ancient Khorezm. And also point to the origin of English K;NG, Scandinavian KONUNQ, German KN;Q, and Russian KNYAZ. It turns out that these terms were borrowed from the Turkic KENGU - sun-like, sky-like, and in all likelihood after the spread of Attila's Huns throughout Europe.
The term KENGU in Turkic also has the meaning to spread. Literally, this is connected with the rays of the sun, and figuratively, the spread of personality, that is, its will and authority.
He gave as an example several terms that are semantically related to the Turkic KENGU:

KUNCHUG/KUNCHUI-princess, queen, lady from the khan's family;
K;-GLORY,
KENgR; - FREE, FREE,
K;N-1.SUN; 2. LIGHT; 3. TITLE; 4. PEOPLE,
KEN-WIDE, LIMITLESS, BOUNDLESS.

Then he pointed to other inscriptions.

Bowl 43. (Numbering of bowls according to the work of Ya.I. Smirnov). The inscriptions of several cups, as noted, are of a religious nature. One of these bowls No. 43 was bought before 1875 at the Nizhny Novgorod fair. On the inside, at the bottom of the vessel, a four-armed deity is depicted sitting on some beast, in whose right hand is a wheel (sun), in the left hand is a lotus (crescent), and in the lower right hand is a club (axe), the left hand is empty. On the head of the deity is a crown with stepped teeth, decorated on the forehead with a moon sickle with three stars. Asukjavar, the ruler of Turan at the beginning of the 8th century, has a similar crown on coins. However, the crescent moon with three stars on the forehead, which is the most important symbol, is also found on the ancient coins of Turan [Weinberg B.I. 1977, pl. XVIII, B2]
At the bottom of this vessel, apparently, one of the gods of Hinduism, Vishnu, the ancient solar deity, is depicted. In the image of Vishnu, local tribal deities gradually merged. He is usually depicted as a young man with four arms, in which he holds a conch, a wheel, a club and a lotus flower. On the cup the deity is depicted with the symbols of the moon and the sun, which, apparently, are explained by the fact that the Huns (Turanians) worshiped these heavenly bodies.
The cult of Vishnu, although quite complex, is bright and life-affirming. Vishnu descended to earth several times to save the world or pious people. These earthly incarnations are called avatars, which, in essence, are objects of worship. The first avatar is in the form of a fish, the second is in the form of a tortoise, the third is in the form of a boar, the fourth is in the form of a lion-man, the fifth is in the form of a dwarf, the sixth is in the form of an "Ax Frame", etc. [Bongard-Levin T.M., Ilyin G.F., 1969, 615].
The basis of Vishnuism is the doctrine of the reincarnation of the soul or samsara, which occurs in accordance with the law of karma - retribution for bad or good deeds. Religious rites were performed in special temples, at home altars or in sacred places.
There is an inscription on the outer side of the rim of the indicated bowl. Before the inscription there is a tamga larger than the letters in the form of k ("karma"?) of the Turanian alphabet.

Transliteration:

K;RK MengiZ; TuRKuRMU KiM
;;KUT; OLURUPaN NoM SaZUN
K;RUNUN ;;K;RLNUN MuNTaR SeCULuN
SoRULUN KONi MeNg;L;N SaTuLAiU
S;ZL;L; DaRN;Ny; NoM S;Z;N S;ZL;N

Translation:

The one who creates (excites) reincarnation - sitting on his knees, let him listen to religious teachings (magic formula). Bow down, discard grief and suffering, ask, truly rejoice, incessantly speak the words of the Holy Scripture (magic spell).

The text of the inscription is a "living word", apparently associated with the Hunno-Turkic Buddhist scripture Altun Yaruk (Sutra "Golden Shine"). One of these relatively late lists of this book says: "... and then, kneeling and prayerfully folding his hands, let him pronounce this formula a thousand and eight times ..., (and then), whatever wishes he may have, will be satisfied and accomplished" [Radlov V.V., Malov S.E., 1913-1917].

Bowl 42. The next vessel was discovered in the village of Kovin, Perm district, in 1846. On the inside, at the bottom of the vessel, the same four-armed deity is engraved. In one upper hand he holds the sun and in the other a crescent. In contrast to the image of the previous vessel, the sun is in the right, and the crescent of the moon is in the left hand of the deity.
A magnificent inscription is located around the rim on the outer side of the vessel and, it seems, was engraved with the same tool that the master maker used to decorate the vessel with tongue-like ornamental stripes.

Transliteration:

;VG; ;M VRXaN QUT; KRK
MeNiZ; T;R;SUN SaKRYVaRNY
TiK;N NENg KM; ;aKRYVaRNY
S;ZL; ;Z Ke;URSA;Y; Sa; NoM
SaZuN S;ZL;L;

Translation:

Announce (literally read) the symbol of Buddha's bliss! Rules of reincarnation, sanguivars *, set yourself. Everyone's business: glorify the Chakrivarnas**, transport the creature, perform sacrificial sprinkling, speak the words of religious instruction and canonical prescription.

* Sangivars - sangastavira - senior performer of rituals in the Buddhist community.
** Chakravart - the great ruler - is one of the highest rungs on the ladder of salvation.
Bowl 45. At the bottom of the bowl is depicted a standing deity with a goat's head, with striped ribbons fluttering back from the back of the head - signs of royal dignity.
A similar standing deity with a goat's head and striped ribbons is on a silver bowl, but without an inscription, in the Perm Museum of Local Lore.
On the outside, around the rim of bowl 45, there is an inscription.

Transliteration:

K;RKNg;Z; MengiZ; NeNSiZ MU KimMU M;KK;N
D;aN (?) UMUN ;RQ ;RUMuN
SaTULajU SoZL;L; DaRN;

Translation:

Reincarnation. Whether poor, whether another, bow to the waist, rely on contemplation, make a prophecy, incessantly say a spell.

Bowl 47. Vessel purchased in 1875 for repairs in Verkhne-Berezovsky, Perm district. The outer surface of the bowl is covered with patterns resembling a curtain removed with a bandage. There are no drawings or images. There is an inscription around the rim on the outside.

Transliteration:

K;RX MengiZ; QuRU;u QuRXMaQ
K;S;SKeG J;K;Ng ;D;UMUN
IRUMuN SaTuLajU S;ZL;L; DaRN;
S;ZiN;

Translation:

The sequence of building reincarnation: bow with zeal, trust in God's sign, constantly speak the words of the Holy Scriptures.

http://forumka.az/lofiversion/index.php?t15083.html

Bowl with the inscription "Shad Huns Khan Asuk"

Bowl 46. At the bottom of the bowl is depicted a rider to the right with a whip in his lowered right hand, with a quiver on his right hip. The horse under the rider walks with a solemn step, with his left leg raised.
S.P. Tolstov considered the identity of the weapons and clothes of the rider on bowl 46 and the horseman on Khorezmian coins to be worthy of special attention [Tolstov S.P., 1938, 192].

On the outer side of the rim is a carefully engraved inscription. Well viewed from the reproduction, the inscription has the following style

Transliteration:

HUNOQ SaD;QU; AS;KXuM

Translation: Shad Huns Khan Asuq.

On the bowl, the depiction of a rider is distinguished by the simplicity of dressing without any special signs of royal dignity, as in the depictions of other vessels of this kind. On the bowl, apparently, the shad of the Huns Asuk, who later (at the beginning of the 8th century) became the king of Turan and minted his coins under the name of Asukdzhavar, is really depicted.

Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni (973-c.1050)

Monuments of Past Generations (Chronology)

Www.pereplet.ru/gorm/chrons/biruni.htm

The inhabitants of Khorezm did the same. They counted the years from the beginning of the settlement [of their country], which took place nine hundred and eighty years before Alexander, and then they began to count the years from the arrival in Khorezm of Siyavush, the son of Kaykaus132, and the accession of Keyhusrau133 and his descendants there, who moved to Khorezm and extended his power to the kingdom of the Turks. This was ninety-two years later [from the beginning] of the settlement of Khorezm.
Then the Khorezmians followed the example of the Persians and began to count the years according to the ruling kings from the offspring of Keikhusrau, who were called shahs. Finally, Afrig134 reigned - and he was one of the descendants of Keikhusrau - and [the Khorezmians] saw in his accession a bad omen, just as the Persians considered the accession of Yezdigerd - the "Sinner" - to be sinister.
After Africa, his son reigned. [Afrig] built himself a palace above al-Fir135 in 616 AD. Years began to be counted from his [reign] and from the [reign] of his children.
Al-Fir is a fortress on the edge of the city of Khorezm,136 built of clay and raw brick [in the form of] three fortifications, one inside the other. They followed each other in regard to height,137 and above all were the palaces of the kings, like Gumdan in Yemen, when it was the seat of the tobbs.
[Gumdan] is a fortress in San "a138, opposite the mosque, built on a rock. They say that it was built by Shem, the son of Noah, after the flood, and that there is a well that he dug. They also say that it is, on the contrary, there was a temple built by ad-Dahhak139 in honor of Venus.
Al Fir was visible at a distance of ten miles or more. It was smashed and destroyed by the Jeyhun140 river, and every year it carried away this [fortress] in pieces, so that in the year 1355141 of the era of Alexander nothing was left of it.
The ruler of these [Khorezmian] kings, when the prophet was sent - peace be upon him! - turned out to be Arsamukh ibn Buzgar ibn Hamgari ibn Shaush ibn Sahr ibn Azkajavar ibn Askadjamuk ibn Sahkhasak ibn Baghra ibn Afrig. When Kuteiba ibn Muslim142 conquered Khorezm for the second time, after the fall [from Islam] of its inhabitants, he made Askadjamuk ibn Azkajavar ibn Sabri ibn Sahra ibn Arsamukh king over them and made him Shah.
The government [of this country] came out of the hands of the descendants of Khosroes, but the shah's dignity remained with them, since it was hereditary for them. And the reckoning of the Persians passed to the era of the Hijra according to the custom [accepted] among the Muslims. And Kuteiba destroyed people who knew the Khorezmian writing well, knew their traditions and taught [sciences] that existed among the Khorezmians, and subjected them to all sorts of torments, and [these traditions] became so hidden that it is no longer possible to know exactly what [was with Khorezmians even] after the emergence of Islam. The administration of [Khorezm] was sometimes in the hands of this family143, sometimes in the hands of others, until both the dignity of the ruler and the dignity of the shah left them after the [death] of the martyr Abu-Abd-Allah Muhammad144, the son of Ahmed, the son of Iraq, the son of Mansur, the son of Abd -Allah, the son of Turkasabas, the son of Shaushafar, the son of Askadjamuk, the son of Azkajavar, the son of Sabri, the son of Sakhr, the son of Arsamukh; in the time of [the latter], as I said, a prophet was sent - peace be upon him!
http://forumka.az/lofiversion/index.php?t15083.html

http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm
http://barda-perm.narod.ru/perm/tarih/animal_style_1.jpg
dish. In 1947, a resident of the same village, tractor driver H. Kaprizov, found a boat-shaped silver bowl. In 1949, in the same field, a massive silver goblet was found by foreman Kaliullin, and in 1950, by the collective farmer Faizkhanov, a large silver bowl containing 264 silver coins was found. The Bartym hoard of Byzantine coins is unique, because consists of identical, never circulated coins of Heraclius. Consequently, the coins of the treasure were presented to some noble person directly from the imperial mint and transferred to Bartym. In Eastern Europe, only two hoards of these coins are known, found in the Volga and Ural regions (Bartym, Shestakovo).

In 1951, a student of the Kopchik school (the village of Kopchik is located near Bartym) M. Salikhov, near the village of Bartym, found a silver gilded dish with figures of two lions and with a Turanian inscription.
The Bartym localities show that the objects were found in different places where there were no dwellings or settlements. Therefore, their appearance is associated with the activity of nomads.
The earliest vessels with Turanian inscriptions appear in the 4th-6th centuries, i.e. mainly belong to the Hunnic period and are associated with the penetration of the early Turks into the Volga and Ural regions.

Let's get acquainted with the impressions of travelers of the X-XIII centuries who visited these lands. One of the first chroniclers who visited the Urals was the famous Arab traveler of the XII century Al-Garnati Abu Hamid. He describes the land of the Kama region as the country of Visu, where "beavers, ermines and squirrels are hunted. The day there lasts 22 hours in the summer. Red-cheeked, blue-eyed, blond people in linen clothes and fur skins live in the Visu country."

In total, over 200 silver cult Iranian dishes of the 6th-7th centuries were found on the territory of the Perm region - such a large accumulation of silver Iranian dishes was not found anywhere else in Russia.
For the first time, we learn about metal images from the Urals and Siberia from the book of the Amsterdam burgomaster Witsen "Norden Oost Tartarye" (1692). Somewhat later, at the beginning of the 18th century, Weber, talking about the finds of antiquities from the Urals, also mentions the figures of animals and people made of bronze and gold, delivered to the Cabinet of Peter the Great.
At the moment, collections of the Perm animal style are available not only in the collections of museums in Perm and the Perm region, but also in the State Hermitage Museum, the State Historical Museum, the National Museum of Finland, etc.

The Iranian dish of the Sassanid era (7th century) shown in the picture was found in 1967 in the village of Bolshaya Anikovskaya on the Vishera River in the Perm Region (previously, seven more Iranian cult dishes were discovered at this place). The dish is unique with drawings carved on both sides by a shaman's hand in the 9th-10th centuries. These are animals, fish, birds, the sun and masked shamans.
http://barda-perm.narod.ru/perm/kladi.htm
http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm

More
Argue.
We do not notice.
http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm

Ural treasures
In the interfluve of the Kama and Vyatka, among the forests, swamps and low hills, the village of Turusheva was lost. In the summer of 1927, one of the many treasures of "oriental silver" was found here. A boy grazing a herd at the edge of a forest suddenly fell into a hole. Feeling some hard and smooth object in it, he began to rake the earth with his hands, then with a whip. A few minutes of work - and a very heavy bucket of silver appeared on the surface. When the shepherd overturned the pail, silver dishes, lamps, and twisted neck hoops fell out of it.
"Eastern treasures" in the Urals, the peasants discovered when plowing virgin lands or vegetable gardens, under uprooted stumps. Sometimes they were found in the dense thicket of the forest or on the slopes of terraces eroded by spring waters.
The oldest item in the Turushev treasure is an Iranian dish from the 4th century BC. with a hunting scene of Shapur II. Turning sharply back, the crowned rider sends an arrow into the rearing lion. Under the hooves of the horse, the already mortally wounded animal was stretched out. On a dish made by a Byzantine jeweler three centuries later, there is a blackened cross in a wreath of ivy. Lamps from Central Asia date back to the 8th century. On the bottom of one is engraved an elephant - a sacred animal of Buddhists, the images on the other date back to pre-Islamic agricultural cults. There are pomegranate trees here: a pomegranate rich in seeds meant the hope of the family for numerous offspring. A panther, an indispensable companion of Dionysus-Bacchus, curled up on the handle of the vessel. The medallions on the body are inscribed with a two-humped camel, the personification of the sacred forces of fertility, a horse associated with the veneration of life-giving waters, a deer that can prolong human life thanks to the healing medicine from its horns. A Late Sasanian dish from the village of Turusheva preserved the popular epic story of the hunt of Prince Bakhram Gur (Fig. 27)

Rice. 27. On the Iranian silver dish Vile, there is an epic story, widespread in art, Prince Bagram Tur, also known as the Sasanian king Varahran V (421-439), hunts gazelles accompanied by the slave Azadeh.
Found in the Kama region. State. Hermitage.

Once with a musician, without a retinue,
The eminent hunter rushed to the steppe
His Rumian was called Azada,
He always spent time with her.
He rode only on a camel,
What was covered with a satin saddle
A couple of gazelles raced through the hills
He said, laughing, to the beautiful Bahram
"My moon Now I'll start catching
As soon as I make a mighty bow, -
Whom shall I strike first then
The male is in years, and the female is young.
“O lion,” said Azada, “can it be
The husband is proud that he is stronger than a gazelle
To earn the title of a brave man,
Turn a heated female into a male "
In the hunter's quiver was
Special Double-Edged Arrow
The male shot up on the motley plain, -
Bahram immediately hooked a two-edged arrow
His horns hooked at full gallop
And Azada marveled at the arrow
As soon as the male lost his horns,
He immediately turned into a female
And Bahram put two arrows into the female,
To be like horns

Ferdowsi
The dish accurately conveys all the details of this episode, retold in detail by Ferdowsi, but, as we see, dating back to the pre-Muslim epic tradition.
The Ural hoards are dominated by banquet utensils from the everyday life of the secular nobility, costume decorations were also found - belt linings, medallions. Sophisticated jewelry technique reveals the hand of court craftsmen of the highest qualification, who perfectly mastered the techniques of casting, chasing, engraving, gilding, and niello.
The “Eastern Silver” of the Urals introduces us to the “lost world” of archaic ideas about the universe, colorfully tells about the hunting triumphs of kings and heroes, introduces fantastic images of Eastern mythology to a winged camel or a dog-bird Senmurv
http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm

For sable furs
Sasanian silver in the Urals first attracted attention in 1750, when a silver jug ​​made by Iranian craftsmen was discovered in the Stroganovs' Kama estate. Since then, more than a hundred "eastern treasures" have been registered in these parts (Fig. silver buyers managed to melt it down. What explains such a massive "migration" of things?

Rice. 28. Central medallion of a silver dish. Iran, 8th century in Zoroastrian treatises, the dog-bird Senmurv appears as a benevolent creature that protects from evil forces. The dish was found on the banks of the Kama (Vyatka province). Hermitage.

Why were the precious utensils of the Middle East taken far beyond the boundaries of the then cultural world, to the taiga hunters of the Urals - the ancestors of the Komi-Permyaks?
Most of it came to the Urals no earlier than the 9th century. This was proved by archaeologists, who revealed the topographic connection of the treasures with ancient settlements and analyzed their composition. It turned out that the beginning of the northern trade of the Baghdad Caliphate falls on the first century of the rule of the Abbasids, when the provincial narrow-mindedness of Arab culture becomes a thing of the past, when it is influenced by Hellenism and the Sasanian "classics". It was then that commercial ties were established with Eastern Europe and the Far East, with India and Black Africa. In search of markets and sources of raw materials, the merchants of the countries of Islam flock to the "unknown lands" of the North.
In the IX-X centuries. in East European trade with Asia, silver occupied the main place. “Silver is easier to transport than those necessary items that can be bought with it,” Biruni wrote. Silver was carried in the form of coins and things. They willingly accepted silver vessels in exchange: their material and artistic value was beyond doubt.
During the conquest of Iran and Central Asia by the Arabs, huge booty fell into their hands, including metal utensils. The world of her images, connected with the pre-Islamic epic and mythology, no longer met the requirements of the new religion. With the collapse of the Sasanian state and the official Zoroastrian Church, the canons of proclaiming art, designed to exalt the "king of kings", became invalid. Sasanian, Central Asian, Byzantine vessels, which had not yet been melted down, passed into the hands of merchants. They bought out-of-use dishes at cheap prices, which actively entered the sphere of barter. What did they get in return?
At that time, in the circles of the nobility from Spain to China, the demand for precious furs increased enormously. Sable, marten, ermine, beaver, squirrel furs were used to decorate hats, caftans, and fur coats. The skins of sables and black-brown foxes were especially valued. It is not for nothing that in Nizami's poem "Iskander-name" the furs captured by Alexander the Great in the camp of the Rus are so lovingly and competently listed:

And the porters erected a huge rampart,
Bringing piles of valuable booty to a halt
As if greedy amusing human hearts,
Revealed, shining, caskets after caskets.
The darkest sables were carried from everywhere
And silver beavers behind a pile of piles.
Ermine, more beautiful than white silks,
Hundreds and hundreds of bales were stacked.
Gray veksh - without number!
Foxes without counting crimson
And foal furs, ready to wear
Many moles of darkness merged with pale light:
This fur is restful, the lynx gives it ...
The king looked at the sight of no more whimsical pleasures!
As in Iran, spring is multi-colored fur.
Skiing and dog sledding
It is possible that some merchants - Persians, Khorezmians, Arabs - at their own peril and risk got to the unwelcome Baltic and the Arctic Ocean.
http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm

Rice. 29. "Eastern silver" in the Urals: a - treasures, b - communication routes.

Passion for beautiful furs led them farther and farther - beyond the Arctic Circle, to the edge of permafrost. Biruni, who knew about the Baltic Sea
(“The Sea of ​​Varenki” - the Varangians), I heard about one navigator who penetrated so far to the north that he ended up in regions where the sun shines all day in summer. Abu-l-Fida mentioned "a certain traveler who reached the northern sea".
According to eyewitnesses, Arab geographers spoke in detail about the country of the “wild people” of Jura, about the “silent” trade with its inhabitants and ways of moving in the Far North.
“In the summer, the days are very long. So, as the merchants say, the sun does not set for forty days, and in winter the night is just as long ... And they bring goods with them, and (each) merchant puts his property separately, and makes a mark on it, and leaves; then after that they return and find the goods that are needed in their country. And each person finds one of those things near his goods, if he agrees, then he takes it, and if not, he takes his things and leaves others, and there is no deceit. And they don’t know who those people from whom they buy these goods are… And the inhabitants of Yura have no war, and they don’t have any riding or pack animals - only huge trees and forests, in which there is a lot of honey, and they have a lot of sables , and they eat sable meat ... And the road to them is on the ground, from which the snow never melts; and people make boards for their feet and plan them ... The front and end of such a board are raised above the ground, in the middle of the board there is a place on which the walking one puts his foot, there is a hole in it, in which strong leather straps are fixed, which are tied to the legs. And both of these boards, which are on the legs, are connected by a long belt like a horse's reins, it is held in the left hand, and in the right hand - a stick the length of a man. And at the bottom of this stick is something like a ball of fabric, stuffed with a lot of wool, it is the size of a human head, but light. With this stick they rest against the snow and push back with a stick, as sailors do on a ship, and quickly move through the snow. And if it were not for this fiction, then no one could walk there, because the snow on the ground is like sand, it does not cake at all ”(al-Garnati).
The documentary description of ancient skis does credit to the observation of the traveler, who obviously met skiers in the snowy expanses.
Bulgar traders went to the Yura country in winter, when the tundra and swamps were frozen by frost. People went on skis, and goods - clothes, salt and other things - were transported on sledges, which were dragged through snowdrifts by dogs.
“The journey there is made only on small wagons driven by big dogs, because in this desert (everywhere) there is ice on which neither human feet nor cattle hooves rest; dogs have claws, and their feet are kept on ice. Only rich merchants penetrate there, of which some have 100 wagons or so, loaded with food, drinks and firewood, since there is no wood, no stone, no mud hut. The guide in this land is a dog that has been in it many times already; its price reaches 1000 dinars or so. The wagon is attached to her neck; three more dogs are attached with her. This is the vanguard, followed by other dogs with wagons. He stops and they stop. The owner does not beat such a dog, does not scold it. When food is served, he feeds the dogs before people, otherwise the dog gets angry, runs away and leaves his master to perish ”(Ibn-Battuta).
To the north of the Yura, in the neighborhood of the legendary peoples Gog and Magog, according to the ideas of Arab geographers, deserted "glooms" began - the lands between the mouths of the Pechora and Ob, the Polar Urals and Yamal. In the descriptions of this area, real information is intricately intertwined with fabulous. Merchants who visited the North told gullible listeners: people of the Yura people go there with torches to light the way in eternal darkness. There grows a tree, huge as a village; it is inhabited by a large animal ("they say it is a bird"). There are no settlements to the north of the Yugra lands. Only a large tower built by Iskander (Alexander the Great) rises like a beacon on the border of the inhabited world. Behind her there is no way, but only “darkness” stretches: under a harsh sky lie mountains and deserts, “which snow and frost do not leave”; the sun does not rise on them, plants do not grow in them, and there are no animals. "Glooms" stretch to the "Black Sea", where rain and thick fog never end. The "Black Sea", i.e., the Arctic Ocean, was often referred to by Arab authors as the "Sea of ​​Darkness". In its dark and gloomy depths, a fish swims like a huge mountain (whale), a beautiful girl can suddenly come out of her ear. From the fangs of another "fish" (walrus), handles for daggers and swords are cut. Following the Pole, the traveler reaches the region where the sun, like a millstone, moves around the horizon for six months, and there is one day and one night in the year.
"For Yugra and Samoyed"
Who was the discoverer of the hard-to-reach lands of Jura? Not later than the 11th century. Novgorod hunters penetrated into the high latitudes of Pomorie. These brave people, who crossed the entire European North on flat-bottomed boats, could not be prevented either by the stubborn and insidious resistance of nature, or the dull alienation of the local tribes.
Under 1096, a curious story of the Novgorodian Gyuryata Rogovich was transmitted in the "Tale of Bygone Years":
“I sent my youth to Pechora, to people who pay tribute to Novgorod. And when my youth came to them, he went from them to the land of Yugra. Yugra are people who speak an incomprehensible language, and they are neighbors with Samoyed in the northern regions. Ugra said to my child: “We found a wonderful miracle, which we had not heard of before, and this is already the third year; there are mountains resting on the bow of the sea, as high as to the sky, and in those mountains there is a great cry and a voice, and someone cuts the mountain, wanting to be cut out of it; and in that mountain a small window was cut through, and from there they speak, and do not understand their language, but they point to iron and make signs with their hands, asking for iron; and if anyone gives them a knife or an axe, they give furs in exchange. The path to those mountains is impassable due to abysses, snow and forests, and therefore we never reach them; This path continues further north.
The Russian chronicler saw in the people locked in the rocks "unclean peoples", "riveted" by Alexander the Great - a parallel to the "Iskander tower" of Arab authors. Their coming on the Day of Judgment must bring destruction to the world. The semi-fantastic data about the barter trade in iron echoes the news about the importation of swords into Yura.
"Mr. Veliky Novgorod" concentrated in his hands the "overseas" trade - the "guest" of all Northern Russia.

Merchants from Novgorod were sent
Trade for the blue sea.
They traded for the blue for the glorious sea.

Bylinny Sadko, a wealthy guest, is a colorful figure of a merchant who has seen a lot, one of those who "swim on the sea, and on the land they act as guests, taking wealth."

I bought all the goods from Nova-gorod ...
I unloaded the goods into blackened ships,
Sadko went to the blackened ships.
With all my good friend
They robbed some oak skhozhenki,
They took out damask anchors,
They raised thin canvas sails,
They went to trade for the blue sea.

Novgorod guests - the inhabitants of the "chambers of white stone", people with a sober, practical mind and an all-seeing eye, could be met on the streets of Vladimir and Kyiv, Chernigov and Galich. Some of them - "Shtetintsy" - traded with the Polish Pomerania, others - "Chudintsy" - with the Baltic states, and others - "Obonezhtsy", "Yugorshchina" - paved the way to the North. Their ships called at the Golden Horn of Constantinople, at the harbors of Denmark and the island of Gotland.

And how Sadko began to travel to trade and in all places,
And in other cities, yes, he is in distant ones,
And how he began to receive profits and he is great.

Novgorodians became the main intermediaries in the fur trade of Western Europe with the tribes of the Urals, monopolizing the export of furs to Western markets. Around 1114, the Ladoga posadnik Pavel and the people of Ladoga told the chronicler: “Even the men of old went beyond Yugra and beyond Samoyed.” In midnight countries, they were present at an amazing phenomenon: “... a cloud is falling and in that cloud a group (squirrel) is young, as it were, first born and grown up and disperses over the earth.” Trips of Russian commercial and industrial people to the Urals and the Trans-Urals became more frequent in the 12th century. Novgorod tribute collectors and warriors - "kmets" often died far from their homeland in armed skirmishes with natives. Under 1187, the Novgorod First Chronicle dispassionately states: “beaten the former Pechersky and Yugorsky tributaries.” In 1193, detachments of the Ushkuiniki went on a campaign to Yugra: “In the same summer, an army went from Novgorod to Yugra with the governor Yadreik; and came to Ugra and took the city, and came to another city, and shut up in the city, and stood under the city for 5 weeks; and sent from the city to them with a flattering speech, roaring like this: “we collect silver, and sable, and other patterns, but you do not destroy us, your smerds and your tribute ... ""
The Novgorodians in the Urals are reminiscent of the proximity of Slavic jewelry from the Kama region to the inventory of rural mounds of the Ilmen region and the finds of Novgorod money ingots. From Berezov on the lower Ob comes a Byzantine silver bowl with a scratched Russian inscription, similar in handwriting to birch bark letters. It is likely that Novgorod explorers brought to the Kama region and to the lower Ob the silver vessels of the 9th–10th centuries, made in the areas of the Carpatho-Danube basin and the Balkans. On the Ob, a bowl decorated with niello with scenes of people fighting winged dragons was found - a product of Limoges jewelers in the Duchy of Aquitaine. Like "oriental silver", European utensils were used to pay for furs (Fig. 30).

http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm
Rice. 30. Byzantine gilded silver cup depicting scenes from the Greek heroic epic. XII in Found near the village of Vil-gort in the Urals. State. Hermitage.

A system of rivers and lakes connected Veliky Novgorod with the far northeast. Two river routes connected it with the Northern Urals and the Trans-Urals. The northern one led along the Sukhona and Vychegda to the Pechora basin, and from the Pechora along its tributary the Use, through the northern spurs of the "Earth Belt" (Ural Range) to the Sob - a tributary of the Ob. Another route from the Pechora to the Ob (through the Shchugor, a tributary of the Pechora and along the Northern Sosva) led south to Berezov.
The second route led from Novgorod along the Meta and Tvertsa to the Upper Volga, then along the Nerl, Klyazma and Oka to the Volga Bulgars. From here, up the Kama or Vyatka, they sailed to the north. "The Tale of the Vyatka Country" reports: in 1174, Novgorod "autocrats with their retinue", "captivating Ostyak dwellings" sailed along this route. Their path passed along the Volga and Kama, where they built a trading post - “gradets is small”.

Silver Elephant on Sosva
In the winter of 1936, the ethnographer and archaeologist V.N. In front of the sacred storehouse, he saw the "guardian of the threshold" and the totem of the family: a large silver figurine of an elephant. The unusual idol was wrapped in numerous scarves, metal rings hung on the tusks. As if the mocking remark of V.F. Zuev (a member of the famous expedition of P.S. Pallas), who in 1771-1772. traveled to the mouth of the Ob. Condemning the worship of countless "shaitans", he wrote: "But if there were elephants in their country, then they would revere them all as gods."
Why in one of the villages of the Berezovsky Territory, a silver dish, usually stored in a special box, was taken out and hung vertically during sacrifices? How to explain that even a son could see such a shrine only after the death of his father?
The key to the special significance of "eastern silver" in the Ural-Ob North is found in the beliefs of local tribes. Metal mirrors and dishes are an indispensable accessory of space cults associated with ideas about the world tree and the wonderful eagle. Mansi worshiped dishes hanging on a tree with scraped pallets - symbols of the "unfading luminaries": the sun and the moon.
“Pure, light metal” (as the Mansi called silver), gradually accumulated in places of worship, was dedicated to some ancestral spirits. Only metal utensils were allowed to eat the meat of sacrificial animals. It was kept in a secret place, not used for other purposes. The Ob Ugrians especially revered their master spirit Mir-susne-khum. This "man watching the people" on a white winged horse, they believed, travels around the world. The horse can descend to the ground only by stepping on silver dishes. When summoning the divine rider, the shamans placed four metal plates against the back wall of the yurt. Incomprehensible plots on imported vessels were reinterpreted in the spirit of local mythology: on one of them they saw a quarrel between the king of waters and the spirit of thunder, who once came to the Ob from some distant southern country.
On many silver dishes from the Kama region and Western Siberia in the 9th–10th centuries. drew drawings with a knife: anthropomorphic figures with sabers and horned crowns move in a sacred dance, they are surrounded by moose, fish, birds. Before us are the rituals of shamans - intermediaries between people and their patron spirits (Fig. 31). Back in the 19th century, such "idol festivities" were preserved among the Khanty of the Berezovsky Territory. Success in hunting, fishing and other crafts depended on the actions of shamans - creatures with a half-animal, half-human nature. Their images on the dishes that were donated to the "masters of the taiga" were intended to lure the beast into a trap or under the blow of a hunter.

Rice. 31. Images of shamans on a silver ladle from the Kotsk town, the lower reaches of the Ob, 10th-10th centuries. State. Hermitage.
Rice. 32. Silver figurine of an elephant from Sosva Central Asia, VII-VII centuries.

Temples dedicated to good or evil shaitans were hidden in the innermost places of remote forests. The Khanty brought to the idols the best furs, arrows that killed the beast more than once, silver money, plates and dishes, “made for this object, with the image of shaitans, birds and animals on them” (Fig. 32). When Christian missionaries penetrated to the Khanty under Peter I, in one sanctuary there was still an idol of Or-tik with a silver face. Ortik's assistant was the Master (or Masterko) - the messenger of the will of higher spirits and the deity of health. He was depicted in the form of a tightly stuffed large bag, to which they tied a silver plate - the "mask" of an idol. According to K. D. Nosilov, who visited the Mansi at the end of the 19th century, cups full of coins were kept in the temple of the patron saint of hunting, Chokhrynyoyk.
“I grabbed one and began to examine it,” Nosilov said. “It was not of fine Russian work, at the bottom of it were depicted dragons, some monstrous birds and animals, something more familiar from Egypt and Persia.
I asked old Sopra what it was, and he did not hesitate to tell me that these were ancient cups of pure silver, which were left to women from their grandfathers, like an old, expensive inheritance.
"Pure, light metal" on the hidden temples of idolaters has long attracted foreign seekers of prey - from the Vikings to Russian industrialists of the 18th-19th centuries. Fearing neither the guards nor the wrath of the native deities, they plundered the "idols placed in the forests", taking sacrificial furs and precious utensils. Here is what one of the Scandinavian sagas (in collections of the 13th century) tells about the campaign of the brothers Karli, Günstein and Thorir the Dog to Biarmia:
“... they came to a place in a large space free from trees, where there was a high wooden fence with a locked door; this fence was guarded every night by six watchmen from the locals ... Thorir said: “In this courtyard there is a mound heaped of gold and silver mixed with earth; let ours go to him; in the yard stands the god of the Biarms, who is called Jomal; let no one dare to rob him." Then, going up to the mound, they collected as much money as possible, putting them in their dress ... "Then Thorir ordered them to leave, giving the following order:" You, brothers Karli and Günstein, go ahead, and I I will be the last to go (and I will protect the detachment)"; after these words, everyone went to the gate. Thorir returned to Iomal and stole a silver cup filled with silver coins that was on his knees.

Partly about the same. Vladislav Petrovich Darkevich Argonauts of the Middle Ages
Rice. 1. Main European routes of communication. The analysis of archaeological finds – buried treasures and the contents of burial mounds – helped establish the routes of the Vikings (shown as black lines on the map). Throughout the space from Iceland to Iran, the Scandinavians profitably exchanged precious furs, walrus ivory, amber and numerous slaves for silver, glass, fabrics and weapons. Bold dotted lines show international trade routes

Everything would be fine if these paths did not exist before the Vikings.

IS HE. Bader, A.P. Smirnov
"Silver Zakamskoe" of the first centuries of our era. Bartymskoe location.
/ Tr. GIM: Monuments of culture. Issue. XIII.
http://kronk.narod.ru/library/bader-smirnov-1954.htm

6th century?
The next find, which arrived at the museum in 1951, was a broken silver dish (Fig. 6: Open in a new window). Its edge is bent and forms a roller, below

Which is laid a strip of granulation, a second similar strip borders the bottom, and between the strips of granulation a belt of arches is laid. The bottom is decorated with a composition of a pair of standing lions with their muzzles turned in different directions. The mouths of the lions are bared, their tails are thrown on their backs, the mane is depicted in the form of scales. Above the backs there is a casket with a conical roof, ending with a composition of a horn and two balls. The casket is suspended by two rods. The arc between the rods is ornamented with protruding triangles. The lid of the casket is covered with a circle ornament with dots; its wall has a frame with the same circular ornament and is covered with oblique intersecting lines, with dots inside the cells. The center is decorated with a rosette. Along the edge of the dish, an inscription was made on the outer surface, which is well comparable with the ancient Khorezmian alphabet. The dish is made by chasing technique with subsequent processing with a chisel. The diameter of the dish is 12.5 centimeters, the diameter of the bottom is 7.7 centimeters. Total weight -118.35 grams. The dish can be well dated with an inscription. However, the composition decorating the bottom of the vessel may help in establishing its date.

The setting of figures in a heraldic pose is quite common for the works of the Sasanian era. As an example, one can point to fabrics on which various animals are depicted in circles, in particular lions, elephants, standing opposite each other. These motifs are also known in architectural monuments and later preserved in the art of many peoples.

The figures of lions are given in a dry and conditional manner, usual for Sasanian art. The front paws set side by side represent a straight line. The head is set straight. The open mouth is shown conditionally and rather lifelessly. Oval eyes are drawn with a chisel and a pupil is indicated by a dot in the center. Two lines are drawn above the eye. The oval ear has a depression in the middle. The mane, as noted above, is shown as rows of scales. On the shoulder, an irregularly shaped rosette was applied with a cutter, on the side, muscles are indicated by arcuate lines. The hind legs are almost one and a half times longer than the front legs and end with three fingers. Tails in the form of two lines drawn with a cutter end with a slight thickening. There is a noticeable difference in the performance of the right and left lions. Eyes, ears, mane are made differently. The latter at the left lion is decorated more carefully, while the rosette, on the contrary, is better worked out at the right one. The interpretation of the lions is done in a manner common to Sasanian art, which is far from realism. Just as usual, the mouth is bared. The interpretation of the mane echoes the same manner of depicting Senmurv, whose entire body is covered with scales, and with the image of a fabulous beast on a dish from a find near the village of Tomyz, Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In the latter, just like in the lions of the Bartym find, dots are placed inside the scales. A characteristic feature is the image of a rosette drawn with a chisel on the shoulder of a lion on a dish with a royal hunting scene. Rosettes of the same kind are found on the shoulders and hips of a lion and a wild boar on a dish found in the village of Komarov, Molotov Region.

The interpretation of muscles in the form of arcuate stripes also has direct analogies in Sasanian art. Figures are an example

A lion and a deer on a platter from the village of Polodovo, Molotov Region, and a galloping ibex on a platter from the village of Tomyz, Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

All comparisons quite clearly indicate a certain artistic direction. The ornamentation of the casket also indicates a connection with the monuments of Sasanian art. Such is the rosette - one of the favorite motifs in this art. It was widely used in architecture, as exemplified by the monuments of Tuck-and-Boston. The drawing of the upper part of the casket also has analogies in architecture. So, for example, the arch in Tuck-and-Boston was completed, on which a scarf was laid under the horn of the moon.

To date the dish, it is not without interest to compare the upper part of the casket with the shape of the crown on Sasanian coins. The closest is the crown of Kavad I and Khosrov I, which has a completion in the form of a horn of the moon with a ball on top. A scarf, similar to the one drawn over the chest, is depicted on the reverse side of the coin. The reigns of Kavad I 488-531 and Khosrow I 531-578. These data allow us to date the dish to the 6th century AD.

A real dish is a crude handicraft, made according to some pattern. Uncertainty in the drawing and schematism clearly testify to this. We do not have sufficient data to determine the place of production of this item. The presence of an ancient Khorezmian inscription (Fig. 9 and 10) seems to indicate the Central Asian origin of this dish, which is not contradicted by the figures of lions. Lions in the same interpretation are known on the portal of Beleuli (Uzbekistan), a monument, however, of a later time. Their general appearance is the same. The lions are represented as walking, with their tails thrown over their backs. It should be noted that the image of a lion still does not give any reason to attribute the preparation of the dish to Central Asia. The image of this beast is widely known in applied art, in particular in Transcaucasia, where it is represented on the architectural monuments of Ani.

The last vessel, found in Bartym in 1947, is a boat-shaped bowl, weighing about 700 grams, 26 centimeters long, 9.2 centimeters wide and 6 centimeters high (Fig. 7: Open in a new window). The bowl is cast from silver with a significant admixture of copper, lead, tin and with a slight admixture of gold. At the bottom of the vessel there were traces of solder from a hollow tray, also oval in shape, with a diameter of 9.2 and 3.9 centimeters. The inner surface of the bowl is completely smooth, on the outer surface there are relief images cast with subsequent processing with a cutter.

http://kronk.narod.ru/img/bader-smirnov-1954-27.jpg

http://kronk.narod.ru/img/bader-smirnov-1954-28.jpg

With all the disputes about the origins of domestic writing, it is obvious that various written monuments from the end of antiquity are present in the district of the Middle Volga region and the tributaries of the Volga (and these are the districts of the Imenkovskaya culture, close to the early Slavs http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imenkovskaya_culture). This must be carefully considered and studied. And do not turn your face to the side or to the hem.

The ethnic and linguistic affiliation of the Huns has not yet been finally clarified, but, apparently, they spoke one of the languages, which later became known as Turkic.

The Huns were the first in the steppes of Central Asia to create a vast nomadic state, which militarily could compete with China on an equal footing.

Shanuy of a single state from the Mode dynasty, 209 BC. e. - 46 AD e.

The creator of the centralized state of the Huns was Shang (the title of the ruler) Mode. He came to power, probably as a result of a coup, removing his father and older brother-heir. Then, having created a powerful army, Mode subjugated almost all the steppes north of the Great Wall of China, and repeatedly invaded China.

Fog mind.209

Mode 209-174

Laoshan 174-161

Gunchen 161 - 126

Ichisye 126-114

Wuwei 114-105

Ushilu 105-102

Guilihu 102-101

Jiudtheu 101-96

Hulugu 96-85

Huangdi 85-68

Huilui-Quankuy 68-60

Uyan-Guydi 60-58

Huhanie 58-31

Fuzhulei 31-20

Susye-zhodi 20-12

Guya-zhodi 12-8

Uzhulu-zhodi (Nanzhi-yasy, Zhi) 8 BC e. - 13 AD e.

Wulei-zhodi (Hyan) 13-18

Khudurshi Dao-gao-zhodi (Yu) 18-46

Udadihau 46

Division of the Huns into northern and southern.

Shanuys of Northern Huns

Two unknown shanyu 55-?

Unknown chanyu 87-91

Yuchugyan 91-93

End of the Mode dynasty. Further, the northern Huns were led by shanyus from the Khuyan clan. They ruled until around 170. The names of these chanyus have not been preserved in history. Their state was defeated by the Xianbei (about them below) under the leadership of Tanshihuai. The defeated Huns fled to the west. Some of them ended up in Semirechye, where they founded the state of Yueban, which existed until the end of the 5th century. Another part advanced to Europe, where they became known as the Huns.

Shanuys of the Southern Huns

After the death of Udadiheu, his brother Punu was proclaimed shanyu. But the son of Uzhulu-shanyu Bi did not want to obey him. In the year 48, he was proclaimed a shanyu by the elders of eight southern Xiongnu clans, after which he took the name Khukhanye (II). The Huns led by him migrated to China, where their state became a vassal of the Chinese emperor.

The Mode dynasty, 48-142

Bee (Huhanie II) 48-55

Xuan 85-88

Tongtuhe 88-93

Ango 93-94

Thanh 98-124

Huley 128-142

End of the Mode dynasty

Deulechu (origin unknown) 142-147/146

New dynasty, 146-215

The origin of this dynasty is not clear.

Guygyur 146-172

Tutejochin 172-178

Huzhzhen 178-179

Kyankuy 179-188

Yuyfulo 188-?

Techishih 188-195

Huchuquan 195-215

The last shanyu in 215 was arrested by the Chinese. A viceroy was sent from China to manage the Huns.

Later, at the beginning of the 4th century, the state of the Huns revived, although it did not last long.

Used materials of the book: Sychev N.V. Book of dynasties. M., 2008. p. 640-642.

Read further:

Xiongnu kings, royal dynasties that ruled in 209 BC - 304 among the Xiongnu nomads (Mongolia).

Map of the advancement of the Huns.

Europe around 450 AD e.

Below is an incomplete list of Hun rulers, but it is almost impossible to complete it due to the lack of surviving documents or lists that were left by the Romans or the Chinese, who are the only ones (except the Greeks) who at that time kept any regular notes on what was happening in the world and the nobility of various tribes and peoples .

The Huns used runic writing in their chronicles, but these records were written either on wood or on some other basis, which did not allow the inscription to be preserved for a long time, as a result of which the data was either lost forever or very poorly readable. Mukhamadiev A.G.:

... the Huns, including the early Bulgars, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions on vessels made of precious metals, starting from the 2nd century BC. BC. and up to the 8th century. AD used their own script. It is interesting that the origin of the writing of the Huns is not connected with the Chinese hieroglyphic, but with the ancient Aramaic writing, which arose somewhere in the 9th century. BC, which was the ancestor of Greek, and in later times, Arabic writing, etc. This suggests that the origins of the Hunnic culture as a whole are associated with Western values. Subsequently, the runic alphabet arose from the Hunnic writing by reforming, calculated mainly for the Oguz dialect of the ancient Turkic language.

In addition, the nomadic way of life that the Huns adhered to forced them to carry only the most necessary with them. The reigns of some rulers overlap because the Huns were divided into at least a few large tribes or clans under the influence of their own leaders.

In addition, we probably know only those names of the rulers of the Huns who lived on the borders of the Roman Empire, and with whom the Romans (Byzantines) waged wars or entered into various agreements.

List of Hun rulers

• Uldin (390 - before 409 or 410)
• Donat (up to 412)
• Charaton (mentioned under 412, or 410-422)
• Oktar (up to 430)
• Rua (up to 434)

After the collapse of the empire of the Huns, the Great Turkic Khaganate was formed from which the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates later separated, where the Khazar Khaganate, Great Bulgaria, etc., separated from the latter during the collapse. The Avar Khaganate had no relation to the Great Turkic Khaganate for the very reason that Avars fled from the Turks to the West. In each of the regions, local rulers began to rule:

• List of Avar Khagans (