The Livonian War became one of the largest military conflicts of the 16th century, engulfing Russia and northeastern Europe. On the territory of modern Estonia, Latvia and Belarus, the armies of the Livonian Confederation, Moscow, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Swedish and Danish kingdoms fought. Following the interests of the state, Ivan IV the Terrible, who became famous as an ambitious and wayward monarch, decided to take part in the upcoming redistribution of Europe in connection with the extinction of the once strong Livonian Order. As a result, the protracted conflict was not crowned with success for Moscow.

To begin with, you should briefly talk about the participants in this war and find out the strengths of the parties.

Livonian Confederation

The Livonian Order, or the Brotherhood of the Knights of Christ of Livonia, is a military-religious organization of crusader knights that settled in northeastern Europe as early as the 13th century. Relations between the Livonians and the Russian principalities did not work out from the very beginning; in 1242, the knights, still part of the Teutonic Order, took part in the campaign against Pskov and Novgorod, but were defeated in the battle known as the Battle of the Ice. By the 15th century, the order had weakened, and Livonia was a confederation of the Order and four principalities-bishoprics, which were in sharp competition with each other.

Map of the Livonian Confederation

By the 16th century, the internal political situation only worsened, social and political disunity in the order lands increased to a critical limit. Therefore, it is not surprising that the neighbors of Livonia, not distinguished by their peacefulness, namely Sweden, Denmark and Russia, circled like vultures over the Baltic, expecting an early prey. One of the predecessors of Ivan the Terrible, Grand Duke Ivan III, concluded a peace treaty with the Order at the beginning of the 16th century, according to which the Livonians paid an annual tribute to Pskov. Subsequently, Ivan the Terrible tightened the terms of the treaty, additionally demanding the abandonment of military alliances with Lithuania and Sweden. The Livonians refused to comply with such demands, and in 1557 the Order signed an agreement of vassalage with Poland. In 1558, the war began, which put an end to the Livonian Confederation.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The vast state, located on the territory of modern Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania, was formed in the 13th century, and from the 16th century it existed as part of the Commonwealth. In the XV-XVI centuries, the Principality of Lithuania was the main rival of Moscow for dominance over the territories from Smolensk to the Bug and from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Therefore, the active participation of the Litvins in the Livonian War is not at all surprising.

Russian kingdom

As we have already mentioned, the initiator of the Livonian War was Ivan the Terrible, one of the most famous Russian sovereigns. From his father Vasily III, he inherited a strong state, albeit one that had been waging ongoing wars for the expansion of territory since the beginning of the 16th century. The Baltic states became one of the goals of the active tsar, since the Livonian Order, falling into insignificance, could not offer significant resistance to Russia. The entire strength of the Livonians lay in their medieval heritage - many fortified castles that formed a powerful defensive line capable of tying up the enemy forces for a long time.

Ivan the Terrible (parsuna of the late XVI century)

The basis of the army of Ivan the Terrible were archers - the first regular Russian army, recruited from urban and rural residents, armed with cannons and squeakers. Seemingly impregnable medieval castles could not protect their owners from the rapidly developing and improving artillery. Shortly before the start of the war, in 1557, the tsar gathered 40,000 troops in Novgorod for the coming campaign and was confident in the upcoming success.

The initial period of the war

The war began on January 17, 1558 with a reconnaissance raid of Russian troops on Livonian territory, led by the Kazan Khan Shah-Ali and the governors Glinsky and Zakharyev-Yuryev. The diplomatic justification for the campaign was an attempt to get the tribute due to Pskov from the Livonians, but the Order had no chance to collect the required amount of 60 thousand thalers.

Narva was a strong border fortress of the Livonian Order, founded by the Danes in the 13th century. On the other side of the border, to protect against a possible invasion, at the end of the 15th century, the Ivangorod fortress was erected. The distance between the fortifications was about two kilometers, which, after the start of hostilities, allowed the Narva garrison, commanded by the knight Focht Schnellenberg, to open fire on Ivangorod, provoking a long artillery firefight. By April 1558, Russian troops led by governors Daniil Adashev, Alexei Basmanov and Ivan Buturlin approached Narva. The siege began.

On May 11, the fortress was engulfed in a fire that grew due to strong winds. The defenders of Narva had to leave the walls and rush into an unequal battle with a more powerful enemy - a raging flame. Taking advantage of the panic in the city, the troops of Ivan the Terrible launched an assault and broke through the gates without hindrance. Rapidly capturing the lower city along with enemy artillery, they opened fire on the upper city and citadel. The besieged quickly resigned themselves to inevitable defeat and surrendered on the terms of a free exit from the city. Narva was taken.

Together with the fortress, Ivan the Terrible got a harbor with access to the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea - it was she who became the cradle of the Russian fleet.

In addition to the quick capture of Narva with little bloodshed, 1558 was crowned with a number of no less successful operations of the Russian army. At the end of June, despite the heroic defense, Neuhausen Castle fell, whose garrison was led by the knight Uexkül von Padenorm - the fortress successfully fought back for a whole month, but truly knightly courage was powerless against the artillery of the governor Peter Shuisky. In July, Shuisky captured Dorpat (modern Tartu) - for seven days, artillery destroyed the fortifications almost point-blank, after which the besieged could only negotiate surrender.

Gotthard von Ketler (portrait of the last third of the 16th century)

As a result, during the spring-autumn period of 1558, the streltsy army captured two dozen fortresses, including those that voluntarily came under the rule of the Russian tsar. By the end of the year, the situation changed - the Livonians decided to go on the counterattack. By 1559, Gotthard von Ketler became the new head of the Order, who became the last bearer of the title of Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia in history ...

Campaign of 1559

At the end of the year, when the Russian troops retreated to winter quarters, leaving garrisons in the captured fortresses, the new Landmaster, not without difficulty, managed to gather an army of ten thousand and approached the Ringen fortress, guarded by only a few hundred archers. Doomed to defeat, the defenders heroically defended themselves for five weeks, Governor Repnin came to the aid of Ringen, but his detachment of two thousand people was defeated by Ketler's army. When the archers ran out of gunpowder, the Livonians were able to capture the fortress. All its defenders were destroyed. However, the capture of Ringen can hardly be called a success for the Livonians - having spent more than a month and having lost a fifth of his troops during the siege, Ketler could not continue the offensive, and retreated to Riga.

After the capture of Ringen by the Livonians, Tsar Ivan the Terrible decided to give the Order an adequate response. At the beginning of 1559, the archers, led by the voivode Vasily Semyonovich Serebryany-Obolensky, crossed the Livonian border and on January 17 met with the army of the knight Friedrich von Felkerzam near the city of Tirzen (now Tirza in Latvia). The battle ended for the Livonians with a crushing defeat - Frederick himself and 400 knights (not counting ordinary soldiers) died, the rest were captured or fled. Taking advantage of the success, Russian troops marched through the Livonian lands through Riga to the Prussian border, capturing 11 more cities.

This operation caused the complete collapse of the Livonian army, the combat effectiveness of which decreased to a catastrophic level. By the spring of 1559, all the neighbors of the Order had significantly perked up, since not only Moscow had views of the lands of Livonia. Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark demanded that Ivan the Terrible stop the campaign, threatening to side with the Livonian Confederation.

An equally important factor was the anxiety of European monarchs about the strengthening of Moscow. So, the Lithuanian prince Sigismund II, not without panic notes, reported in a dispatch to the English Queen Elizabeth:

“The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because here, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him ... military experts come, through which he acquires the means to defeat everyone ... "

Another difficulty was the disagreements in Moscow itself. The lack of a common military strategy, when part of the boyars considered access to the Baltic the highest priority, while the other advocated the rapid liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, caused heated debate among the tsar's associates. If the emergence of Moscow-controlled ports in the Baltic reshaped the geopolitical and commercial map of Europe, significantly shifting the scales in favor of Ivan the Terrible, then a successful southern campaign would have protected the borders from constant raids and enriched the governors and boyars with new land acquisitions.

Sigismund II August, Grand Duke of Lithuania (portrait by Lucas Cranach, 1553)

As a result, the king made concessions and agreed to give the Livonians a truce from March to November 1559. The resulting respite was used by the Order to its maximum advantage. Being unable to cope with the king alone, the Livonians decided to invite more participants to the gambling table, drawing Poland and Sweden into a conflict with Ivan the Terrible. However, this intrigue did not help them much. Gotthard von Ketler concluded an agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the Order and the Archbishop of Riga fell under the protectorate of Lithuania. Later, Revel went to the king of Sweden, and the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to the brother of the Danish king, Duke Magnus.

Having received external assistance, in the early autumn of 1559, the Livonians violated the truce and, with an unexpected attack, defeated the detachment of governor Pleshcheev near Derpt. However, by the time they reached the fortress, the head of the garrison, voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, had managed to prepare for defense. 10 days of siege and mutual artillery salvos did not give a result, and Ketler was forced to retreat.

On the way back, Ketler undertook a siege of the Lais fortress, which the head of the Streltsy Koshkarov, together with a garrison of 400 people, bravely defended for two days, until the Livonians retreated again. The autumn campaign of the Order not only did not produce any results, but also provoked Moscow to resume hostilities.

Campaign of 1560

In the summer of 1560, Ivan the Terrible sent an army of 60,000 to Dorpat with 40 siege and 50 field cannons under the command of Ivan Mstislavsky and Peter Shuisky. The target of the subsequent attack was to be Fellin (modern Viljandi), the most powerful fortress of the Order in eastern Livonia.

According to intelligence, the Livonians were transporting a rich treasury to Gapsal (Hapsalu in northwestern Estonia), and the Russian vanguard of twelve thousand horsemen was in a hurry to block the road from Fellin to the sea. By August 2, the riders had set up camp a few kilometers from Ermes Castle (now Ergeme in Latvia). Meanwhile, the Livonian troops, led by the "last hope of Livonia" Land Marshal Philipp von Bell, gathered at the Trikata castle to repulse the enemy. Also on August 2, three dozen knights went for fodder, where they encountered a numerous enemy patrol.

Both sides opened fire, one Russian was killed, the rest preferred to retreat to the camp. The knights split up: 18 turned for reinforcements, 12 rushed after the retreating. When the first detachment returned to the camp, Belle ordered 300 horsemen to be sent against the Russians, since he had no idea about the size of the enemy, and the knights who arrived saw only a small detachment. The Livonian horsemen who set out were quickly surrounded, and when the battle began, many of them fled. As a result, more than 250 knights died, many were captured. Among them was Philip von Bell - the "last hope" did not justify itself, and the road to Fellin was now open.

Siege of Fellin (engraving from Leonhard Fronsperger's book, 16th century)

The army of Mstislavsky and Shuisky reached Fellin in August of the same year. The siege began. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the leadership of the former Master Firstenberg. For three weeks, Russian artillery continuously shelled the walls of the old but strong castle. Attempts by the Livonian troops to lift the siege were successfully repelled by archers. When the outer fortifications fell and a fire started in the city, Firstenberg, not wanting to negotiate and surrender, ordered to take up defense in an impregnable castle inside the fortress. However, the garrison, which had not received a salary for several months, was not ready for such heroism and refused to obey the order. On August 21, Fallin capitulated.

The defenders received the right to free exit from the city, important prisoners were sent to Moscow, and the soldiers of the garrison who reached Riga were hanged by the Livonians for treason. The fall of Fellin practically put an end to the existence of the Livonian Order. In 1561, von Ketler finally transferred his lands to the Polish-Lithuanian possession, which the neighbors counted on. According to the Vilna Treaty of November 1561, the Order officially ceased to exist, and Ketler received the Duchy of Courland. The division of rich booty began: Revel (Tallinn) recognized the citizenship of Sweden, Denmark made claims to the islands of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa. Thus, instead of one weakened Order, several European states stood in the way of Moscow, despite the fact that the tsar's army lost the initiative, not having time to capture the ports of Riga and Revel and get access to the sea.

But Ivan the Terrible refused to retreat. The real war had just begun.

To be continued

The Livonian War (1558-1583) for the right to possess the territories and possessions of Livonia (a historical region on the territory of the modern Latvian and Estonian republics) began as a war between Russia and the Livonian Knightly Order, which later spilled over into a war between Russia, Sweden and.

The prerequisite for the war was the Russian-Livonian negotiations, which ended in 1554 with the signing of a peace treaty for a period of 15 years. According to this agreement, Livonia was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Russian Tsar for the city of Dorpat (modern Tartu, originally known as Yuriev), since it previously belonged to the Russian princes, the heirs of Ivan IV. Under the pretext of paying Yuryev tribute later than the deadline, the tsar declared war on Livonia in January 1558.

Causes of the Livonian War

As for the true reasons for declaring war on Livonia by Ivan IV, two possible versions are expressed. The first version was proposed in the 50s of the 19th century by Russian historian Sergei Solovyov, who presented Ivan the Terrible as the predecessor of Peter the Great in his intentions to seize the Baltic port, thereby establishing unhindered economic (trade) relations with European countries. Until 1991, this version remained the main one in Russian and Soviet historiography, and some Swedish and Danish scholars also agreed with it.

However, starting from the 60s of the 20th century, the assumption that Ivan IV was driven solely by economic (trade) interest in the Livonian War was severely criticized. Critics pointed out that, in justifying military operations in Livonia, the tsar never referred to the need for unhindered trade relations with Europe. Instead, he spoke of heritage rights, calling Livonia his fiefdom. An alternative explanation, proposed by the German historian Norbert Angermann (1972) and supported by scholar Erik Tyberg (1984) and some Russian scholars in the 1990s, notably Filyushkin (2001), emphasizes the tsar's desire to expand spheres of influence and consolidate his power.

Most likely, Ivan IV started the war without any strategic plans. He simply wanted to punish the Livonians and force them to pay tribute and comply with all the conditions of the peace treaty. Initial success encouraged the tsar to conquer the entire territory of Livonia, but here his interests clashed with those of Sweden and the Commonwealth, turning the local conflict into a long and exhausting war between the greatest powers of the Baltic region.

The main periods of the Livonian War

As the hostilities developed, Ivan IV changed allies, the picture of hostilities also changed. Thus, four main periods can be distinguished in the Livonian War.

1. From 1558 to 1561 - the period of the initial successful operations of the Russians in Livonia;
2. 1560s - a period of confrontation with the Commonwealth and peaceful relations with Sweden;
3. From 1570 to 1577 - the last attempts of Ivan IV to conquer Livonia;
4. From 1578 to 1582 - the attacks of Sweden and the Commonwealth, forcing Ivan IV to liberate the Livonian lands he had captured and proceed to peace negotiations.

The first victories of the Russian army

In 1558, the Russian army, without encountering serious resistance from the Livonian army, on May 11th took an important port located on the Narva River, and after that on July 19th conquered the city of Dorpat. After a long truce, which lasted from March to November 1559, in 1560 the Russian army made another attempt to attack Livonia. On August 2, the main army of the Order was defeated near Ermes (modern Ergeme), and on August 30, the Russian army, led by Prince Andrei Kurbsky, took Fellin Castle (modern Viljandi Castle).

When the fall of the weakened Livonian Order became obvious, the knightly society and the Livonian cities began to seek support from the Baltic countries - the Principality of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden. In 1561, the country was divided: the last landmaster of the Order, Gotthard Ketler, became a subject of Sigismund II Augustus, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the destroyed Order. At the same time, the northern part of Livonia, including the city of Reval (modern Tallinn), was occupied by Swedish troops. Sigismund II was the main rival of Ivan IV in the Livonian War, therefore, in an attempt to unite with King Eric XIV of Sweden, the tsar declared war on the Principality of Lithuania in 1562. A huge Russian army, led by the Tsar himself, began the siege of Polotsk, a city on the eastern border of the Principality of Lithuania, and captured it on February 15, 1563. In the next few years, the Lithuanian army was able to take revenge, winning two battles in 1564 and capturing two minor fortresses in 1568, but it failed to achieve decisive successes in the war.

Tipping point: victories turn to defeat

By the beginning of the 70s of the 16th century, the international situation had changed again: a coup d'etat in Sweden (Eric XIV was deposed by his brother John III) put an end to the Russian-Swedish alliance; Poland and Lithuania, united in 1569 into the Commonwealth state, on the contrary, adhered to a peaceful policy due to the illness of King Sigismund II Augustus, who died in 1579, and periods of interregnum (1572-1573, 1574-1575).

Due to these circumstances, Ivan IV tried to oust the Swedish army from the territory of northern Livonia: the Russian army and the royal subject, the Danish prince Magnus (brother of Frederick II, king of Denmark), conducted a siege of the city of Reval for 30 weeks (from August 21, 1570 March 16, 1571), but in vain.

The alliance with the Danish king showed its complete failure, and the raids of the Crimean Tatars, such as, for example, the burning of Moscow by Khan Davlet I Gerai on May 24, 1571, forced the king to postpone military operations in Livonia for several years.

In 1577, Ivan IV made his last attempt to conquer Livonia. Russian troops occupied the entire territory of the country with the exception of the cities of Reval and Riga. The following year, the war reached its final stage, fatal for Russia in the Livonian War.

Defeat of Russian troops

In 1578, the Russian troops were defeated by the joint efforts of the armies of the Commonwealth and Sweden near the Wenden fortress (modern Cesis fortress), after which the royal subject, Prince Magnus, joined the Polish army. In 1579, the Polish king Stefan Batory, a talented general, laid siege to Polotsk again; in the following year, he invaded Russia and ravaged the Pskov region, capturing the fortresses of Velizh and Usvyat and subjecting Velikie Luki to devastating fire. During the third campaign against Russia in August 1581, Batory began the siege of Pskov; the garrison under the leadership of the Russian prince Ivan Shuisky repulsed 31 attacks.

At the same time, Swedish troops captured Narva. On January 15, 1582, Ivan IV signed the Yamzapolsky peace treaty near the town of Zapolsky Yam, which ended the war with the Commonwealth. Ivan IV renounced the territories in Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh (Veliky Luki was returned to the Russian kingdom). In 1583, a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which the Russian cities of Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye passed to the Swedes.

Results of the Livonian War

The defeat in the Livonian War was devastating for the foreign policy of Ivan IV, it weakened the position of Russia in front of its western and northern neighbors, the war had a detrimental effect on the northwestern regions of the country.

1) 1558–1561 - Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga;

2) 1561–1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577. However, the situation was complicated:

The weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen;

A change in the attitude of the local population towards the Russian troops as a result of military raids;

By going over to the side of the enemy, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who, moreover, knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible;

Devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars;

3) 1578–1583 - defensive actions of Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory, elected to the throne, went on the offensive; since 1579, Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the voivode I.P. Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

The Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task - the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea - was not solved.

Assessing the foreign policy of Russia in the XVI century. - the conquest of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates, the Livonian War (1558–1583), the beginning of the colonization of Siberia, the creation of a defensive line of the Muscovite state that protected against devastating raids, mainly from the Crimean Khanate, it is important to keep in mind that the greatest The country achieved foreign policy successes in the first period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (50-60s).

In addition, it must be emphasized that Russia's military policy was determined not only by its fundamentally natural desire to defend the young statehood, secure borders, overcome the syndrome of more than two hundred years of yoke, finally reach the Baltic Sea, but also by expansionist and predatory aspirations. generated by the very logic of the formation of a centralized state and the interests of the military service class.

Features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century.

Unlike Europe, where national centralized states were formed, the unification of the Russian lands into the Muscovite state did not yet mean their merging into a single political and economic whole.

Throughout the 16th century there was a complex and contradictory process of centralization, elimination of the specific system.

In the study of the features of the political development of the Russian state in the XVI century. some of the most controversial issues can be identified.

In domestic and foreign literature, there is no consensus on the definition of the state form, established in Russia. Some authors characterize this form as a class-representative monarchy, others - as a class.

Some define the political system of Russia in the 16th century. as autocracy, understanding by it the despotic form of absolutism and even Eastern despotism.

The discussion is influenced by the following factors:

Firstly, demonization in assessing the personality and politics of Ivan the Terrible, which was initiated by N.M. Karamzin;

Secondly, the vagueness of the concepts of "autocracy", "absolutism", "oriental despotism", their relationship.

The formal-legal, or purely rational, definition of these concepts does not take into account the traditional power characteristic of the medieval worldview, which influenced the essence and form of statehood. Autocracy in the 16th century - this is the Russian national form of Orthodox estate statehood, a churched state, which cannot be identified either with varieties of Eastern despotism or with European absolutism, at least before the reforms of Peter I (V.F. Patrakov).

MM. Shumilov drew attention to the fact that the opinions of the authors differ in characterizing the Russian autocracy. So, according to R. Pipes, the autocratic system in Russia was formed under the influence of the Golden Horde. The American historian believes that since for centuries the khan was the absolute master over the Russian princes, then “his power and greatness almost completely erased the image of the Byzantine basileus from memory.” The latter was something very remote, a legend; none of the specific princes had ever been to Constantinople, but many of them knew the road to Saray very well.

It was in Saray that the princes had the opportunity to closely contemplate the power, "with which one cannot enter into an agreement, which must be obeyed unconditionally." Here they learned to tax courts and trade deals, conduct diplomatic relations, manage a courier service, and crack down on recalcitrant subjects.

S.G. Pushkarev believed that the political system of the Russian state was formed under the influence of the Byzantine church-political culture, and the power of the Moscow grand dukes (Ivan III, Vasily III) and tsars (with the exception of Ivan IV) was only formally unlimited. “In general, the Moscow sovereign was - not formally, but morally - limited by old customs and traditions, especially church ones. The Moscow sovereign could not and did not want to do what "did not happen."

Depending on the answer to the question about the essence of monarchical power in Russia, historians also speak differently regarding the political role of the Boyar Duma. So, according to R. Pipes, the Duma, having neither legislative nor executive power, performed only the functions of a registration institution that approved the decisions of the king. “The Duma,” he said, “did not have a number of important features that distinguish institutions that have real political power. Its composition was extremely unstable ... There was no regular schedule of meetings. There were no minutes of discussions, and the only evidence of the participation of the Duma in the development of decisions is the formula written in the text of many decrees: "The king indicated, and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma did not have a clearly defined sphere of activity.

In the XVI century. The Duma turned into a permanent government institution, where Duma people acted not only as advisers to the tsar on issues of legislation and administration, not only participated in the development of decisions, often discussing, and sometimes objecting to the tsar, but also managed central orders, carried out special assignments for central and local affairs. administration (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Another facet of the question of the essence of Russian statehood in the 16th century. - activities of zemstvo sobors in 1549–1550, 1566 and 1598, the study of their formation, functions and relationships with the tsar.

Attempts to solve this problem in the spirit of Eurocentric concepts that dominate historiography give polar, sometimes mutually exclusive points of view of researchers. Zemsky Sobors in Russia did not have a permanent composition, clearly defined functions, in contrast to the class-representative authorities of European countries. If the Parliament in England, the States General in France and other class-representative bodies arose as a counterbalance to the royal power and were, as a rule, in opposition to it, then the Zemsky Sobors never came into conflict with the tsar.

In historical studies, an opinion is often expressed about the class-representative nature of the Zemsky Sobors (S.G. Goryainov, I.A. Isaev, etc.). However, M.M. Shumilov believes that, apparently, Zemsky Sobors of the 16th century. were neither popular, nor class-representative institutions, nor advisory bodies under the tsar. Unlike the corresponding institutions of Western Europe, they did not interfere in public administration, did not seek any political rights for themselves, and did not even perform advisory functions. The participants of the first Zemsky Sobors were not elected representatives. Their composition was dominated by representatives of the upper capital nobility and merchants appointed or called by the government itself. Although the work of the Zemsky Sobor of 1598, unlike the previous ones, was also attended by elected representatives who vouched for their worlds, however, it was still not they who prevailed, but representatives of the government itself: holders of power of various degrees, officials, managers, "agents of military and financial institutions "(V.O. Klyuchevsky). All of them were convened to councils not to tell the government about the needs and desires of their constituents, and not to discuss socially significant issues, and not to give the government any powers. Their competence was to answer questions, and they themselves had to return home as responsible executors of conciliar obligations (in fact, government decisions).

Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the opinion of some foreign and domestic historians about the underdevelopment of Zemsky Sobors. According to V.F. Patrakova, if the idea of ​​separation of powers is being formed in the West, then in Russia the idea of ​​conciliarity of power is developing on the basis of its spiritual, Orthodox community. Ideally, in the Councils a spiritual and mystical unity of kings and people was achieved (including through mutual repentance), which corresponded to Orthodox ideas about power.

Thus, in the XVI century. Russia has become a state with an autocratic political system. The sole bearer of state power, its head was the Moscow Grand Duke (Tsar). In his hands concentrated all the power of the legislative, executive and judicial. All governmental actions were carried out on his behalf and according to his personal decrees.

In the XVI century. in Russia, the birth of an empire and imperial politics takes place (R.G. Skrynnikov). Almost all historians see in the oprichnina one of the factors that prepared the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

(before 1569)
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569)
Kingdom of Sweden
Danish-Norwegian union Commanders

Ivan the Terrible Magnus Livonian

Gotthard Ketler Sigismund II August † Stefan Batory Eric XIV † Johan III Frederick II

the date
A place	territories of modern Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and North-Western Russia
Outcome	victory of the Commonwealth and Sweden
Changes	annexation of parts of Livonia and Velizh to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; to Sweden - parts of Estonia, Ingria and Karelia

Battles:
Narva (1558) - Derpt - Ringen - Tiersen - Ermes - Fellin - Nevel - Polotsk (1563) - Chashniki (1564) - Ezerishche - Chashniki (1567) - Revel (1570) - Lode - Pärnu - Revel (1577) - Weisenstein - Wenden - Polotsk (1579) - Sokol - Rzhev - Velikiye Luki - Toropets - Nastasino - Zavolochye - Padis - Shklov - Narva (1581) - Radziwill's raid - Pskov - Lyalitsy - Oreshek Treaties:

Livonian War

The war of Moscow Russia against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic. In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible hoped to conquer the East Slavic lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In November 1557, he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod to march into the Livonian lands. In December, this army, under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors, moved to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov at that time began hostilities from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. In January 1558, the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Derpt), but could not take it. Then part of the Russian troops turned towards Riga, and the main forces headed for Narva (Rugodiv), where they joined up with Shestunov's army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and captured it the next day.

Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of the governor Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and the duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the fortress of Syrensk. On June 2, the regiments were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads in order to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.

From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June, it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia was under Russian control. The army of the Order was inferior in number to the Russians by several times and, moreover, was scattered over separate garrisons. It could not oppose anything to the army of the Tsar. Until October 1558, Russian rati in Livonia captured 20 castles.

In January 1559, Russian troops wenttrip to Riga . Near Tirzen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken. The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians managed to recruit landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. However, failures continued to haunt them. In January 1560, the army of governor Borboshin took the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist. In 1561, the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (Esel Island went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became the Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.

Poland and Sweden demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia.Ivan the Terrible not only did not fulfill this requirement, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33407 people. The purpose of the campaign was the well-fortified Polotsk. On February 15, 1563, the city, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. When the war resumed, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus. However, the repressions that began against the leaders of the "chosen council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had a negative impact on the combat capability of the Russian army. Many governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent voivodes, PrinceAndrey Kurbsky , close to the Adashev brothers, who were members of the elected council, and feared for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.

In 1569, as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state, the Commonwealth (Republic), under the leadership of the Polish king. Now Polish troops came to the aid of the Lithuanian army. In 1570, hostilities both in Lithuania and Livonia intensified. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan the Terrible decided to createown fleet . At the beginning of 1570, he issued a "letter of commendation" for the organization of a privateer (private) fleet, acting on behalf of the Russian Tsar, to the Dane Carsten Rode. Roda managed to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to the Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, in the same 1570, Russian troops tried to capture Reval, thereby starting a war with Sweden. However, the city freely received supplies from the sea, and Ivan had to lift the siege after seven months. The Russian privateer fleet never became a formidable force.

After a seven-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Tsar Ivan undertook a newtrip to Revel . However, this time the siege of the city was not successful. Then the Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Wolmar and several other castles. However, these successes were not decisive.

Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front worsened. In 1575, an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, was elected king of the Commonwealth. He managed to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory entered into an alliance with Sweden, and the combined Polish-Swedish army in the autumn of 1578 defeated the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.

By the beginning of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan the Terrible had main armies of about 40,000 men, approximately equal in number. The Russian tsar, after the defeat at Wenden, was not confident in his abilities and offered to start peace negotiations. However, Batory rejected this proposal and launched an offensive against Polotsk. In autumn, the Polish army laid siege to the city and after a month-long siege captured it. Rati governor Sheina and Sheremeteva, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles also captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. Ivan the Terrible clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.

In 1580, Batory undertook a large campaign against Russia, capturing and ruining the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. At the same time, the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardi captured the city of Korela and the eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus. In 1581, Swedish troops captured Narva, and the following year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting was transferred to the territory of Russia.

In September 1581, a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king laid siege to Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. True, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided covert communication between various defense sectors. The upper tiers of the towers were also connected by passages. The height of the walls was 6.5 m, and the thickness was from 4 to 6 m, which made them invulnerable to the then artillery. Inside the Great Walls there was the Middle City, also surrounded by walls, in the Middle City - the fortified Dovmont city, and in the Dovmont city - the stone Kremlin. Above the level of the Velikaya River, the walls of the city of Dovmont rose 10 m, and the Kremlin - 17 m, which made these fortifications almost impregnable. The city had significant stocks of food, weapons and ammunition.

The Russian army was dispersed over many points, from where an enemy invasion was expected. The tsar himself, with a considerable gradual detachment, stopped in Staritsa, not daring to meet the Polish army marching towards Pskov.

When the tsar learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who was appointed "great commander", was sent to Pskov. Seven other governors were subordinate to him. All the inhabitants of Pskov and the garrison were sworn in that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the last drop of blood. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25 thousand people and was about half the size of Batory's army. By order of Shuisky, the surroundings of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find food and food there.

On August 18, the Polish army approached the city at a distance of 2-3 cannon shots. During the week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of the Russian fortifications and only on August 26 ordered his army to approach the city. However, the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian guns and retreated to the Cherekha River. Here Batory set up a fortified camp.
The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they rolled rounds to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, placing 20 guns, on the morning of September 6, they began to fire at both towers and 150 m of the wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were badly damaged, and a breach 50 meters wide was formed in the wall. But the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the breach.

On September 8, Polish troops launched an assault. The attackers managed to capture both damaged towers. However, shots from a large cannon "Bars", capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than one kilometer, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins, rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, led by Shuisky himself. The enemy could not hold the Pokrovskaya Tower - and retreated.

After the failure of the assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians managed to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, the rest of the Poles could not be completed. On October 24, Polish batteries began to fire at Pskov from behind the Velikaya River with red-hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city's defenders quickly put out the fire. Four days later, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there is another wall and a ditch that the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and pitch.

On November 2, Batory's army launched the last assault on Pskov. This time the Poles attacked the western wall. Prior to that, for five days it was subjected to heavy shelling and was destroyed in several places. However, the defenders of Pskov met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back, never reaching the breaches.

By that time, the morale of the besiegers had fallen noticeably. But the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break into Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.

On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began to prepare for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Caves Monastery, 60 km from Pskov, but the garrison of 300 archers, supported by monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.

Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoysky, and he himself left for Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26 thousand people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, the death toll and desertion increased. Under these conditions, Bathory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Russia renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.

In 1583 it was signedPlus Armistice with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. For Russia there was only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. However, in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and the Swedes resumed and this time were successful for Moscow. As a result, according to the Tyavzinsky treaty on "eternal peace", Russia regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But that was only small consolation. In general, Ivan the Terrible's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.

At the same time, sharp contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia facilitated the position of the Russian tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Russia. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory's campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly not enough to capture and hold a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. SimultaneouslyLivonian War showed that Sweden and Poland in the east had a formidable enemy that had to be seriously reckoned with.

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive decay of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute." According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

Stages of the war.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II August in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ezel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to retreat from those cities of Livonia that the king took for protection, and it is more fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, uniting in 1569 the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again aggravated, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Nations for a long “kinglessness”, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed the scales to tip in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet Giray was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573 the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near Lode Castle in western Estonia with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and baggage.

In 1575, the fortress of Saga surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, and serious internal difficulties negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia.

Fourth stage. In 1575, the period of "royallessness" (1572-1575) ended in the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory was elected king. Stefan Batory, Prince of Semigradsky, was supported by the Turkish Sultan Murad III. After the flight of King Henry of Valois from Poland in 1574, the Sultan sent a letter to the Polish lords demanding that the Poles should not choose the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian II as king, but choose one of the Polish nobles, for example, Jan Kostka, or, if a king from others powers, then Bathory or the Swedish prince Sigismund Vasa. Ivan the Terrible, in a letter to Stefan Batory, more than once hinted that he was a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, which caused Batory to sharply respond: “How dare you remind us so often of bezmonstvo, you, who prevented your blood from us, whose prodkov mare's milk, that sunk into the manes of the Tatar scales licked ... ". The election of Stefan Batory as king of the Commonwealth meant the resumption of the war with Poland. However, back in 1577, Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, except for Riga and Reval, which was besieged in 1576-1577. But this year was the last year of Russia's successes in the Livonian War.

From 1579 Batory began a war against Russia. In 1579, Sweden also resumed hostilities, and Batory returned Polotsk and took Velikiye Luki, and in 1581 laid siege to Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. The Pskovites swore "for Pskov city to fight with Lithuania to death without any tricks." They kept their oath, repelling 31 attacks. After five months of unsuccessful attempts, the Poles were forced to lift the siege of Pskov. Heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582. the garrison and the population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the Livonian War for Russia: the failure near Pskov forced Stefan Batory to enter into peace negotiations.

Taking advantage of the fact that Batory actually cut off Livonia from Russia, the Swedish commander Baron Pontus Delagardi undertook an operation to destroy isolated Russian garrisons in Livonia. By the end of 1581, the Swedes, having crossed the frozen Gulf of Finland on the ice, captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), and then moved to Riga, taking Haapsa-lu, Pärnu, and then the entire South (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In total, Swedish troops captured 9 cities in Livonia and 4 in Novgorod land in a relatively short period, nullifying all the long-term gains of the Russian state in the Baltic states. In Ingermanland, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in Ladoga - Korela.

Results and consequences of the war.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneously ongoing war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even on the concession of Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden to conclude a humiliating peace for the Russian state of Plus . Negotiations in Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

• 1. The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it, only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland remained.
• 2. Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes.
• 3. Also, the Kexholm fortress in Karelia, along with the vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga, went to the Swedes.
• 4. The Russian state turned out to be cut off from the sea, ruined and devastated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Thus, the Livonian War had very serious consequences for the Russian state, and the defeat in it greatly affected its further development. However, one can agree with N.M. Karamzin, who noted that the Livonian War was “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.”