Brikner, Alexander Gustavovich - Russian historian (1834 - 96), originally from Germany. At first he devoted himself to the profession of his father, a merchant, and served for several years in the office of a trading house; then studied for three years under the guidance of Geisser, Droysen, Ranke, Kuno-Fischer, Raumer.
Brikner, Alexander Gustavovich - Russian historian (1834 - 96), originally from Germany. At first he devoted himself to the profession of his father, a merchant, and served for several years in the office of a trading house; then studied for three years under the guidance of Geisser, Droysen, Ranke, Kuno-Fischer, Raumer. Having received in 1860 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Heidelberg for the dissertation "Zur Geschichte des Reichstags zu Worms", Brickner from 1861 began to teach history at the School of Jurisprudence. In 1864 he defended his master's thesis "Copper money in Russia (1653 - 63)". In 1867, having received a doctorate in history from Dorpat University for his dissertation "Finanzgeschichtliiche Studien. Kupfergeldkrise", he was invited to Novorossiysk University, and in 1871 he was elected to the Department of Russian History at Dorpat University. After retiring, he moved to Jena in 1892, where he died. His most important works are devoted mainly to the cultural and political history of Russia, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries. The main theme around which all of Brikner's major works were grouped was the process of "Europeanization" of Russia, through the penetration of Western European concepts and interests. Brikner outlined the results of his work on this topic in a major work "Die Europaisirung Russlands. Land und Volk" (Gotha, 1888). He attached particular importance to the era of Peter the Great, but in the coverage he kept its somewhat outdated view, excessively emphasizing the inertia of Russian life of the previous, Moscow, period. Brickner's main work on this era - "The History of Peter the Great" (St. Petersburg, 1882) - met with a rather harsh assessment from experts, but, undoubtedly, satisfied the needs of a wide circle of the reading public. Of the numerous works by Brikner relating to the era of Catherine, the largest was the "History of Catherine II", which first appeared in German in 1883 in the collection of Onken ("Allgemeine Geschichte"), in 1885 - in Russian alteration, with many illustrations . In this work, as in the "History of Peter the Great", the history of external events, wars and diplomatic events is especially detailed; weaker coverage of domestic life and reforms. Brickner's largest works in the last years of his life were "Materials for the biography of Count N.P. Panin", parts I - VII (St. Petersburg, 1888 - 92) and the beginning of an extensive work on the general history of Russia, undertaken for the series "Geschichte der europaischen Staaten" Geeren and Uckert and meant German readers. Only the first part of this work, conceived in 2 vols., has been published. : "Geschichte Russland bis zum Ende des XVIII Jahrhunderts. B. I. Ueberblick der Entwickelung bis zum Tode Peters des Grossen" (Gotha, 1896). Both in his major works and in numerous articles scattered throughout Russian and German journals, Brikner was not only an independent researcher, but also a popularizer of new phenomena in Russian historiography, devoted to the political and cultural history of the 17th - 18th centuries. His works, which appeared in German, contributed greatly to the correct acquaintance of the foreign public with Russian history. For a detailed review of Brikner's scientific work, see the obituary compiled by E.F. Shmurlo ("Journal of the Ministry of National Education", 1897, February).
Obituary On October 4, Alexander Gustavovich Brikner, a former professor at Kazan University, died.
He was born in St. Petersburg on June 24, 1834 and, after completing the course at the Peter and Paul School, from 1851 to 1857 he worked in the office of a trading house, but then went abroad and devoted himself to the study of historical sciences. For three years (1858-1860) A. G. consistently listened to lectures at the universities: Heidelberg, Jena, and Berlin.
Having defended his dissertation in 1860 in Heidelberg: "Der Reichstag zu Worms. Die Verhandlugen uber das Reichsregiment 1521", he returned to Russia and from 1861 to 1867 lectured at the School of Law and for some time at the Imperial St. Petersburg University.
Invited to Odessa to the chair of general history, A. G. lectured at the Novorossiysk University from 1867 to 1872, when he took the chair of Russian history in Yuriev; here AG taught for nineteen years. On July 1, 1891, he was appointed professor in Kazan, where he remained only a year, and after retiring, he settled in Jena. Most historical research on the deceased concerns the 17th and 18th centuries. Of these, it should be noted: "Copper money in Russia (1656-1663)", which historically correctly illuminates the financial difficulties of Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (doctoral dissertation); "Materials for the biography of Count Nikita Petrovich Panin", "History of Peter the Great", "Ivan Pososhkov as an economist", "History of Catherine II", "Emperor John Antonovich and his relatives", "The war between Russia and Sweden in 1788-1790." The first volume of his "Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des 18 Jahrhunerts" has recently appeared. One of the main merits of A. G. should be recognized is that he transmitted reliable data about the past destinies of the Russian people to Western European society. ("Russian Word", 1896, No. 303). His bibliography: "The Razumovsky Family" (St. Petersburg, 1894, in five volumes). "Swedish war 1788-1790" , according to new data from the French archives ("Russian Thought", 1896, books 5, 6). "Catherine II and the French Revolution" ("Historical Bulletin", 1895, book 8). "The Fall of Biron", according to new data from various archives ("New Word", 1895, book 3; 1896, book 4 and 6). "Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des 18 Jahrhunerts. Band I ueberblick der Entnickelund bis zum Jodi Peters des Grossen. Gotha, 1896. "Notes of Count Longeron on the Russian army (1796-1824) ("Russian Thought", 1896, book 9 and eleven). "Moscow and Rome in the XV and XVI centuries" ("Northern Herald", 1896, book 6). "Questions of self-education: history" ("Northern Herald", 1896, book 9). "Paul I and Gustav IV, 1796-1800; according to the documents of the Stockholm archive" ("Bulletin of Europe", 1897, books 4 and 5). "Project for the abolition of the table of ranks of 1818" ("Northern Herald", 1897, book 7). "Kaisers Pauls Ende. 1801". Von N. R. Stutgart, 1897. About him: Vestnik Evropy, 1896, book. 12, p. 901-902. "New Time", 1896, No. 7435. "Russian Review", 1896, book. 12, p. 842-861. "Historical Bulletin", 1896, book. 12, p. 1102-1104. "Russian Vedomosti", 1896, No. 310. "News", 1896, No. 306. "Birzhevye Vedomosti", 1896, No. 309. "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education", 1897, book. 2, sec. IV, p. 117-157 "Voice of the Past", 1913, book. 9, p. 158-168. Brikner, Alexander Gustavovich - Russian historian; born in S. Petersburg on June 24, 1834. After graduating from a gymnasium course at the Peter and Paul School, he worked for several years (1851-57) in the office of a trading house, and then went abroad to study history; until 1860 he listened to lectures at the universities of Heidelberg, Jena and Berlin, his teachers were, among other things, Geisser, Dreysen and Ranke. Having defended his thesis in 1860 in Heidelberg ("Der Reichstag zu Worms. Die Verhandlungen uber d. Reichsregiment 1521"), he returned to St. Petersburg and from 1861 to 1867. lectured at the School of Jurisprudence, and for some time also at the University as Privatdozent.
In 1867 B. was invited to Odessa to the chair of world history, and in 1872 to the chair of Russian history in Dorpat, where he remained until July 1, 1891, when he was appointed professor in Kazan.
B.'s works relate mainly to Russian history of the 18th and partly of the 17th century; most of them are devoted to clarifying the significance of the Petrine reform for the development of Russian society and the state, as well as proving that this reform was a logical consequence of the course of all previous Russian history.
B. everywhere follows the development and change of ideas and concepts, morals, etc., and understands the role that foreigners played in various fields in Russia.
This direction caused a reproach against B. that he exaggerates the importance of foreigners in the history of Russian culture.
The value of the works of B. lies, however, precisely in the careful selection and grouping of already known material, since he, with few exceptions, does not report anywhere new archival data.
At the same time, Brikner studied various episodes of Russian political history of the 18th century. It is impossible not to mention the fact that B. did a lot to familiarize German scientists and German. society with Russian history and did not leave without refutation any of those quasi-scientific writings in which Russian history is so often presented to the German reader in a perverted form.
At one time, B.'s project was very sympathetically accepted regarding the compilation by the combined forces of Russian historians of the "Source Study of Russian History" ("Journal of Min. N. Pr.", vol. 186, 1876). We list the most important of Brikner's works: "Copper money in Russia (1656-63)" and "Banknotes in Sweden (1716-1719)" (St. Petersburg, 1864 - master's thesis); "Finanzgeschichtliche Studien, Kupfergeldwesen" (St. Petersburg, 1867 - doctoral dissertation); "Russian tourists-diplomats in Italy in the XVII century." ("Russian Bulletin", 1877, Nos. 3, 4, 7); "Lavrenty Ringuber" ("Journal. People's Education", 1884, 2). A number of articles about Krizhanich" ("Russiche Revue", 1873; "Ancient and New. Russia", 1876; "Russian Vestn.", 1887, 6, 7; 1889, 6). The era of Peter V. includes: "Russia according to the news of Player and Fokerodt" ("Journal. Min. Nar. Prosv.", Volume 171, 1874); "Patrick Gordon and his diary" ("Journal. Min. Nar. Pr.", 196, 197, 1877-78 ); "Furst Wassilis Golizyn" ("Russ. Revue", 1878); "Materials for the source study of the history of Peter V." ("Journal. Min. N. Pr.", vol. 205, 1879; 213, 1881); " Der Zarewitsch Alexei" (Heidelberg, 1880); "Ivan Pososhkov as an Economist" (St. Petersburg, 1876) and a number of articles about Pososhkov ("Russian Vest.", Vol. 112, 1874; 140, 1879); "History of Peter the Great "(illustrated edition in 2 volumes, St. Petersburg, 1882, published earlier in German, and then in Italian).
Further, we note: "The Emperor John Antonovich and his relatives" (St. Petersburg, 1874); "Confederation in Anyala" ("Journal. M. Nar. Prosv.", Vol. 137, 1868); "War of Russia with Sweden in 1788-90" ("Journal. M. N. Pr.", vol. 141-144, 1869); "Great Commission, 1767-68." ("J. Min. N. Pr.", vol. 217, 218, 1881); "The life of Peter III before accession to the throne" ("Russian Vestn.", Vol. 153, 1883-84); "History of Catherine" (illustrated edition in 3 volumes, St. Petersburg, 1885, published earlier in German, and then in Italian); "Potemkin" ("Nov", vol. 13-17, 1887); "England, Prussia and Russia 1787-91" ("Russian Bulletin", vol. 191, 193, 1887); "Gustav IV and Catherine II in 1796" ("Vestn. Evropy", 1890, 8, 9, 10, 11). Great interest was aroused by the work of B., published in 1887: "Die Europaisirung Russlands", in which the author summed up, so to speak, the results of his research.
The last extensive work of B. are: "Materials for the biography of Count Nikita Petrovich Panin", vols. I, II, III and IV, St. Petersburg, 1888-1890 - the entire edition will be completed in seven volumes. Of the political articles B. deserve attention: an article on Fokerodt against the Marburg professor Herman ("Russ. Revue", 1875); "On the publication of Khrapovitsky's diary" (Derpt, 1876); "Ein neues Geschichtswerk uber Russland" ("Nordische Rundschau", vol. IV), on Op. Brunen: "Wie Russland europaisirt wurde. (Brockhaus) Brikner, Alexander Gustavovich (supplement to the article) - historian; died in 1896 (Brockhaus)
The pseudonym under which the politician Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov writes. ... In 1907 he was unsuccessfully a candidate for the 2nd State Duma in St. Petersburg.
Alyabiev, Alexander Alexandrovich, Russian amateur composer. ... The romances of A. reflected the spirit of the times. As then-Russian literature, they are sentimental, sometimes corny. Most of them are written in a minor key. They almost do not differ from Glinka's first romances, but the latter has stepped far ahead, while A. has remained in place and is now outdated.
Filthy Idolishche (Odolishche) - an epic hero ...
Pedrillo (Pietro-Mira Pedrillo) - a famous jester, a Neapolitan, who arrived in St. Petersburg at the beginning of the reign of Anna Ioannovna to sing the roles of buffa and play the violin in the Italian court opera.
Dahl, Vladimir Ivanovich
Numerous novels and stories of his suffer from a lack of real artistic creativity, a deep feeling and a broad view of the people and life. Dal did not go further than everyday pictures, anecdotes caught on the fly, told in a peculiar language, smartly, lively, with well-known humor, sometimes falling into mannerism and joking.
Varlamov, Alexander Egorovich
Apparently, Varlamov did not work on the theory of musical composition at all and remained with the meager knowledge that he could have taken out of the chapel, which at that time did not care at all about the general musical development of its pupils.
Nekrasov Nikolai Alekseevich
None of our great poets has so many verses that are downright bad from all points of view; he himself bequeathed many poems not to be included in the collection of his works. Nekrasov is not sustained even in his masterpieces: and in them the prosaic, sluggish verse suddenly hurts the ear.
Gorky, Maxim
By his origin, Gorky does not at all belong to those dregs of society, of which he acted as a singer in literature.
Zhikharev Stepan Petrovich
His tragedy "Artaban" did not see a print or a stage, since, according to Prince Shakhovsky and the author's frank opinion, it was a mixture of nonsense and nonsense.
Sherwood-Verny Ivan Vasilievich
“Sherwood,” writes one contemporary, “in society, even in St. Petersburg, was not called anything but Sherwood nasty ... his comrades in military service shunned him and called him the dog name “fidelka”.
Obolyaninov Petr Khrisanfovich
... Field Marshal Kamensky publicly called him "a state thief, a bribe-taker, a fool stuffed."
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Alexander Gustavovich Brikner(July 24 (August 5), St. Petersburg - November 3 () , Jena) - Russian historian of German origin, professor at the Department of History of Dorpat University; father of the geographer and meteorologist Eduard Brikner. He was mainly engaged in the study of the process of Europeanization of Russia.
Biography
Literary work
His most important works are devoted mainly to the cultural and political history of Russia, mainly of the 17th and 18th centuries. The main theme around which all of Brikner's major works were grouped was the process of "Europeanization" of Russia through the penetration of Western European concepts and interests. Brikner outlined the results of his work on this topic in a major work “Die Europaisirung Russlands. Land und Volk" (Gotha, 1888).
He attached particular importance to the era of Peter the Great, but in the coverage he kept its somewhat outdated view, overly emphasizing the inertia of Russian life in the Moscow period. Brickner's largest works were "Materials for the biography of Count N. P. Panin", parts I-VII (St. Petersburg, 1888-1892) and the beginning of an extensive work on the general history of Russia, undertaken for the Geschichte der europaischen Staaten series by Geeren and Uckert and who meant German readers. Only the first part of this work, conceived in 2 volumes, was published: “Geschichte Russland bis zum Ende des XVIII Jahrhunderts. B. I. Ueberblick der Entwickelung bis zum Tode Peters des Grossen (Gotha, 1896).
In 1891, his monograph dedicated to Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin was published (Potemkin - St. Petersburg: Edition of K. L. Ricker, 1891). Brikner owns works on the history of the 18th century: a biography of I. T. Pososhkov, Russian-Swedish relations, and a money account.
History of Peter the Great
"History of Peter the Great" (St. Petersburg, 1882) (Vol. 1 Vol. 2) - Brikner's main literary work met with a rather harsh assessment from experts, but, undoubtedly, satisfied the needs of a wide circle of the reading public with a brilliant style. In this book, he tried to reflect the cause-and-effect relationships and prerequisites for the reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for the further development of Russia. Brikner's understanding of the personality of Peter the Great and his influence on Russia is expressed by the following lines from the book:
Events go through history on their own, independent of individuals. Russia would have become a great power even without Peter. But the duration of this process, due to the greatness and genius of Peter, has significantly changed and shortened. He did not create a new direction in the history of Russia, but the people were quickly moved onto an already prepared path. The people who could create Peter have the right to be proud. It was the fruit of the contact of the Russian folk spirit with the universal culture. Peter brought the idea of such a connection, which provides him with one of the first places in the history of mankind.
In the "History of Peter the Great" A. G. Brikner managed to study well the personality of the tsar, the features of his character, mind and tireless activity. The author pays special attention to the importance of internal transformations, and not to success in the international arena.
History of Catherine II
Of the numerous works by Brikner relating to the era of Catherine, the largest was the "History of Catherine II", which first appeared in German in 1883 in the Oncken collection ("Allgemeine Geschichte"), in 1885 - in Russian alteration, with many illustrations. In this work, the history of external events, wars and diplomatic events is especially detailed; coverage of inner life and reforms is weaker (excessive attention is paid to Catherine's Mandate, its significance is slightly overestimated). Brikner summed up Catherine's activities as follows:
Unusually richly gifted by nature, having a high position due to a number of favorable circumstances, Catherine was able to fulfill the task assigned to her by fate; she was helped in this by extraordinary willpower; she knew how to enjoy the benefits of her position, life in general, tireless work in particular. Catherine gives the impression of a person who was distinguished not only by her enormous mental abilities, but also by the favorable qualities of her soul. Until now, historians have been especially willing to dwell either on the outward splendor and loud glory of her reign, or on the undeniable weaknesses of her private life. Having tried to develop the historical materials that have appeared recently, we tried to portray the personality and reign of Catherine more impartially, more versatile than our predecessors. From a general review of Catherine's activities, we get the following conclusion: she acted successfully as an intermediary between the progress and culture of Western Europe, on the one hand, and the life of Russia, on the other. Under her, the power and influence of Russia in the world system of states was significantly strengthened; during the reign of Catherine, thanks to her initiative, Russia quickly moved forward on the path of progress, Europeanization.
Results of activities
Both in his major works and in numerous articles scattered throughout Russian and German journals, Brikner was not only an independent researcher, but also a popularizer of new phenomena in Russian historiography, devoted to the political and cultural history of the 17th-18th centuries. His works, which appeared in German, contributed greatly to the correct acquaintance of the foreign public with Russian history.
For a detailed review of Brikner's scientific activities, see the obituary compiled by E. F. Shmurlo (“Journal Ministry National Education”, 1897, February).
A. G. Brikner
HISTORY OF PETER THE GREAT
(in 2 volumes)
Works by A.G. Brikner
Professor of Russian History at Dorpat University
VOLUME ONE
INTRODUCTION
The historical development of Russia during the last centuries consists mainly in its transformation from an Asian state into a European one. The most remarkable epoch in the process of Europeanization of Russia was the reign of Peter the Great.
The study of the beginning of Russian history, along with the study of the origin of other states, presents a number of ethnographic questions. It is not easy to determine exactly the origin and nature of the heterogeneous elements found on the threshold of Russian history. The beginnings of state life, first in Ladoga, then in Novgorod, a little later in Kyiv, refer to the emergence and interaction of various tribes of Slavs and Varangians, Finnish and Turkic-Tatar peoples. Many phenomena of this earliest time, despite all the efforts of scientists, remain unsolved; the question of the Varangians should also be included here. We do not undertake to decide: Slavs or non-Slavs should be credited with that strength and courage, that militancy and enterprise, which are found in the first period of the history of Russia in large campaigns to the shores of the Volga and the Caspian Sea and to Byzantium.
Be that as it may, but from the first moment the Slavs appeared on the historical stage in Russia, a more or less important influence on them of foreign, alien elements is noticeable. On the one hand, the Slavs mix with representatives of the East, with the steppe barbarians who were in close proximity, on the other hand, they are influenced by Western European culture.
The Byzantine influence on the development of Russia was especially strong. Byzantium stood culturally much higher than other neighbors of Russia. From Byzantium, Russia borrowed religion and the church. However, not in all respects the influence of Byzantium was useful and fruitful. Byzantine influence must be attributed to the predominance in the world outlook of the Russian people over the course of several centuries of excessively conservative views in the field of faith, morality, and mental development. Both the light and the gloomy features of the Byzantine influence are evidenced by Domostroy. Subsequently, I had to free myself from domostroevsky concepts, views and methods of the hostel. Of Byzantine origin were both monasticism in Russia and asceticism, which is in the closest connection with the development of the schism.
Simultaneously with this influence of Byzantium on Russia, the efforts of the Roman Church to subdue Russia to Latinism are noticeable. Attempts made in this regard under Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, Alexander Nevsky, False Dmitry, were unsuccessful; all efforts to unite the churches were in vain. On the one hand, this was an advantage, on the other hand, in such a deviation from rapprochement with Western Europe, there was a danger of some stagnation, sinism. Rejecting the advantages of Western European civilization because of hostility to Latinism and staying steadily in the methods of coexistence borrowed from medieval Byzantium, Russia could easily lose participation in the results of universal development.
The Tatar yoke joined this evil. Russia became a vassal state of the Tatar East. The influence of the Tatars turned out to be strong and lasting. It was found in the field of administration and the state economy, in military affairs and in the judiciary, in relation to various methods of hostel life and domestic life. It is possible to argue about the extent of this influence, but its very fact and significant harm cannot be doubted. But spiritually, complete independence from the Tatars was preserved, while in the mores and customs of everyday life, in an increased tendency to predatory, in the Cossacks, in a weakening of the sense of right, duty and obligation, in the moral corruption of bureaucratic people, in the enslavement and humiliation of a woman, it is impossible see no evidence of a strong and mostly unfavorable Tatar influence.
The result of the joint influence of Byzantium and the Tatars on Russia was its alienation from the West for several centuries, and meanwhile the most important condition for a more successful historical development of Russia was to turn towards the West, to draw closer to Europe, in solidarity with peoples who were at a higher level of culture. and enjoying more favorable conditions for their further development.
The first and most important means to achieve this goal was the unification of Russia into one whole. The liberation from the Tatar yoke was determined by the formation of a strong political center - the Muscovite state. Representatives of the latter began almost simultaneously to solve the problem of restoring Russia's political independence and to take measures to give her the opportunity to participate in universal human progress. In both respects, the successes of the "gatherers of the Russian land" are remarkable. Surveying a whole series of northeastern sovereigns, from Andrei Bogolyubsky to Ivan III, one cannot help but notice in all the extraordinary stamina of the Will, the sobriety of the political outlook, and the consciousness of the needs of the state. In their exploits, in their striving for political unity, for independence, for the development of the monarchical principle, they were helped by the people, who had gathered in a dense force around Moscow.
The consistency and expediency of the actions of the Moscow sovereigns were revealed in the fight against the Tatars on the Volga. By all means, it was necessary to take Kazan. No wonder the final success of 1552 made such a deep impression on contemporaries. Along with the Mamayev massacre, the capture of Kazan became a favorite subject of folk poetry. The personality of Ivan IV, who, however, did not show special courage in this case, thanks to this event and despite the subsequent era of terror, enjoyed some popularity for a long time. Chroniclers speak of his feat with the ardor of poets, calling contemporaries and posterity to the great spectacle of Kazan, renewed in the name of Christ. The struggle between Islam and the Christian faith was in full swing. “The charm of Mohammed has disappeared,” Ivan told the people, “in its place a holy cross has been erected.” After many centuries of humiliation and suffering, the happy time of the first conquering princes finally returned. Not without reason did the metropolitan compare Ivan with Constantine the Great, with St. Vladimir, with Alexander Nevsky, with Dmitry Donskoy; it was not for nothing that the inhabitants of the steppes and wagons defended Kazan with such bitterness; here Central Asia, under the banner of Mohammed, fought for the last stronghold against Europe, marching under the Christian banner of the sovereign of Moscow. As long as Kazan existed, the further movement of Slavic colonization to the east had no scope; from the time of the capture of Kazan, the Europeanization of Asia could be considered secured. More sharply than ever before, a sense of antagonism between Russia and Islam has awakened.
It was all the more important precisely at the time when Russia, thanks to the victory won over Asia, became more accessible to the influence of Western civilization, another event that happened a year after the capture of Kazan was the discovery by the British of the sea route to the White Sea. Making their way further along the shores of the Northern Ocean, the English navigators Willoughby and Chancellor hoped to reach China and India. The first died as a victim of this polar expedition; the second ended up near the mouth of the Northern Dvina.
This fact constitutes an epoch in the history of trade relations between East and West. For Russia, such a geographical discovery was the most important condition for rapprochement with Europe. However, in this case, it turned out that the peoples of the West were much more eager for the East than the Russians for the West. The Russians, several decades before Chancellor's voyage, knew the road by sea around the northern tip of Scandinavia. Russian diplomats went this way to Western Europe - Grigory Istoma in 1496, and a little later Vasily Vlasyev and Dmitry Gerasimov. Despite this, not earlier than after the arrival of the British from the west to the mouth of the Dvina, the designated route became very important for trade. English sailors, merchants, industrialists, who came in large numbers to Russia and went further through Russia, in the direction of China, India, Persia, etc., became useful mentors to the Russians. For a century and a half, the place near the Dvina, where the British set up their main office, had the same significance for Russia's rapprochement with the West that Petersburg later received.
The opening of the northern route to Russia mainly ensured further rapprochement with Western civilization. So far, however, communication with Europe has been fraught with great difficulties due to hostile relations between Poland and the Muscovite state.
