Groundwater - The hydrological cycle, or water cycle, covers all stages of the circulation of water from the ocean to land and vice versa. A significant part of this process takes place inside the rocks, where atmospheric precipitation infiltrates, replenishing underground horizons - the main source of drinking water for the needs of mankind. When it comes to reservoirs, in our imagination, the usual natural or artificial natural bowls filled with water immediately appear - lakes, reservoirs, ponds, seas and oceans. It is much more difficult to imagine underground accumulations of water, which are very common, but reliably hidden from our eyes. However, in the physical sense, these are the same bodies of water as on the surface: the only difference is that they are located underground!
Underground reservoirs description photo video:
Underground reservoirs are huge accumulations of water located in the earth's thickness, and the forms that they form depend largely on the geological structure of the soil, the area of watering and the hydrogeological features of rocks. The geological structure affects the form of groundwater, the amount of groundwater flow depends on the amount of watering, and as for the hydrogeological characteristics of the earth's firmament, not only the thickness of groundwater horizons depends on this, but also the possibility of their practical use.
The manifestations of groundwater are very diverse: these are ordinary reservoirs that occupy natural voids, and capillary water that fills the finest hair or capillary pores and cracks in rocks, as well as lenses, water flows, reservoirs and pools. In soluble rocks, where karst phenomena develop, funnels are most often found - depressions, sometimes reaching many meters in depth.
As the water leaches and washes out the rocks, these voids enlarge, growing into large karst basins. And although the economic importance of such funnels is small, they play an important role in the development of local ecosystems, providing sparse vegetation on the surface with life-giving moisture.
Almost vertical water-bearing veins - like karst funnels - also represent underground voids, but at the same time, steep water flows develop passages in them with greater force, thereby creating new large and small underground cavities. As a rule, karst processes take place in easily soluble rocks - limestone, dolomite, chalk, gypsum, rock salt.
Underground reservoirs description photo video
As on the earth's surface, inside such an array, seeping water gradually leaches out a whole system of passages, causing not only physical, but also chemical changes in the rocks, which is why karst waters are almost always unsuitable for consumption.
Usually, water moves slowly here, and in many respects its speed depends on the intensity of karst processes, the size of cracks and the height difference of the aquifer. As for the cracks through which water flows, they are found in a variety of rocks - sandstones, various conglomerates, limestones, dolomites, marls, shales, and even in igneous and metamorphic rocks. If cracks reach the earth's surface, then atmospheric moisture enters them directly, but if they are blocked by a water-resistant layer, then the water horizon is replenished indirectly - through the smallest pores in the rocks.
It is worth noting here that with direct supply, the level of groundwater can fluctuate significantly, but the indirect replenishment of the underground reservoir occurs more evenly and depends on such characteristics of the surrounding rocks as their density, size and density of the network of cracks. It is very rare that the groundwater level is uniform throughout the entire aquifer: usually, internal voids repeat the terrain and are at different depths, water collides with rocks of different density and permeability, which also affects the uneven replenishment of the groundwater horizon.
In other words, although the flow of underground streams obeys the laws of gravity, tectonics also has a great influence on their movement. There are also many reservoirs underground, which are freely located in rocky voids. Their formation requires appropriate conditions, one of which is good water permeability, which is typical for loose and relatively coarse-grained sedimentary rocks. The larger the rock particles, the more porous they are and the more easily they pass water through their relatively large pores, cracks and voids; such rocks are called permeable.
Cemented sedimentary rocks, and especially metamorphic and igneous rocks, do not have pores and are called waterproof or water-resistant; they also include clays, the pores of which are so thin that they also hardly let water through, and if it does penetrate them, then very slowly. If surface rivers flow on average at a speed of 100 km per day, then in comparison with them, the speed of groundwater movement is negligible: in the upper layers of the soil, it fluctuates from one to several thousand meters per year, and at a depth of 1 - 2 km it decreases to 0.001 - 1 m per year. Deep underground waters accumulate for centuries and, according to the approximate calculations of hydrogeologists, are renewed on average after 8000 years.
The height of the rise of capillary water also depends on the size of the soil grains: if the grains are 2 mm in diameter, the water does not rise above 1 cm, and it takes 80 days to rise; with a millimeter grain diameter, it rises to 24 cm, and for this it takes 100 days; with a grain diameter of 2.5 mm, water does not rise at all. In clay, the thickness of the capillary water layer, due to the negligible pore diameter, is approximately one and a half times greater than in sand. The most common types of underground reservoirs are lenses, which are most often found in rocks of the Quaternary period. Two types of such lenses are known. The first of them is a cavity filled with water, covered on all sides by water-resistant strata.
Water in such reservoirs is often under constant pressure and cannot flow anywhere; due to complete isolation from the outside world, the water in such lenses has poor physical and chemical properties and is unsuitable for drinking. The second type of lens is most typical for arid regions - the water in them "breaks away" from underground aquifers and, as it were, hangs over them; between suspended moisture and groundwater there is a "dead horizon". These types of water lenses can be found at different depths, and the deeper they lie, the purer the water in them. But due to the fact that such lenses, as a rule, are small, they are also of no interest for operation. These two types of lenses are most often found in rocks of glacial origin.
A special group is represented by groundwater of alluvial origin, which comes to the surface from underground horizons surrounded on all sides by impermeable rocks - streams and springs. They saturate the loose sediments of river valleys and are so closely connected with the river itself that they very often feed on its waters, forming, as it were, an additional ground stream parallel to the river channel. Such a proximity of streams and rivers indicates that such groundwater is usually shallow, and the water in these sources has the same physicochemical and bacteriological composition as in rivers and is of little use for drinking, although it can be used in agriculture. economy and industry.
According to a similar principle, springs are formed as a result of tectonic processes, but in such sources the water is very clean, as it passes through small pores of rocks such as sandstones, where all the dirt is filtered out. Some reservoirs occupy vast spaces, representing aquifers in vast gentle depressions - synclinal and anticlinal folds. In synclinal structures, water accumulates much faster and in large quantities; therefore, such reservoirs are often of great economic importance.
In both cases, atmospheric moisture seeps into the depths of the earth until it hits the water-resistant sole, from where the aquifer independently flows downward. If, on the way of the aquifer, impermeable rocks are encountered, the underground flow seeks a way out, and then several separate reservoirs may form nearby, separated from each other by impervious strata - in such cases, water flows freely only in the upper part of the syncline, and in the lower part of the aquifer it gradually begins to increase water pressure. Given that synclines cover large areas, underground water reserves accumulate in them so much that they can already be of serious economic importance.
Usually this is good quality water, as it is sometimes filtered by rocks over hundreds of kilometers - it is these aquifers that most often serve as reliable sources of drinking water. A variety of such underground reservoirs are hydrogeological basins; they are much larger than synclines and contain huge amounts of fresh water. Usually such vast spaces as a geosyncline or monocline serve as a "refuge" for such reservoirs. Water in hydrogeological basins is subject to the same processes as in small reservoirs and has the same characteristics.
Underground pools are extremely valuable due to their impressive size. There is also a group of groundwaters, which, due to their geological structure, represent particularly interesting natural objects. Some of them are artesian waters, which have a constant pressure. The pressure at the outlet of water to the surface in an artesian well sometimes reaches 10 - 20 atm, but this does not happen often. In the case when water from a well gushes above the earth's surface, they speak of an artesian well, if it simply pours itself onto the surface - such water is called sub-artesian. Artesian and subartesian deposits are of great importance in water management, if only because it is the cheapest source of drinking water, because it rises to the earth's surface.
Among the world's largest reserves of this type are the Great Basin in the Dakota, as well as the North African and Australian basins. There are also such types of groundwater, in the formation of which the most interesting physical phenomena play a decisive role. For example, in the area of sea coasts, on shallows or islands located in the middle of the sea, underground reserves of excellent fresh water can often be found. How did she get there?
During rains, part of the fresh water seeps underground, where it mixes with salt water. But since liquids with different densities do not mix with each other, the heavier salt water remains at the bottom, forming a kind of water-resistant layer, on top of which fresh water lenses float. This phenomenon is of great importance for people in those places where there is an acute shortage of drinking water.
And now 2 movies!
1. Let's watch a video - amazing terrestrial lakes:
2. We begin to study underground reservoirs:
Underground reservoirs photo video description Underground reservoirs photo video description Underground reservoirs photo video description Liked the article? Share with friends on social networks: During the energy crisis, on May 25, there were reports of. The lack of electricity led to the shutdown of pumps in the sewer, stopped the work of treatment facilities. After the accident, environmental authorities officially closed dozens of Moscow beaches for swimming.
We have at our disposal several official documents of the sanitary and epidemiological services of the city of Moscow (Assessment of the state of water bodies according to the data of the sanitary and epidemiological service of the State Central State Environmental Health Service of Moscow for 2003, Assessment of the state of water bodies according to the data of the State Institution "Moscow TsGMS-R" and some other expert conclusions), which were kindly provided to us by the Russian branch of the international environmental organization Greenpeace. From the documents, one can form an opinion about the general state of pollution of the capital's water bodies.
So, the constant analysis of the state of Moscow waters from 1995 to this day indicates a gradual decrease in the level of concentration of harmful substances, which experts explain by the fall in industrial production. However, it's too early to rejoice. On the other hand, several years ago, in the samples taken, exceedances of the limits for the maximum content of heavy metals (cadmium, zinc, lead) were again recorded. This phenomenon is associated with the use of . An increase in the content of oil products in small rivers flowing in the industrial zones of the city in the South-Eastern, Southern and South-Western districts was noted. Almost all Moscow water is characterized by intense microbial contamination. Microbes in reservoirs, according to official calculations, are actively supplied by wastewater from aeration stations, surface and melted runoff, as well as a storm sewer system.
Fishermen and swimmers take note. The water in the Moskva River in the documents was characterized from "moderately polluted" in the north-west, where the water artery only enters the city, "polluted" - up to the Moscow Oil Refinery, well, after - just "dirty".
So, this was official information based on the conclusions of the state expertise. For a detailed comment, we turned to the co-chairman of the Council of the International Socio-Ecological Union (SOES), Candidate of Biological Sciences Svyatoslav Zabelin.
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Want more egregious examples? You are welcome. Kuzminsky Park is located in the southeast of Moscow, where parents with children often walk, and especially desperate citizens swim in local ponds. Moreover, about eight years ago, environmentalists received information about the military poison gas buried here - mustard gas. And what do you think, informed us during these years of power about mustard gas in Kuzminki? According to ecologists from SOES, never!
The next problem is monitoring the state of water bodies and informing the public about recorded pollution. Everyone, probably, has heard a lot about the so-called norms for the content of harmful substances in water, air, soil - the maximum permissible concentration (MAC). Water bodies, unfortunately, are such a changeable environment that the level of concentration of harmful substances in them is constantly changing. Yesterday, the samples were normal, and since morning, someone kindly poured untreated drains into the desired pond or it rained acid ...
Remember, in Soviet times, every apartment had a radio station. One of the important functions of the radio station was to alert citizens about catastrophes and natural disasters. Now, as a civil defense system, radio stations do not work, and nothing new has been created. (By the way, Muscovites were left without information about what was happening during the massive power outage.) Ideally, information about environmental monitoring should be constant.
In the meantime, society cannot effectively control the environmental situation, environmentalists are advised not to swim in Moscow reservoirs. As Svyatoslav Zabelin said, "from the point of view of a natural scientist, it is impossible to open one beach and close another on the same river." It's just against common sense. Especially after the energy crisis on May 25th. The most dangerous pollution of the aquatic environment for humans is biological, when pathogens of dangerous diseases (dysentery and other "joys") enter the water. During the accident on May 25, sewage flows, the main source of biological pollution, got into the reservoirs.
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Perhaps, one of the main reasons for the deplorable state of the water bodies of our cities should be recognized as the constant shake-up of the system of environmental authorities, which for some reason are called reforms. Authoritative experts in the field of ecology have been talking about the "de-ecology" of the Russian government for several years now. Thus, in 2000, the system of nature protection institutions was actually liquidated. And then, in the course of the administrative reform, two monsters functionally duplicating each other appeared - Rostekhnadzor and Rosprirodnadzor. In such circumstances, it is simply not necessary to talk about state policy in the field of nature protection.
The most famous of the underground rivers of Moscow is the river Neglinka, the channel of which was enclosed in a pipe in 1819: they set up a wooden flooring and stone vaults above it, built drain wells for rainwater. However, writes V.A. Gilyarovsky in the collection of essays “Moscow and Muscovites”, many homeowners independently installed waste drains that were poured into Neglinka instead of being taken out of the city. Impurities accumulated in the pipes, and the underground sewer could no longer contain all the water. After heavy downpours, a fetid, silty liquid flooded the streets and the lower floors of houses along Neglinny Proezd. In 1886, it was necessary to open the pavement on Theater Square and clean the channel ... Only in 1926, the underground sewer was finally more or less put in order.
The mouth of the Neglinka is located next to the Bolshoi Kamenny Bridge. Above it now lie Neglinnaya, Kuznetsky Most, Trubnaya Square and Samotechnaya streets.
Since the 15th century, severe floods began in Moscow. According to experts, this was due to massive deforestation in the metropolitan area.
In August 1566, several dozen Muscovites died as a result of another flood. The capital's buildings were then mostly wooden, and the water washed away hundreds of residential buildings and outbuildings. From the center to some outlying areas could only be reached by boat.
Once again, the elements cleared up in December 1607. The Zholkovsky Notes says: “... The rivers flowing through the city overflowed their banks, and the water was so great that about 1000 houses were partly washed away, partly completely destroyed ...”
The floods of 1879 and 1908 brought many human casualties. In 1908, the water level in the Moscow River within the city rose as much as 9 meters. The water reached the Kremlin walls. Residents of the city climbed onto the roofs of houses, saved themselves in churches, which in the capital, as a rule, stand on hills ... So, in terms of powerful floods, Moscow was in no way inferior to St. Petersburg, which we always associate with these natural disasters.
Thanks to water disasters, a special profession was born: under some Moscow sovereigns, there were people whose duty it was to notify Muscovites about freezing and ice drift, floods and drying up of reservoirs ... In addition, since ancient times, people lived in Moscow who knew where secret wells were located , underground streams and reservoirs with drinking water ... Water was taken from there if the enemy besieged Moscow, blocking access to open reservoirs.
The first open water supply system in Moscow appeared at the end of the 15th century. It was built in the Kremlin itself, and water came into it from the springs, which were guarded by people specially appointed by the Grand Duke, so that no one would dare to desecrate them, poison them, or use the spring water himself ... At the beginning of the 17th century, a pressurized water supply system was built for the inhabitants of the Kremlin . With the help of a horse drive, water was supplied to the pressure tower, and from there it entered the buildings through lead pipes. At the same time, ordinary Muscovites still drew water from wells. Only starting from the 16th century, in some places, they began to pump it with the help of pumps.
Despite the fact that there was no shortage of water bodies in Moscow, already at the end of the 18th century, the overgrown city faced the problem of a lack of drinking water. Many rivers, ponds, springs, wells were simply polluted... On the orders of Catherine II herself, the construction of a gravity canal from Mytishchi to the Mother See was begun. Water was taken from the key Saint near the village of Bolshiye Mytishchi.
They built the first Moscow "real" water supply for almost 80 years. At first, the war with the Turks interfered, then - a lack of money in the treasury, and, finally, numerous collapses ... But in the end, the construction was completed, and Mytishchi water began to flow through cast-iron pipes to pressure towers, as well as pools and fountains located on Sukharevka, Samoteka, Trubnaya, Theater, Voskresenskaya, Varvarskaya and Lubyanskaya squares...
By the middle of the 19th century, special water-folding fountains were equipped in many Moscow squares. Every morning, water carriers and water carriers flocked here, collecting water in buckets, jugs and barrels and then carrying it and delivering it to homes. Muscovites willingly paid for clean, transparent drinking water. In addition, water carriers exchanged the latest rumors, gossip and tales at the fountains, which they then retold to their customers. It was from them that the inhabitants of the Mother See learned the latest news. No wonder the saying has survived to this day: “Speech is pouring - like a water carrier” ...
Water has incredible properties, and with the help of water we can realize some of our desires!!! Get health, beauty, energy and more. How?! - you ask. Patience. Now you will know everything.
Surely many of you have heard about such concepts as living water, healing water, healing water, sacred water, dead water .... These are not just concepts, but real types of water with different properties and structure, and how water acquires these properties is not while changing its chemical composition is the main secret.
Water, it would seem, is the most familiar substance on earth, but how much do we know about water? Do we know what secret this amazing element holds? Where did it come from, who or what endowed our planet with it, perhaps the only one in the entire Universe, and why?
The Amazing Mystery of Water
In the last 10 years, scientists around the world have been studying the properties of water very carefully, because, in comparison with other liquids and substances, it has amazing physical and chemical properties. For example, until now no one can explain why the density of water increases at sub-zero temperatures, and decreases at positive temperatures, while the opposite happens with any other substance. This unique property of water has been used by people since ancient times. In the north, people mined stones for construction by pouring water into the crevices of the rocks. Freezing, the water expanded and broke the stones.
Later, scientists found out that water, being in vessels and capillaries, acquires enormous pressure. In a sprout, for example, water pressure reaches about 400 atmospheres, which is why it easily breaks through asphalt.
Any of the properties of water is unique. Until now, no one can explain why only this substance on earth, out of many existing ones, can be in three states: solid, liquid and gaseous.
Scientists solve the mystery of water
But the most incredible property of water is that it has a memory. Numerous experiments conducted by scientists around the world have shown that water is able to perceive and capture any impact. She remembers everything that happens in the surrounding space. By recording information, water acquires new properties, while the chemical composition of water does not change. Previously, scientists believed that the chemical composition of water was the fundamental factor, and all research was devoted to it. But after a while, they discovered that the sensation was not in the chemical composition, but in the structure of the water.
The structure of water is how its molecules are organized. They unite in groups - clusters. Scientists suggest that it is these clusters that are a kind of memory cells in which water, like on a tape recorder, records everything that it sees, hears, feels. 
The structure of water changes with any impact. Water, of course, remains water, but its structure, like the human nervous system, reacts to the slightest irritation. Modern devices have recorded that in each memory cell of water there are 440,000 information panels, each of which is responsible for its own type of interaction with the environment.
A study was carried out at one of the institutes. A group of people were asked to project their positive emotions - love, gratitude, happiness onto a flask of water in the center of the room. Then, on the same flask, people had to project other emotions - fear, hatred, anger. The results of the study after the first and second experiments showed that the structure of water has changed. After the first, her energy increased, and after the second, she fell sharply.
Flowing through many kilometers of pipes in the city's water supply system, the water is subjected to "violence". This is cleaning with chemicals, dirt and rust in the pipes, but even stronger - this is informational violence. Passing through thousands of houses, the water absorbs the energy of these houses, or rather their residents. Screams, scandals, resentment, crying, stress, hatred and other negative emotions of residents - all this is remembered by water and naturally acquires the same properties. And when water enters our body from the tap, it perceives all these properties along with water.
In areas where weapons of mass destruction are being tested, the structure of the water changes enormously. It has been noticed that after such tests in the surrounding regions, the number of suicides sharply increases by 3 times. Doctors could not explain this phenomenon, but the scientists understood it. After all, water carrying information about death, murder, and weapons has entered the human body. The human brain also contains water, and in such a situation, a water conflict occurs, along with water that has absorbed information about the test, new information enters the brain. The bioplasma of the brain is disturbed and the person commits suicide.
Chronicle. 1472. A prisoner held in prison on a case of inflicting illness on a certain rich and respected woman was brought every day only a crust of dry bread and a ladle of rotten, stinking water. After 40 days, the inquisitors noticed that the prisoner not only did not lose, but seemed to have gained health and strength, which convinced the inquisitors that the prisoner was connected with evil spirits. Later, under severe torture, he confessed that he read a prayer over the water that was brought to him, after which the taste of the water softened, it became soft and transparent. 
Store water is dead water. No, it is really pure, even some minerals are added to it, but it is dead, because it does not contain any structure, there is no energy and there is no life. A person does not feel the difference between pure natural and artificially purified bottled water ... but an animal will always choose water from a source from these two waters, because it is saturated with natural energies.
Since a person consists of 80% water, including the human brain, then when a person consumes water, or rather his body assimilates the information contained in water. This can change the state of a person, both physical and spiritual, depending on the information learned. Another experiment was carried out. Scientists from the laboratory took a routine blood test from the woman, which showed some blood cell adhesions associated with heart disease. After the woman was offered to drink structured water and after 30 minutes. once again they took an analysis, which now showed that the cells became more lively and began to recover.
Nomination "First Steps in Science"
A year ago, when I was preparing a project about the difficult life of water striders in the modern world, there was no limit to my surprise from the results of the experiments. Still, I managed to raise the water above the walls of the glass, and it did not overflow. But even more surprising was the fact that an iron needle can be made to float on the surface of the water. So I wanted to know if the water has any other secrets.
The purpose of my work: to refute the stable ideas about water:
1. Water always flows spontaneously down.
2. Water always pours out of an inverted glass.
3. Ice turns into water only under the influence of heat.
Tasks: to study the literature on this issue, conduct experiments, analyze the results and draw conclusions.
Hypothesis:
1. Water can spontaneously flow up the capillaries.
2. Water may not pour out of an inverted glass due to the force of surface tension.
3. Ice can turn into water under pressure or salt.
Subject of study: water properties.
Object of study:water and its solid state ice.
Several experiments were carried out to confirm the hypothesis.
Experience number 1. The water is rising!
Experience number 2."A flower blooming on water"
Experience number 3. Water from an inverted glass does not pour out!
Experience number 4."The Power of the Thread"
Experience number 5."Ice Captive"
Based on the experiments carried out, a huge world of knowledge opened up to me from one of the previously unknown sides.
I learned that water can rise spontaneously through capillaries, surface tension can prevent water from pouring out of an inverted glass, and pressure and salt can turn ice into water. And how much more of the unknown exists around?
