geographical position

the position of any point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to other territories or objects; relative to the Earth's surface, the geographical position is determined using coordinates. Distinguish geographical location in relation to natural objects and to economic-geographical objects. Geographical position in economic geography is a historical category.

Geographical position

the position of any point or area of ​​the earth's surface in relation to territories or objects located outside this point or area. In mathematical geography, geographic positions are understood as the latitude and longitude of given points or localities; in physical geography, their position in relation to physical geographical objects (continents, mountains, oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, etc.). In economic and political geography, geographical location is understood as the position of a country, region, settlement, and other objects in relation to other economic-geographical (including communication routes, markets, economic centers, etc.) and physical-geographical objects. as well as the position of the country relative to other states and their groups. Urban settlement is one of the conditions for the development of countries, regions, cities, and other settlements. The practical significance of G. p. changes in various socio-economic formations.

Wikipedia

Geographical position

Geographical position- "the position of a geographical object relative to the surface of the Earth, as well as in relation to other objects with which it is in interaction ...". It characterizes "the place of a given object in the system of spatial connections and flows (material, energy, information) and determines its relationship with the external environment." Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a particular object to the environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In public geography, position is usually defined in two-dimensional space. In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

concept geographical position is the key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Actually, geography originated as a science of methods for determining and fixing the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it ... but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of links between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location. Thus the geographical position:

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature, as it changes over time;
• has a potential character, since the position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close ties with the configuration of the territory and its boundaries.

Within the framework of theoretical geography, B. B. Rodoman formulated "positional principle", which means the dependence of the properties of the object on its location, and "positional pressure principle", meaning the force that causes an object to move if it is in a position that is not optimal for its functioning. American geographer W. Bunge suggested "shift rule", which means a change in the geographical position of the flows when they are overvoltage in the existing channel. For example: riverbeds, volcano vents, highways, seaports. Yu. K. Efremov even proposed a special type of maps - maps of geographical location. However, L. V. Smirnyagin believes that in the modern world, as in geography, the characteristics of the place itself play an increasingly important role in comparison with its location.

There are the following types of geographic location:

• mathematical-geographical
• physical and geographical;
• economic and geographical;
• political and geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military geographical;
• ecological and geographical;
• cultural and geographical;

other.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesolocation
• microposition

According to the coordinate system, they distinguish:

• absolute;
• relative;
  • math ("3 miles north of Seattle");
  • functional.

In an extended interpretation, the geographic location may also include the relationship of the areal object as a whole to the data underlying inside him. Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example, as "introspective" (from, intro- inside + spicere- look). For example, when assessing the role of internal border regions in the priority of foreign policy directions, when assessing the geocriminogenic position of the territory, when analyzing the transport and geographical position, when studying the changing area in relation to stations of experience, the linguistic area in relation to the dialect center, etc. Such the approach allows to resolve the collision with the determination of the mutual geographical position of intersecting objects.

) and determines its relationship with the external environment. Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a particular object to the environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In public geography, location is usually defined in two-dimensional space (displayed on a map). In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

concept geographical position is the key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Actually, geography originated as a science of methods for determining and fixing the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it ... but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of relationships between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location.

Thus the geographical position :

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature, as it changes over time;
• has a potential character, since the position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close ties with the configuration of the territory and its boundaries.

There are the following types of geographic location:

• mathematical and geographical (geodesic, astronomical, "absolute")
• physical and geographical;
• political and geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military geographical;
• ecological and geographical;
• cultural and geographical;

other.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesolocation
• microposition

According to the coordinate system, they distinguish:

• absolute (geodesic, astronomical);
• relative;
  • math ("3 miles north of Seattle");
  • functional (economic-geographical, physical-geographical, etc.).

In an extended interpretation, the geographical location may also include the ratio of the areal object as a whole (area, district, territory) to the data lying inside him (to the elements of the internal environment). Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example, " introspective"(from lat. introspectus, intro- inside + spicere- look). For example, when assessing the role of internal border regions in the priority of foreign policy directions, when assessing the geocriminogenic position of the territory, when analyzing the transport and geographical position, when studying the changing area in relation to stations of experience, the linguistic area in relation to the dialect center, etc. Such the approach allows to resolve the collision with the determination of the mutual geographical position of intersecting objects.

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Geographic location of South America

Geography 8 Geographical position of Russia, Russia on the map of time zones

Economic-geographical, transport-geographical and geopolitical position of Russia

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Historical outline

The concept of "geographical location" has been known since the end of the 18th century, when the paradigm of geographical determinism dominated. Ideas about the conditionality of the life of people and society by the geographical environment were put forward by ancient thinkers, such as Democritus, Herodotus, Strabo, etc. The sources of geographical information during this period were descriptions of individual countries and peoples, characteristics of inhabited and remote lands. For the purposes of navigation and trade, special descriptions of the seas, ports, trade centers were compiled, in which there was information about the features of the geographical position of the country through which the trade route passed. Historical geographer V. K. Yatsunsky believed that the work of the Italian scientist Ludovico Guicciardini “Description of the Netherlands”, which was published in 1567, where the first part of the book analyzes the geographical position of the country and assessment of the role of the sea. In 1650, in the same Netherlands, the work of Varenius  (Varenius) "General Geography" was published, which is considered the first theoretical work on geography. S. P. Krasheninnikov in his Description of the Land of Kamchatka (1756) gave a detailed description of its geographical location. The search for regularities in the spatial distribution of settlements and the creation of models of urban geography began in the first half of the 20th century. One of the first scientists who approached the creation of models of the geography of cities was

Russia is a Eurasian state. The country has a unique geographical and geopolitical position: it occupies the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia.

Russia has huge reserves of natural resources, accounting for about 20% of the world's reserves. This predetermines the raw orientation of the Russian economy.

Potential- sources, opportunities, means, reserves that can be used to solve problems and achieve goals.

The geographical position of the territory can be considered both as a condition and as a factor of economic development.

Geographical position of Russia

Among the geographical features of Russia that affect economic activity, the resettlement of the population and the formation of the habitat as a whole, the following provisions attract attention first of all.

1. The vastness of the space occupied by the country.
2. Uneven settlement and economic development of the territory.
3. Wealth and diversity of natural conditions and natural resources.
4. The multinational composition of the population and the ethnic mosaic of the territory (the presence, with the widespread settlement of Russians, of a large number of areas of compact residence of individual nationalities).
5. Strong territorial contrasts in the economic and social spheres.
6. The CIS countries and other newly independent states (not only the immediate neighbors of Russia, but also the neighbors of the second order: Moldova, Armenia, the states of Central Asia, the countries of the third order - Tajikistan). Second-order neighbors are countries neighboring border states.
7. Russia may have ties with Tajikistan through the territories of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan (or Uzbekistan).
8. The countries of Western and Southern Europe, united in the European Economic Community, among which the role of Germany, the new world geopolitical pole, is growing.
9. The countries of Eastern Europe, closely linked during the entire post-war period with the USSR, with which Russia must renew and strengthen ties.
10. Countries of the Baltic and Black Sea basins with which Russia has already concluded multilateral agreements.
11. The countries of the Asia-Pacific region, especially the poles of the world economy and politics - Japan, China, India.
12. A special role belongs to the development of Russia's multilateral ties with the United States.

the Russian Federation(RF) is the largest state in the world in terms of territory. It covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia, thus being a Eurasian country by geographical position.

The geopolitical position of Russia is interconnected with the economic and geographical position (EGP), i.e. position on the economic map of the world, reflecting the position of the country in relation to the main economic markets and centers of the world economy. For the first time, the concept of EGP was introduced into geographical science by the famous scientist N.N. Baransky (1881-1963). This concept is widely used to assess the place of countries on the world map, and in addition, to determine the relationship of any geographical feature to others located outside it.

The territory of Russia is 17.1 million km 2, which is almost 2 times more than China or the USA. As of January 1, 2010, the population was 141.9 million people, and the population density was 8.3 people per 1 km2. The Russian Federation ranks 1st in the world in terms of territory, 9th in terms of population and 8th in terms of GDP calculated in US dollars at purchasing power parity.

The size of the territory is an important economic and geographical feature of any state. For Russia, the world's largest country by area, it has far-reaching consequences, both geopolitically and economically.

Thanks to the vastness of the territory, all the necessary conditions for a rational geographical division of labor are provided, the possibility of freer maneuver in the deployment of productive forces, the defense capability of the state increases, and other positive results are achieved in the field of economic and social development.

The extreme northern point of the country is Cape Fligeli on Rudolf Island as part of the Franz Josef Land archipelago, and on the mainland - Cape Chelyuskin; the extreme south - on the border with Azerbaijan; the extreme western one is on the border with Poland near the Gulf of Gdansk in the territory of the enclave formed by the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation; the extreme eastern one is Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait. Most of the territory of Russia is located between the 50th parallel and the Arctic Circle, i.e. found in middle and high latitudes. In this regard, only Canada can serve as an analogue among foreign countries. The maximum distance between the western (not counting the Kaliningrad region) and eastern borders is 9 thousand km, between the northern and southern borders - 4 thousand km. There are 11 time zones within Russia. The length of the borders is 58.6 thousand km, including land - 14.3 thousand km, sea - 44.3 thousand km.

The Federal Agency for the Development of the State Border of the Russian Federation conducts international legal formalization and measures on the development of the Russian state borders. International agreements on the state border have been concluded with China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Georgia, Finland and Norway. A complete list of countries adjacent to the Russian Federation is given in Table. 2.1.

In many aspects of international relations, Russia is the legal successor of the former USSR and, in this capacity, performs the functions of a permanent member of the UN Security Council and is a member of the most important international organizations.

Geopolitical position of the country is its place on the political map of the world and its relation to various states.

The geopolitical position of Russia in modern conditions is determined by many factors of different levels - from global to regional.

As a Eurasian country, Russia has ample opportunities for economic and political cooperation with foreign countries of various geopolitical orientations. Communications of world importance pass through its territory, providing transport links between west and east, north and south.

Russia is a single economic space, within which the free movement of people, goods, services and capital is ensured, intra-regional and inter-regional communications are carried out, covering both material production and the non-productive sphere. This space is consolidated by a unified transport, energy and information system, a unified gas supply system, various networks and communications, and other infrastructure facilities.

The size of the territory predetermines the variety of regional conditions and resources for economic activity. In terms of the scale of its natural resource potential, Russia has practically no analogues. At the same time, most of the territory is located in the temperate and cold agro-climatic zones. The need to overcome huge distances poses serious problems for transport, which are exacerbated by harsh climatic conditions in a large part of the territory. With regard to transport accessibility, the conditions are very differentiated. With large territorial spaces, despite the fact that this is considered to be a favorable condition for the development of the economy and ensuring the economic independence of the country, intensive development of the economy is possible only with a developed transport system.

Significant differences in the degree of economic development of the territory, the level of provision with natural and labor resources are reflected in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the economy. The production potential of the European part is much greater, and the structure of the economy is much more complex, more diversified than in the eastern regions.

Russia is a federal state - the Russian Federation (RF), uniting the subjects of the Federation on the basis of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Treaty as an integral part of it. The subjects of the Federation consist of self-governing territorial communities and independently determine their territorial structure.

The Russian Federation includes 21 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 2 federal cities, Autonomous Region I, 4 autonomous districts (in 2010, 83 subjects in total).

Cities of federal significance - Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Republics of Russia: Adygea (Maikop), Altai (Gorno-Altaisk), Bashkortostan (Ufa), Buryatia (Ulan-Ude), Dagestan (Makhachkala), Ingushetia (Nazran), Kabardino-Balkaria (Nalchik), Kalmykia (Elista), Karachayevo -Cherkessia (Cherkessk), Karelia (Petrozavodsk), Komi (Syktyvkar), Mari El (Yoshkar-Ola), Mordovia (Saransk), North Ossetia-Alania (Vladikavkaz), Tatarstan (Kazan), Tyva (Kyzyl), Udmurtia ( Izhevsk), Khakassia (Abakan), Chechen (Grozny), Chuvashia (Cheboksary); Sakha (Yakutsk).

Territories: Altai, Trans-Baikal, Kamchatka, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Primorsky, Stavropol, Khabarovsk.

Autonomous districts: Nenets (Naryan-Mar) in the Arkhangelsk region, Khanty-Mansiysk (Khanty-Mansiysk) and Yamalo-Nenets (Salekhard) in the Tyumen region, Chukotsky (Anadyr).

On the territory of Russia there is one autonomous region in the Far Eastern economic region - the Jewish Autonomous Region (Birobidzhan).

We note the peculiarity of the territorial-state structure of Russia under the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993. Nine autonomous districts (with the exception of Chukotka) were part of larger territorial units, but in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, both a territorial part (autonomous district) and an entire territory (krai or region) were equal subjects of the Federation. Since 2003, Russia has been gradually merging autonomous regions and the corresponding subjects of the Federation. This is a step-by-step process, including holding a national referendum, preparing and approving a bill, choosing government bodies, and unifying budgets.

During the period of June 2003 (June 11, the governor of the Perm region and the head of the administration of the Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug signed an appeal to the President of Russia with the initiative to form the Perm Territory by merging the Perm Region and the Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug) to the present, 5 new subjects of the Federation have been formed :

• Perm Territory, which united the Perm Region and the Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug into a single subject of the Federation (date of formation - December 1, 2005):
• Krasnoyarsk Territory on the basis of the unification of the territory of the Territory, the Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs (1.01.2007);
• Kamchatka Territory, which united the Kamchatka Region and the Koryak Autonomous Okrug (July 1, 2007);
• Irkutsk region as a result of the merger of the region and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug (1.01.2008);
• Trans-Baikal Territory, which united the Chita Region and the Aginsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug (March 1, 2008). Autonomous okrugs within the constituent entities of the Federation received the status of municipal districts with a special status determined by the statutes of the constituent entities and the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Each region - a subject of the Federation (except Moscow and St. Petersburg) is divided into administrative districts. In addition, the administrative-territorial division includes cities, urban districts and districts, urban-type settlements, village councils and volosts.

The subjects of the Federation are united into larger administrative territorial entities - federal districts. On May 13, 2000, in accordance with Presidential Decree No. 849 “On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the Federal District”, the territory of Russia was divided into 7 federal districts. The federal district has its own center and administrative apparatus, headed by the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the federal district.

In January 2010, the North Caucasus Federal District was separated from the Southern Federal District by a presidential decree, which included the republics of the North Caucasus (except Adygea) and the Stavropol Territory.

List of federal districts and corresponding administrative centers: Central (the center of the federal district is Moscow), Northwestern (St. Petersburg), Southern (Rostov-on-Don), North Caucasian (Pyatigorsk), Volga (Nizhny Novgorod), Ural (Ekaterinburg), Siberian (Novosibirsk), Far East (Khabarovsk).

There are 11 economic regions on the territory of Russia: North-Western, Northern, Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasus. Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far East (the Kaliningrad region is not part of the economic regions). Economic regions differ from each other in the conditions and features of formation in the past and strategic directions of development in the future, scale, specialization and structure of production, and many other features.

Each of these regions performs certain functions in the general system of territorial division of labor within the country.

Russia in many respects - territory, population, natural resource potential, industrial, scientific, technical and intellectual potential, participation in solving global problems of our time, primarily related to the exploration of outer space, assistance in maintaining peace and security - is a great power.

Features of the geographical position of Russia

In terms of territory, Russia is the largest country in the world - 17.1 million km 2, which is almost an eighth of the Earth's land mass. Let's compare: Canada is the second largest state covering an area of ​​about 10 million km2.

Being in the north of Eurasia, Russia occupies about 1/3 of its territory, including 42% of the territory of Europe and 29% of the territory of Asia.

The entire territory of Russia is located in the Eastern Hemisphere, with the exception of Wrangel Island and the Chukotka Peninsula, which belong to the Western Hemisphere.

From the north, a significant part of the territory of Russia is washed by the seas of the Arctic Ocean: White, Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi. The extreme northern point of Russia - Cape Chelyuskin on the Taimyr Peninsula - has coordinates 77 ° 43 "N, 104 ° 18" E. d.

From the east, Russia is washed by the seas of the Pacific Ocean: Bering, Okhotsk, Japan. The extreme eastern point of our country is located on the Chukchi Peninsula - Cape Dezhnev (66 ° 05 "N, 169 ° 40" W).

According to international agreements, the maritime borders of states, including Russia, pass at a distance of 12 nautical miles (22.7 km) from the coast. These are the territorial waters of a coastal state. Foreign ships have the right of innocent passage through territorial waters, subject to the laws and regulations of the coastal state, as well as international agreements.

Rice. 1. Russia: geographical location

UN convention under the Law of the Sea 1982 defines the boundaries economic zone coastal states at a distance of two hundred nautical miles (370 km) from the coast of the mainland and islands. Within the economic zone, fish and mineral resources are the property of the coastal state.

A vast continental shelf stretches along the northern coast of Russia. A special status has been established for the continental shelf: the coastal state exercises sovereign rights over it for the purpose of exploration and development of its natural resources.

In the east, our country has maritime borders with the United States along the Bering Strait and Japan along the La Perouse and Kunashir Straits, which separate our islands - Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands - from the Japanese island of Hokkaido.

Russia has a huge length of external borders - about 60 thousand km, including land borders of about 20 thousand km. The southern and western borders of Russia are land, with the exception of the maritime border with Ukraine along the Kerch Strait and with Finland along the Gulf of Finland.

Most of our neighbors to the south and west are former republics of the Soviet Union. In the west: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus; in the south: Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan. Many of these countries, with the exception of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In addition to the former republics of the USSR, our country borders on European countries: Norway, Finland and Poland, as well as on the countries of Central and East Asia: Mongolia, China and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK).

The extreme southern point of Russia is located in the North Caucasus on the border with Azerbaijan - Mount Bazarduzu (41 ° 11 N, 47 ° 51 E).

And the extreme western one is on the Baltic Spit near the city of Kaliningrad (54 ° N, 19 ° 38 "E).

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia retained an advantageous geographical position in relation to a number of CIS countries, which can maintain economic ties with each other only through the territory of our country. Nevertheless, some countries of the former USSR turned out to be second-order neighbors for Russia (they do not have common borders with it). These are Moldova, Armenia and the republics of Central Asia: Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. The Republic of Tajikistan is a third-order neighbor for Russia.

The absence of common borders complicates our country's ties with these states.

The collapse of the USSR not only changed the geographical position of Russia, but its geopolitical and geoeconomic position.

The territory of the country decreased, the established industrial and economic ties were destroyed. A number of former republics of the USSR are oriented in their development to other countries and regions of the world, and this orientation does not always correspond to the strategic interests of Russia. These include, first of all, the Baltic countries - Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, as well as the Transcaucasus - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia.

After 1991, the territory of the USSR turned, according to experts, into an arena of rivalry between many developed countries of the world for acquiring political and economic influence on new states.

The geopolitical position of Russia is becoming more complicated due to the expansion of NATO.

On March 29, 2004, Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia joined the NATO military-political bloc, which complicated Russia's geographical position. Lithuania occupies a special place, since most of the links between the Kaliningrad region and other regions of Russia are carried out through its territory.

You don't have to be an economist to imagine the problems associated with the change in the geo-economic position of Russia after 1991. Imagine a single economic complex, a single energy system, close production ties in terms of raw materials, fuel, as well as technological and scientific and technical ones. All this contributed to the development of a capacious consumer market within the country.

In the 1970s-1980s. economic integration both within the country and between the socialist countries was a state policy. The situation changed dramatically in 1991 and required a quick solution. It was found.

On December 21, 1991, an agreement was signed in Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan) on the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It was signed by 11 sovereign states. Georgia later joined them. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania are not included in the CIS.

According to experts, the rupture of economic ties within Russia with the former Soviet republics reduced the output of final products by 35-40%. Not a single country - the former republic of the USSR has reached the level of 1990, with the exception of Uzbekistan and Belarus. The production of agricultural products has sharply decreased (by 35-40%). Only the extraction and production of raw materials, fuel and energy resources increased.

The specifics of the geographical position of Russia

The main features of its nature are connected with the geographical position of Russia. Russia is located in the most severe northeastern part of Eurasia. The cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere (Oymyakon) is located on the territory of the country. Most of the territory of Russia lies north of 60° N. latitude. South of 50°N is only about 5% of the country. 65% of Russia's territory is located in the zone of permafrost. About 140 million people are concentrated in such a northern territory. Nowhere in the world, neither in the northern nor in the southern hemisphere, is there such a concentration of people in such high latitudes.

The northern specificity of Russia leaves its mark on the living conditions of people and the development of the economy. This is manifested in the need to build insulated dwellings, heat housing and industrial premises, and provide stall keeping for livestock (which provides not only for the construction of special industrial premises, but also forage harvesting). It is required to create equipment in the northern version, snow removal equipment for clearing roads. It is necessary to spend additional fuel reserves for the operation of equipment at low temperatures. All this requires not only the organization of special production facilities, but also huge material resources, primarily energy costs, which ultimately leads to huge financial investments.

The nature of Russia creates great restrictions in the development of agriculture. The country is in the zone of risky agriculture. There is not enough heat for the development of agricultural crops, and in the southern part there is not enough moisture, so crop failures and crop failures are a common occurrence for domestic agriculture. Every decade there are major crop failures. This requires the creation of significant state stocks of grain. Harsh conditions limit the possibilities of growing high-yielding fodder crops. Instead of sufficiently heat-loving soybeans and corn in Russia, it is necessary to grow mainly oats, which do not give high yields. These factors, together with the cost of stall keeping livestock, affect the cost of livestock products. Therefore, without state support (subsidies), Russian agriculture, achieving self-sufficiency, is able to ruin the whole country: all the industries associated with it, and above all its main consumer - the population.

Thus, the northern position of Russia determines the complexity of managing the entire economy of the country and the high costs of energy resources. To maintain the same standard of living as in Western Europe, Russia needs to spend 2-3 times more energy than European countries. Only in order to survive one winter without freezing, each inhabitant of Russia, depending on the region of his residence, needs from 1 to 5 tons of reference fuel per year. For all residents of the country, this will amount to at least 500 million tons (40 billion dollars at modern world fuel prices).

The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a set of geographic relations (GR; see Section 1.3.2 for them) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GO influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GO leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in a system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). So, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has competitive advantages over a neighboring one, but on a straight stretch of the same river. Being in different civil defenses, even two initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ first in functions, and then in their internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “political and geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries” [Maergois 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “embedded”, adapted to the DL system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” on the environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze the geolocation, the geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxons, areas, polygons, districts, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which the geolocation is estimated [Maergoyz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in the domestic literature, therefore, below we will dwell only on some debatable issues. So, if we take into account the different tightness and degree of influence of GO, then it seems disputable that the geolocation is set only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographic 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). Need to route from BUT in AT entering C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographic location, which is set before the start of any interaction.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic and geographical position(EGP). By definition, N.N. Baransky, the EGP expresses “the relationship of a place, district or city to data lying outside it, having one or another economic significance, it does not matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors expressed the same opinion [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach proved to be justified. However, when it is extended to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we encounter limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can also be evaluated in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, only a transport EGP can be a species. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical position. This concept was used by I.M. Maergois in the 1970s [Maergois 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support him then.

As we have already written, GO reflect not only the spatial position, but also have content content. This fully applies to the geographical location. At the same time, the limitation of GO only by external geospace appears to be unreasonable: GO not only correlates the territory of an object with the outside world, but also forms it itself “from the inside”. There are two extreme points of view, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of the object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . In addition, the position of relatively integral transboundary geographic systems or areas is of great importance. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the "external" part of such a system. Such, for example, are transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary nodal economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relation of a place or area to inside him lying or crossing his data. Let's call it introspective 2 geographic location. Unlike functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical location of an internal object. For example, the position of the linguistic area relative to its dialectal center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relations themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other mediated relations are different. In geopolitical history, there are many cases where it was precisely the introspective geographical location that determined the priority geographical directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO, is the need to deprive the Xinjiang separatist movement of a possible “rear base” [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic location in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but so far it has not been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical position of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term "internal" in this case is inappropriate. The other option, "enclosing" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-enclosing" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear

/ 2nd order secant

0_ *t* (I)

Rice. ten.

geographic location:

geopolitical position. Definitions

In most domestic works on the geopolitical position, this concept is not defined. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GSP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let's designate these blocks as "variables" P (relation), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be represented in the following form:

Let us take as a basis the one mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we get that political-geographical position (PC) is the ratio [I] of a place [P] to outside [b] its lying data [O] that have [T] this or that political significance, - it does not matter whether these data are natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them”, as many other authors add to the definitions [Geographic 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GSP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [R] in relation to the world [D] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the combined power of material and non-material resources [R] (military-political, economic, technological and passionate) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. Among the shortcomings of this approach, one can note the reduction of external data only to world centers of power and spheres of influence.

Much attention is paid to the development of geopolitics categories by P.Ya. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, “the geopolitical position of a country (or its large region) is the geographical position [P] of the country (region) [P] in relation [P] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [D], with taking into account the similarities and differences of their political systems, the correlation of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

In the event that all variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the previously considered geoadaptation

tational approach (see Section 2.1) and geoadaptation position. Let's consider the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial constraints. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and intraspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and microlevel. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is understood that the concept of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry is used “to characterize geopolitical formations ... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP and predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). It expresses the characteristics of politically significant phenomena of geospace, which can be of both political and any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among the variety of givens, one should especially single out the class of actual political phenomena of geospace (Oh ro c,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here we must keep in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually take into account different sets of these givens. N.N. Baransky notes that “the position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a grid of coordinates, the physical-geographical position is given on a physical map, the economic-geographical position is given on an economic map, the political-geographical position is given on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical and geographical position, extractive enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the terrain. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will include physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical point of view.

Attitude (I). The relations that form the GSP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or factors of significance of external data that are essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As availability increases, the importance of the resource itself does not increase, but the importance multiplier does. There are also such GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative one (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or vice versa, the multiplier grows with the distance (see the types of GPO in section 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Further, it should be understood whether the geopolitical position can be set by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations of a different nature in a transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in the mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO can be of a complex, composite nature and is of more interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of mediated relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as an equal in rights with others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see section 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the GPO mediation chains depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and capture many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo- Geo- Geo-

BUT economic AT ecological C political

Subject

ratio _ ratio

Mediated GPO_

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of a complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an assessed object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics, it is the subject of political activity ( RroSh).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or social non-economic object (place) have its EGP? There is no direct economic significance of other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the “value for them” qualification we mentioned above is redundant. THEM. Maergois even wrote that “the smaller the self-potential of the region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergois 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political and geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of the GPO in this case can only be set by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about the political and geographical position, for example, of a commercial enterprise next to the state

noah border. Or the sea. Those. it is a non-political place on the political map. It turns out that in the general case, for assessing the political and geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( RroSh), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here one can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GPP and the political and geographical position, which allows you to get away from synonymizing the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of a different nature was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: "... The geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, GWP, while it is more historical than EGP and GWP..." [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical position according to the objects of study, but one can also outline their semantic difference. It is believed that the political and geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining character [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and predicted GPOs. The predominant type of evaluation is placement (positional component) and dependency/independence (functional component). The GPP, on the other hand, has a clear political connotation associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account only those data that are or may be important for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-layered and multi-layered view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky that one of the key differences between the geo-economic position and the economic-geographic one is the consideration of geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But such a position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more particular concept of risk.

Thus, the geopolitical position characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of the GPO at a certain historical moment in time, including the trends in their development and the influence of some past layers of the GPO.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GSP, one should also single out a certain invariant, i.e. stable for very long periods and epochs, the “framework” of the GPP, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this "framework" can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between actors occurs, and the local code of the satellite can be built into the global code of the leader. A single code of a group subject is formed. This is due to the induction of geopolitical interests (section 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GSP, several related and interrelated concepts-analogues are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superposition set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of the geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of "situation" is close to the concept of "state", but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that the "geosituation" can be defined as a dynamic set of GPOs on a "real time" scale, in contrast to the inertial "geostructure".

geopolitical situation. It can be synonymous with the GSP or, more often, the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those factors of geospace with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase "geopolitical situation around the country" is legitimate.

geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining the potential has not yet been developed either in geography or in geopolitics. It was often equated with a combination of various resources, with geopolitical power, or with the advantage of a political and geographical position. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, primarily neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. thirteen].

geopolitical power, in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in the external space (etymologically - from "might", "power"). Those. it is relative to external givens. In any case, the geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GSP on the part of the subject.

Valuation principles and the importance of neighborhood

Based on the foregoing, it can be argued that in order to describe the GSP, it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or some parameter of the potential (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of some parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world in the whole.

scrap. In the second, an external parameter (for example, GDP of neighboring countries) is estimated in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not yet mean the actual estimates GPP. Thus, the ratio of the population of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GSP only when it is included in the complex political characteristics of the geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case it is possible to speak, in particular, of the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters at geopolitical boundaries, the concept of " geopolitical gradient. For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In an extended sense, it is applied to the measurement of balances also of fields that do not border HP. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term "geopolitical distance" [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such a term is inappropriate. This is about the same if the geographical distance (distance = distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relations are an integral part of geopolitical relations. Among all the estimated parameters, various kinds of objectively identified and quantitatively measured links and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As rightly noted by R.F. Turovsky, “otherwise, geopolitics can only be reduced to abstract philosophizing and projecting” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GSP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we encounter a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them a relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we get a kind of two-dimensional GPP matrix "parameter x place". Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena, etc. (rows of the matrix), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal columns of the matrix), tied to absolute geographic coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrality, not only depends on other types of geographical location (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them - on various internal characteristics of a country or its region, on their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact on the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only the GLP, but also the EGP is the political and geographical position [Pototskaya 1997, p. thirteen].

Consider some of the many possible evaluation parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on ... the idea of ​​the geopolitical position, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the neighborhood of other countries with this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences in the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily neighbors of the 1st order, with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the ratio of these geopolitical potentials; identification and evaluation of mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of various orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems existing between a given country and its neighbors” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. On the whole, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, further concretization reveals some contradictions and ambiguities.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographic neighborhood. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, introducing a significant share of geographic content into geopolitics even in the modern conditions of a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, the adjacent territories act as "conductors" of links with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to the assessment of the neighborhood at the regional and local levels of the study, especially for GPO types M-G-M and M-M-M (see section 1.5.2). Neighbor countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergois wrote about neighboring geographic macro-regions identified in the same way. Accordingly, allocate

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergois also noted the special position of second-order doubly neighbors [Maergois 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a kind of nuclear geographic zonality [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. Very specific is the insular position of a country that does not have first-order neighbors at all.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in terms of military defense, it is apparently better to have fewer neighboring countries of the 1st order. However, for the development of international economic, political, cultural ties, it is more profitable to have more neighboring countries of the 1st order” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, let's say the only, neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case of economic valuation is also ambiguous: many small neighbors create barriers to trade due to customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are being created. A large number of neighbors is also disadvantageous from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of neighborhood, but also on their relative position and remoteness: a 3rd order neighbor can be quite close, while a 2nd one can be thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( for example, Macedonia and North Korea in relation to Ukraine). So we should talk about the neighborhood of countries of the 2nd and higher orders, not only in the topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergois 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the "normative" measure of closeness can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. The distance measure is most important for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the variety of close regional GPOs, the more opportunities for geopolitical maneuvering, the less significant threats from individual neighbors, but at the same time the less stability and sustainability of GPOs, the greater the variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region . This dependence is objective in itself, but which combination of GPOs is preferable is a matter of specific policy in a real geopolitical situation. In the general case, based on the indicated structure of geopolitical relations, there is a tendency to consider fragmentation of actual or potentially negative geopolitical fields and integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in the estimate of the number of corresponding neighbors. About the same, but regardless of the neighboring region, we wrote in detail in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the B. Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragmentation) the Shiite arc “Beirut-Damascus-Tehran”, even if the new regime would turn out to be no less hostile [ Ketoi 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of "arcs", "cordons", "segments", "shells", "belts", "buffers", "zones", etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of "shells" and "sectors" forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, "long zones/belts" and "wide corridors/sectors". However, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography distinguishes countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia, the “corridor” joined the territory as a communication sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPOs, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical "balances", historical memory, configuration of borders, trade and cultural ties, lines of communication.

Main settings

Next, we briefly outline some of the parameters by which a country's GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to their more detailed consideration [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical position 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008 and others]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with related parameters of other blocks. In this case, a three-dimensional matrix of the form "parameter X parameter X place" will be obtained.

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. Indeed, for such an analysis, the grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be set. But it's not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped precisely by countries. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of the GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened already in different

sequence, depending on the tasks and accents.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, geolocations and configurations of the borders of geopolitical formations, historical stability and variability of borders, degrees of neighborhood, the country's place in terms of the total area of ​​​​territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial base for further comparative characteristics in terms of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of foreign political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical subjects. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky is considered the key indicator for the analysis of the country's geopolitical position is precisely the geographically linked statistics of state visits. It is sensitive to changes in the country's foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. Here it is important to emphasize that it is not the visits that form the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

• political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative bodies of power);
• treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including an assessment of countries-“balances” and “cordons”);
• heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
• spheres of influence of centers of power;
• geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, representations of elites, identity);
• military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize the geopolitical position depends on the ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces "fitting" into them. A good example is the region of the South Caucasus. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical boundaries and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, the dependence of society on the natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, because the development of technology, allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unseen resources (in the ancient world there could be no competition, for example, for deposits of gas and uranium).

Next, we consider the correlation of natural conditions, and above all - territorial resources. Of course, the very territory of the subject, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, in connection with which its natural features should be evaluated. These include the following areas: favorable for life according to natural conditions, suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, marine territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative endowment with natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. Ecological and geographical position is essential. Finally, a special parameter of the SNP is the attitude towards specially protected natural territories and water areas, especially those under international control.

• geographical location and topology of transport / communication routes, nodes and infrastructure at the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, the density of the road network);
• transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
• congestion of routes, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
• inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
• development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

In economic terms, “demogeographic position is the position regarding places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoyz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total population of countries. We note here an interesting circumstance for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of their community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Population trends (even larger than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to arbitrary reports of gross domestic product (GDP) trends, investment, and opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976 the French sociologist E. Todd was the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• docking and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frames in neighboring countries and regions;
• the value and dynamics of demographic indicators (including the mobilization potential), their ratio;
• assessment of migration processes;
• types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a through “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly gone to economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of "honor of the flag" and "power projection". Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic background.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, the trade balance and other consolidated monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [Karabell 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but a detailed analysis of mutual relations, including trade in components and intellectual product, the picture is quite different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to fit any analysis to summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial XX century, and in the XXI century. They don't "work" the way they were supposed to.

In addition, in the economic block, one can also consider the economic significance of parameters from other sections. For example, foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• indicators of the size of economies, including gross and per capita;
• correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
• degree of self-sufficiency, including energy supply;
• scientific and technological development;
• foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
• the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or remote region;
• socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

the value of external and internal territories. So, for the French, Alsace and Algeria had different values. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on the national character and historical individuality of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes this influence in the example of South Korea [Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual "historical grievances" and their significance in election campaigns, the cultivation of images of the enemy, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic policy, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), the number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be attributed to this series, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) calculated by the UN, which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GSP is of great importance for the formation of "soft power" and the reformatting of the GSP itself. Thus, during the collapse of the colonial empire (1960s), French President Charles de Gaulle successfully embodied the concept of francophonie (a community of French-speaking countries). The French language became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

In contrast to the time of another 100, and even more so 200 years ago, image GPOs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as "myths about the country" (one's own and another) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as the country's "cultural radiation" [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” is imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural and geopolitical code (code) of the country is closely connected with this "project" - its original geopolitical DNA. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the "projects of the future" of different interacting communities.

noah evaluation of the GSP. For example, when assessing national capabilities (CINC) or the "status" of countries. We will mention these models later (see Section 4.2.2, Section 4.4.2).

• - central, remote; 12 - coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14 - remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, displaced, asymmetric, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, covering; 31 - border, marginal; 32 - transboundary, joint, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, joining; 41 - border l-th order; 42 - trans-areal (-boundary) of the n-th order; 43 - neighbor / adjacent l-th order; 45 - delimiting l-th order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - crossing (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, nodal
• Natural geographic parameters. In the concepts of "hard" geographical determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is really great, but it consists in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, the contrasting landscape and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
• Transport and communication parameters. With The natural and geographical features of the territory are closely related to the transport and geographical position. This becomes obvious if we turn to the development of transport routes since ancient times. It was the natural objects themselves (rivers, passes, etc.) that became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the sphere of the economy, as is sometimes suggested. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. At present, it can be confidently asserted that the transport-geographical or, in the broader sense, the communication-geographical position affects most of the components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic, and others. Various types of transport, wire networks (including fiber-optic backbones), radio and space communications, and information flows in virtual space are considered. At the next stage, the actual degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of its increase and the threats existing for it are assessed.
• Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are essential for the evaluation of the GSP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is precisely economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the links in which economic phenomena are involved, 104
• Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. The key characteristics are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, superethnoi and superethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals a difference in cultural and symbolic
• Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be separated into a separate group. This, for example, is the complex geopolitical zoning of the region and the interpretation of the GSP from the point of view of some integral global concept (for example, regarding the Heartland of H. Mackinder, the pan-regions of K. Haushofer, the geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, the civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for the complex. Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].

Geographical position

Geographical position

the position of a geographic object on the surface of the Earth within a given coordinate system and in relation to any outside data that has a direct or indirect effect on this object. In a specific study of geographical taxa, micro-, meso- and macro-geographic positions are distinguished. The first describes the geographical location of an object in a small area, where local interactions with the components of the geographic environment are significant, and is used in the study of small taxa, for example. cities. The second (on a larger scale) is used when studying a large region and country, the third - on the scale of parts of the world and the Earth as a whole (for example, Russia's macro position relative to the countries of Western Europe and East Asia). Socio-economic geography studies the geographical location for different levels of the spatial hierarchy and its change over time, which is directly related to different stages of socio-economic development, technological progress in means of communication and a change in priorities in world trade. Therefore, special attention has always been paid to the transport and geographical position, which was especially reflected in the emergence and growth of capital cities, including Moscow and St. Petersburg. No less important was and remains the geographical position in political geography, where it influenced the formation of potential and real theaters of military operations in all historical eras.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what "geographical position" is in other dictionaries:

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

geographical position- Characteristics of the location of an object on the earth's surface relative to other geographical objects and countries of the world ... Geography Dictionary

The position of any point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to other territories or objects; relative to the Earth's surface, the geographical position is determined using coordinates. Distinguish geographic location by ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

The position of any point or area of ​​the earth's surface in relation to territories or objects located outside this point or area. G. p. in mathematical geography refers to the latitude and longitude of given points or areas, in ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Position to. l. point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to other territories. or objects; relative to the earth's surface, the geographic distance is determined by means of coordinates. Distinguish G. of the item in relation to natural objects and to ekon. geographic… … Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

- ... Wikipedia

- ... Wikipedia

- (EGP) is the ratio of the object of the city, region, country to the objects lying outside it, having one or another economic value, it does not matter whether these objects are of a natural order or created in the process of history (according to N.N. Baransky). In other words, ... ... Wikipedia

The position of a region or country relative to other objects of economic importance to it. E. g. p. category is historical, may change in connection with the construction of the railway. or power plants, the beginning of the development of a useful deposit ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia

The position of a deposit, enterprise, city, district, country or other economic and geographical object in relation to other economic and geographical objects of economic importance to it. EGP assessment of an object depends on its position... Financial vocabulary

Books

• German. Germany. Geographic location, population, politics. Tutorial. Level B 2, Yakovleva T.A.
• Geographic location and territorial structures. In memory of I. M. Maergoiz,. The collection is dedicated to the memory of the outstanding Soviet economic geographer Isaac Moiseevich Maergoiz. The collection received its name - GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND TERRITORIAL STRUCTURES - from two ...