Synopsis of a lesson on the history of Russia in grade 8

The date of the: 21.04.2016

Lesson topic: "The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878".

Lesson type: learning new material.

Lesson Objectives:

1. Identify the causes and prerequisites for the war; assess the strength of the Russian army on the eve of the war; characterize and describe the course of hostilities; consider the main battles of the war; analyze and compare the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Treaty; name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army in the war;

2. To form the ability of students to work with the text of the textbook, with a historical map and media files; analyze historical documents;

3. To instill a sense of pride in their country, instill a love for the glorious victories of Russian weapons.

Expected results: During the lesson, students will be able to:

Name the causes and preconditions of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

Describe the course of hostilities.

Name the dates of the main battles between the Russian and Turkish armies.

Show on the historical map: a) places of battles; b) direction of movement of troops; c) the place of conclusion of the San Stefano peace treaty; d) such states as: Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania.

Conduct an independent search for information, working with the text of the textbook and documents in accordance with the tasks.

Analyze the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Agreement.

Name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army and tell the results of the war.

Equipment: Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. EndXVI – XVIIIcentury. Grade 8: textbook. for educational institutions. - M .: Education, 2009; map "Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878".

Lesson plan

1. Causes and prerequisites for the start of the war, the Balkan crisis.

2. The course of hostilities.

3. The conclusion of the San Stefano peace treaty and the Berlin Congress.

4. The final results of the war and the reasons for the victory of the Russian Empire.

During the classes

Checking homework: what topic did we learn in the last lesson?

What was given to you at home?

What are the tasks of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .

What are the main directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .

Name the results of Russia's foreign policy in all directions.

What is the main result of Russia's foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII ?

Introductory word: Today in the lesson we will talk about the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

The Foreign Policy of Alexander II, §27.

Restoration of international prestige and cancellation of the terms of the Peace of Paris.

European, Caucasian, Central Asian, Far Eastern, Alaska.

In the European direction: the search for an ally, the establishment of friendly relations with Prussia;

In the Caucasian direction: the end of the Caucasian war, the annexation of occupied territories, the suppression of the actions of local tribes and military leaders;

In Central Asian:

The accession of the Bukhara and Khiva khanates, the formation of the Turkestan region as part of the Russian Empire;

In the Far East direction:

The conclusion of the Aigun and Beijing treaties with China, the establishment of a clear border between Russia and China; establishment of the border between Russia and Japan;

Sale of Alaska to the USA.

Russia was able to regain international prestige and authority, restore the status of a great power.

2. Learning new material.

1) Causes and preconditions of the war, the Balkan crisis.

2) The course of hostilities.

3) The conclusion of the San Stefano peace treaty and the Berlin Congress.

4) The final results of the war. Reasons for Russia's victory.

What role did Russia play in relation to the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula?

What was Turkey's policy in this region?

So, in the mid-70s of the XIX century, on the basis of religious and ethnic oppression, an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was supported by the Serbs and Bulgarians, who also raised an uprising.

Do you think the peoples who rebelled could resist for a long time? Justify your answer.

Russia comes out in support of the rebellious peoples, convenes a number of international conferences on this issue. Russia, Germany and Austria openly call on Turkey to respect the rights of Christians, to which Turkey refuses. Russia presents an ultimatum to Turkey, which the Turkish side ignored.

Do you think it was fair for Russia to start a war in this situation?

The government assessed the strength of the parties in favor of Russia, which made it possible to start a war. Based on the text of the textbook on pages 198-199, the second paragraph of the paragraph "Start of hostilities", answer the following questions:

Was the Russian army ready for war? What were her main problems?

So, in June 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube. At first, the campaign was successful: there was no serious resistance, the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo was liberated. The Bulgarians actively began to join the ranks of the militia. Our troops occupied the strategically important Shipka Pass and Nikopol. So, take a look at the map: after the Shipka Pass, a direct road to Istanbul opens.

I bring to your attention a video clip that will give us the atmosphere of combat battles at Shipka. Answer the question:

While our troops were fiercely repelling enemy attacks on Shipka, a serious threat arose in the rear of our troops: the Turks occupied Plevna, which our command considered an unimportant object. Look at the map and answer the question:

What position did Plevna occupy in relation to the Russian troops?

Russian troops besieged Plevna, made 3 unsuccessful attempts to storm, lost a large number of soldiers and moved on to the "correct" siege. The Turks only surrendered when they ran out of supplies.

The forces liberated from Plevna in November 1877 were sent to help our troops on Shipka.

What was unusual about such a move by the Russian command?

Reinforcements arrived in time to push back the Turkish forces from Shipka and immediately developed an offensive against Istanbul. From that moment on, the outcome of the war was finally clear. Russian troops in a few months reached the suburbs of Istanbul, Andrianapol. The Turks requested a truce. Not far from Istanbul, in the town of San Stefano, a peace treaty was concluded. Open textbook page 201, find the item “San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress” and read the first 2 paragraphs.

So, what were the terms of this peace treaty?

However, the Western countries did not like such conditions, and they insisted on convening the Berlin Congress, in which Russia was forced to take part. Read the next two paragraphs and write out the terms of the Berlin agreement.

As you can see, European countries, fearing the strengthening of Russia, tried to crush it at the diplomatic level.

Based on the knowledge gained in today's lesson, say, Why did Russia win the war?

Russia acted as their protector and patroness.

Turkey's policy was aimed at the oppression of local Christian peoples on religious and ethnic grounds.

The rebellious peoples did not have the opportunity to resist for a long time, since they did not have strong, combat-ready armies.

Russia rightly started the war, because. Turkey did not comply with the requirements of the international community and continued to be active in the Balkans.

The Russian army was ready for war, the military reform began to give positive results: the army was re-equipped, retrained, and manned according to new principles. The main problem of the army was the command staff, which is an old officer school and outdated views on the conduct of the war.

Write down the main information in the notebook next to the teacher.

They find the Shipka Pass, analyze the nature of the area.

They are watching a video clip from the film "Heroes of Shipka".

Heroic, courageous, courageous.

Plevna was in the rear of the Russian troops, creating a serious threat.

The troops were not taken to winter quarters and continued fighting in the winter, which was not typical for that time.

Read the text of the textbook.

South Bessarabia returns to Russia;

The Transcaucasian fortresses Batum, Kars, Ardagan joined;

Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence;

Bulgaria received autonomy;

Read the text of the textbook

Partition of Bulgaria;

The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been cut;

Russian acquisitions in Transcaucasia have been reduced.

Military reform began to show positive results; favorable balance of power for Russia; courage and heroism of warriors; a high level of patriotism throughout society; support of the local population.

3. Fixing.

Name the significance of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 for Russia.

They analyze the information received during the lesson, determine the significance of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 for Russia.

They analyze their work in the lesson with tables, rate themselves.

2 - unsatisfactory;

3 - satisfactory;

4 - good;

5 is excellent.

5. Evaluation of results and recording homework.

Marking and commenting. Verbal assessment of class activity as a whole.

Instructions for doing homework.

Recording Homework: A Comparative Analysis of the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Agreement in writing.

The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires, which lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on the side of Russia. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kars region and Southern Bessarabia, and Romania - Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.

Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, the autonomy of Serbia was achieved. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after a long war, it recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed by the Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, seeking to regain its influence in the Balkans, began to mobilize the army, but to start the war it was necessary to make sure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on the side of Turkey. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened, which tried to resolve the conflict through diplomacy, but the Porta rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-intervention from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.

Side forces

In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers, together with the Balkan allies, the number of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had about 100,000 soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a 186,000-strong group, and about 90,000 soldiers in the Caucasus. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, in addition, the Port had the Danube Flotilla.

The course of the war

In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania, on June 27 the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to move deep into the territory of the enemy. On July 7, a detachment of General Gurko occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to surround the Turkish troops stationed there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, the troops of General Kridener occupied Nikopol, but at the same time, a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the Plevna fortress, located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge the Russian units from Shipka, but they encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.

On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was undertaken, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After that, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was summoned from St. Petersburg. At this time, the army of Suleiman Pasha tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but each time failed.

In December 1877, the Plevna garrison attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the blow of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.

After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, a detachment of General Gurko crossed the Churyak Pass and on January 4, 1878, occupied Sofia. In early January, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Balkan Range. January 10 detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22,000 soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.

On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.

In the Caucasian theater, the Turks managed to occupy the Black Sea coast in May after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and laid siege to Kars, which surrendered on November 18.

Results
On March 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was signed. According to him, Kars, Ardagan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as South Bessarabia, departed from Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received wide autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania - independence. In addition, Turkey pledged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The conditions of the peace did not satisfy the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was cut, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary - Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Nevertheless, the main result of the war - the independence of the Balkan peoples - was not revised.

In artistic culture

Painting:

Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a cycle of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.

Literature:

Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.

Akunin Boris. Turkish gambit. 1998.

Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.

Vasiliev B. There were and were not. 1981.

Cinema:

Heroes of Shipka, 1960

Julia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)

Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)

Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)

Institute for Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergey Danelyan)

Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878(Turkish name: 93 Harbi, 93 war) - a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising was crushed in Bulgaria aroused sympathy for the position of the Christians of the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the position of Christians by peaceful means were frustrated by the stubborn unwillingness of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to surrender at Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which fixed the return of the southern part of Bessarabia to Russia and the annexation of Kars, Ardagan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria was restored (it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) as a vassal Principality of Bulgaria; the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and the Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Background to the conflict

[edit] Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

Article 9 of the Paris Peace Treaty, concluded as a result of the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. The matter did not progress further than the publication of the corresponding firman (decree) of the Sultan. In particular, in the courts the evidence of non-Muslims (“dhimmi”) against Muslims was not accepted, which effectively deprived Christians of the right to judicial protection from religious persecution.

§ 1860 - in Lebanon, the Druzes, with the connivance of the Ottoman authorities, massacred over 10 thousand Christians (mainly Maronites, but also Greek Catholics and Orthodox). The threat of French military intervention forced Porto to restore order. Under pressure from the European powers, Porta agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was nominated by the Ottoman sultan after agreement with the European powers.

§ 1866-1869 - uprising in Crete under the slogan of uniting the island with Greece. The rebels took control of the entire island except for the five cities in which the Muslims fortified. By the beginning of 1869, the uprising was crushed, but the Porte made concessions, introducing self-government on the island, which strengthened the rights of Christians. During the suppression of the uprising, the events in the monastery of Moni Arkadiou became widely known in Europe ( English), when over 700 women and children who had taken refuge behind the walls of the monastery preferred to blow up the powder magazine, but not to surrender to the besieging Turks.

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to draw attention in Europe (the Russian Empire in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Russia emerged from the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to abandon the maintenance of the fleet on the Black Sea and tear down the fortifications of Sevastopol.

Revising the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. However, it was not so easy - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Prussia maintained friendly relations with Russia.

It was on the alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck that Prince A. M. Gorchakov, appointed by Alexander II in April 1856 as chancellor, staked. Russia took a neutral position in the unification of Germany, which ultimately led to the creation of the German Empire after a series of wars. In March 1871, taking advantage of the crushing defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war, Russia, with the support of Bismarck, achieved international agreement to repeal the provisions of the Treaty of Paris, which forbade it to have a fleet on the Black Sea.

The remaining provisions of the Paris Treaty, however, continued to operate. In particular, Article 8 gave the right to Great Britain and Austria in the event of a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire to intervene on the side of the latter. This forced Russia to exercise extreme caution in its relations with the Ottomans and coordinate all its actions with other great powers. A one-on-one war with Turkey, therefore, was possible only if carte blanche was received from the rest of the European powers for such actions, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for the right moment.

Start of hostilities. The Russian army in the Balkans, led by the tsar's brother Nikolai Nikolaevich, numbered 185 thousand people. The king was also at the headquarters of the army. The number of the Turkish army in Northern Bulgaria was 160 thousand people.

On June 15, 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and launched an offensive. The Bulgarian population enthusiastically welcomed the Russian army. Bulgarian voluntary squads joined its composition, showing high morale. Eyewitnesses said that they went into battle as "to a merry holiday."

Russian troops quickly moved south, in a hurry to take possession of the mountain passes through the Balkans and go to southern Bulgaria. It was especially important to occupy the Shipka Pass, from where the most convenient road to Adrianople went. After two days of fierce fighting, the pass was taken. Turkish troops retreated in disarray. It seemed that a direct path to Constantinople was opening up.

Turkish counteroffensive. Battles on Shipka and near Plevna. However, the course of events suddenly changed dramatically. On July 7, a large Turkish detachment under the command of Osman Pasha, having made a forced march and ahead of the Russians, occupied the Plevna fortress in Northern Bulgaria. There was a threat of a flank attack. Two attempts by Russian troops to dislodge the enemy from Plevna ended in failure. The Turkish troops, who could not withstand the onslaught of the Russians in open battles, sat well in the fortresses. The movement of Russian troops through the Balkans was suspended.

Russia and the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples. In the spring of 1875, an uprising began against the Turkish yoke in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A year later, in April 1876, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. Turkish punishers suppressed these uprisings with fire and sword. In Bulgaria alone, they slaughtered more than 30,000 people. Serbia and Montenegro in the summer of 1876 started a war against Turkey. But the forces were unequal. The poorly armed Slavic armies suffered setbacks.

In Russia, a social movement in defense of the Slavs was expanding. Thousands of Russian volunteers were sent to the Balkans. Donations were collected all over the country, weapons, medicines were bought, hospitals were equipped. The outstanding Russian surgeon N.V. Sklifosovsky led the Russian sanitary detachments in Montenegro, and the well-known general practitioner S.P. Botkin - in Serbia. Alexander II contributed 10 thousand rubles in favor of the rebels. Calls for Russian military intervention were heard from everywhere.

However, the government acted cautiously, realizing Russia's unpreparedness for a major war. Reforms in the army and its rearmament have not yet been completed. They did not have time to recreate the Black Sea Fleet either.

Meanwhile, Serbia was defeated. Serbian Prince Milan turned to the king with a request for help. In October 1876, Russia presented an ultimatum to Turkey: immediately conclude an armistice with Serbia. Russian intervention prevented the fall of Belgrade.

Through tacit negotiations, Russia managed to ensure the neutrality of Austria-Hungary, albeit at a very high price. According to the Budapest Convention, signed in January 1877, Russia

agreed to the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungarian troops. Russian diplomacy managed to take advantage of the indignation of the world community with the atrocities of the Turkish punishers. In March 1877, in London, representatives of the great powers agreed on a protocol in which Turkey was asked to carry out reforms in favor of the Christian population in the Balkans. Turkey rejected the London Protocol. On April 12, the king signed a manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A month later, Romania entered the war on the side of Russia.

Having seized the initiative, the Turkish troops ousted the Russians from southern Bulgaria. In August, bloody battles for Shipka began. The five thousandth Russian detachment, which included Bulgarian squads, was led by General N. G. Stoletov. The enemy had a fivefold superiority. The defenders of Shipka had to fight off up to 14 attacks a day. The unbearable heat increased the thirst, and the stream was under fire. At the end of the third day of fighting, when the situation became desperate, reinforcements arrived. The environmental threat has been eliminated. After a few days, the fighting subsided. The Shipka passage remained in the hands of the Russians, but its southern slopes were held by the Turks.

Fresh reinforcements from Russia were drawn to Plevna. Its third assault began on 30 August. Using thick fog, a detachment of General Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (1843-1882) secretly approached the enemy and broke through the fortifications with a swift attack. But in other sectors, the attacks of the Russian troops were repulsed. Having received no support, Skobelev's detachment retreated the next day. In three assaults on Plevna, the Russians lost 32 thousand, the Romanians - 3 thousand people. The hero of the Sevastopol defense, General E. I. Totleben, arrived from St. Petersburg. Having examined the positions, he said that there was only one way out - a complete blockade of the fortress. Without heavy artillery, a new assault could only lead to new needless victims.

The fall of Plevna and a turning point in the course of the war. Winter has begun. The Turks held Plevna, the Russians - Shipka. “Everything is calm on Shipka,” the command reported. Meanwhile, the number of frostbite reached 400 per day. When a snowstorm broke out, the supply of ammunition and food was stopped. From September to December 1877, the Russians and Bulgarians lost 9,500 frostbitten, sick and frozen people on Shipka. Nowadays, there is a monument-tomb on Shipka with the image of two warriors bowing their heads - a Russian and a Bulgarian.

At the end of November, food supplies ran out in Plevna. Osman Pasha made a desperate attempt to break through, but was thrown back into the fortress. On November 28, the Plevna garrison surrendered. In Russian captivity were 43 thousand people, led by the most talented Turkish commander. During the war there was a turning point. Serbia again began hostilities. In order not to lose the initiative, the Russian command decided to go through the Balkans without waiting for spring.

On December 13, the main forces of the Russian army, led by General Iosif Vladimirovich Gurko (1828-1901), began their journey to Sofia through the difficult Churyak Pass. Troops moved day and night along steep and slippery mountain roads. The rain that had begun turned into snow, a blizzard swirled, and then frost hit. On December 23, 1877, in icy overcoats, the Russian army entered Sofia.

Meanwhile, the troops under the command of Skobelev were supposed to withdraw from the fight the group blocking the Shipka Pass. Skobelev crossed the Balkans west of Shipka along an icy sloping ledge over a precipice and went to the rear of the fortified camp of Sheinovo. Skobelev, who was nicknamed the "white general" (he had a habit of appearing in dangerous places on a white horse, in a white tunic and white cap), valued and took care of the soldier's life. His soldiers went into battle not in dense columns, as was customary then, but in chains and quick dashes. As a result of the battles at Shipka-Sheinovo on December 27-28, the 20,000-strong Turkish group capitulated.

A few years after the war, Skobelev died suddenly, in the prime of life and talent, at the age of 38. Many streets and squares in Bulgaria are named after him.

The Turks surrendered Plovdiv without a fight. A three-day battle south of this city ended the military campaign. January 8, 1878 Russian troops entered Adrianople. Pursuing the randomly retreating Turks, the Russian cavalry reached the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara. A detachment under the command of Skobelev took the place of San Stefano, a few kilometers from Constantinople. It was not difficult to enter the Turkish capital, but, fearing international complications, the Russian command did not dare to do so.

Military operations in Transcaucasia. Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich, the youngest son of Nicholas I, was formally considered the commander of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations. In fact, the command was carried out by General M.T. Loris-Melikov. In April - May 1877, the Russian army took the fortresses of Bayazet and Ardagan and blockaded Kare. But then a series of setbacks followed, and the siege of Kars had to be lifted.

The decisive battle took place in autumn in the area of ​​the Aladzhin Heights, not far from Kars. On October 3, Russian troops stormed the fortified Mount Avliyar, a key point of Turkish defense. In the battle of Aladzhin, the Russian command for the first time used the telegraph to control troops. On the night of November 6, 1877, Kare was taken. After that, the Russian army went to Erzurum.

San Stefano Peace Treaty. On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. Under its terms, Bulgaria received the status of an autonomous principality, independent in its internal affairs. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained full independence and significant territorial gains. Southern Bessarabia, which had been torn away under the Treaty of Paris, was returned to Russia, and the Kars region in the Caucasus was transferred.

The provisional Russian administration that ruled Bulgaria developed a draft constitution. Bulgaria was declared a constitutional monarchy. Individual and property rights were guaranteed. The Russian project formed the basis of the Bulgarian constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly in Tarnovo in April 1879.

Berlin Congress. England and Austria-Hungary refused to accept the terms of the San Stefano Peace. At their insistence, the Berlin Congress was held in the summer of 1878 with the participation of six powers (England, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey). Russia found itself isolated and forced to make concessions. The Western powers categorically objected to the creation of a unified Bulgarian state. As a result, Southern Bulgaria remained under Turkish rule. Russian diplomats managed to achieve only that Sofia and Varna were included in the autonomous Bulgarian principality. The territory of Serbia and Montenegro was significantly reduced. Congress confirmed the right of Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. England negotiated for itself the right to lead troops to Cyprus.

In a report to the tsar, the head of the Russian delegation, Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov, wrote: "The Berlin Congress is the blackest page in my service career." The king noted: "And in mine too."

The Congress of Berlin undoubtedly did not embellish the diplomatic history of not only Russia, but also the Western powers. Driven by petty momentary calculations and envy of the brilliant victory of Russian arms, the governments of these countries extended Turkish rule over several million Slavs.

And yet the fruits of the Russian victory were only partly destroyed. Having laid the foundations for the freedom of the fraternal Bulgarian people, Russia has written a glorious page in its history. Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 entered the general context of the era of Liberation and became its worthy completion.

Similar information.

The causes of the Russo-Turkish war are more deeply rooted than a simple military confrontation. This event summed up the centuries-old conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Caliphate. The development of the conflict was fueled by the attempts of European states and America to consolidate their influence on Russia through the Ottoman Empire. However, the difference of interests and the well-executed foreign policy of Nicholas II were able to put an end to this issue and redraw the map of Europe.

General political picture in the middle of the 19th century

The middle of the 19th century witnessed many significant events in history. The Russian-Turkish confrontation for the Crimean lands ended with the withdrawal of both countries from the conflict. In the war for the Crimean Peninsula, the Russian Empire suffered minor losses.
Against the backdrop of this theater of action, Europe was torn apart by internal conflicts. The unification of the Prussian lands into the German state divided the European states into two camps. Many were against such a reunion. Russia took a neutral side, although it contributed to the policy of Chancellor Bismarck.

France and Great Britain tried to consolidate their influence on the Ottoman Empire. They openly supported this state, turning a blind eye to the persecution of Christian peoples by the Islamic community. One of the reasons for the outbreak of a military conflict was connected precisely with the religious aspect.

Formation of prerequisites for a new conflict

The unification of the lands professing the Orthodox religion was the driving force in the Russian-Turkish confrontation. In addition, the Russian state in the course of the redistribution of territories received many benefits that could strengthen its position in Europe.

The prerequisites for the outbreak of hostilities were:
consolidation of influence in the Balkans;
accession of lands;
support from Orthodox states;
strengthening relations with allied states;
new perspectives on the Turkish front;
weakening the influence of the Ottoman state;
lifting the ban on the presence of a fleet in the Black Sea.

In addition, the reason for the military confrontation was getting rid of the restrictions imposed by Europe, weakening their influence.
Military confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire
During the war, on the side of the Russian state was:
support from Austria, Romania;
strategically trained officers;
high morale of the troops;
support of the local population;
a well-thought-out plan for capturing territories;
financial assistance to private entrepreneurs;
competent leadership.

The Turkish side had an advantageous advantage in:
strategic position of fortresses, outposts;
financial support from America, Great Britain, France;
protection from many European states;
advanced military weapons;
fleet on the Black Sea.

The reasons for the successful military operations of the Russian side were in the coherence of actions, a well-directed offensive. Nicholas II pursued a subtle policy in relation to the strife of Europe. He was able to enlist the support of Romania, thanks to which the troops passed through the allied territories.

The Ottoman Empire showed complete incompetence and inaction. The aggressive policy towards the local population became the reason for the opposition of the Orthodox residents.

The role of allies

Great Britain provided active support to the Turkish side. She supplied weapons and funds to the Ottoman Empire in the hope of weakening the position of the Russian side. However, the actions of the Turkish troops in relation to the civilian population set the British public against such a policy of their government.

The Prussian state was the first to express a desire to provide active assistance in the course of the war against the Turks. The reasons for this were the desire to occupy the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In exchange for assistance in this enterprise, Russia received the right to return the lands of southwestern Bessarabia. Thus, all Orthodox lands were united under the rule of the Russian crown.

The impact of the American government on the situation was twofold. Because during the break of the war in the direction of the Russian army, they quickly curtailed all interests in the Balkan Peninsula.

1. The most significant foreign policy event of the era of the reign of Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which ended with the victory of Russia. As a result of victory in this war:

- increased prestige and strengthened the position of Russia, shaken after the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856;

- the peoples of the Balkans were liberated from almost 500 years of Turkish yoke.

The main factors that predetermined the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878:

- the growth of Russia's power as a result of ongoing bourgeois reforms;

- the desire to regain positions lost as a result of the Crimean War;

- changes in the international situation in the world in connection with the emergence of a single German state - Germany;

- the growth of the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples against the Turkish yoke.

On the eve of the war, a significant part of the Balkan peoples (Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians) for about 500 years was under the Turkish yoke, which consisted in the economic exploitation of these peoples, preventing the formation of their statehood and normal independent development, suppressing culture, imposing an alien culture and religion (for example, Islamization Bosnians and part of the Bulgarians). In the mid 1870s. in the Balkans, there was widespread dissatisfaction with the Turkish yoke and a high national upsurge, which Russia, as the leading Slavic state, claiming patronage for all Slavs, ideologically supported. Another factor that predetermined the war was the change in the situation in Europe due to the emergence of a new strong state in the center of Europe - Germany. Germany, united by O. von Bismarck in 1871 and having defeated France during the war of 1870-1871, tried in every possible way to undermine the Anglo-French-Turkish system of European domination. This was in the interests of Russia. Taking advantage of the defeat from Prussia of France - the main ally of England and the enemy of Russia in the Crimean War, Russia in 1871 achieved the cancellation of a number of conditions of the humiliating Paris Treaty of 1856. As a result of this diplomatic victory, the neutral status of the Black Sea was canceled and Russia regained the right to restore the Black Sea Fleet .

2. The reason for the new Russian-Turkish war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Bosnia and Serbia in 1875-1876. Fulfilling the declared allied obligations to the "fraternal peoples", Russia in April 1877. declared war on Turkey. Turkey, deprived of the help of its main allies - England and France, could not resist Russia:

- military operations developed successfully for Russia both in Europe and in the Caucasus - the war was fleeting and ended within 10 months;

- the Russian army defeated the Turkish troops in the battle of Plevna (Bulgaria) and the Shipka Pass;

- the fortresses of Kare, Batum and Ardagan in the Caucasus were taken;

- in February 1878, the Russian army approached Constantinople (Istanbul), and Turkey was forced to ask for peace and make serious concessions.

3. In 1878, wanting to stop the war, Turkey hastily signed the Treaty of San Stefano with Russia. According to this agreement:

- Turkey granted full independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;

- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina remained part of Turkey, but received wide autonomy;

- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina pledged to pay tribute to Turkey in exchange for the complete demilitarization of these autonomies - Turkish troops were withdrawn from Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Turkish fortresses were destroyed - the actual presence of the Turks in these countries ceased;

- Russia was returning Kara and Batum, it was allowed to patronize Bulgarians and Bosnians culturally.

4. All the leading European countries, including Russia's main ally in Europe in the 1870s, were dissatisfied with the results of the San Stefano peace treaty, which sharply strengthened Russia's position. - Germany. In 1878, the Berlin Congress was convened in Berlin on the issue of the Balkan settlement. Delegations from Russia, Germany, England, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey took part in the congress. The purpose of the congress was to develop a pan-European solution for the Balkans. Under pressure from the leading countries of Europe, Russia was forced to give in and abandon the San Stefano peace treaty. Instead, the Berlin Peace Treaty was signed, which significantly reduced the results of the victory for Russia. According to the Berlin Treaty:

- the territory of the Bulgarian autonomy was reduced by about 3 times;

- Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary and was part of it;

- Macedonia and Eastern Romania returned to Turkey.

5. Despite Russia's concessions to European countries, the victory in the war of 1877 - 1878. was of great historical importance.

- the expulsion of Turkey from the European continent began;

- Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and in the future - Bulgaria, were liberated from the 500-year-old Turkish yoke and gained independence;

- Russia finally recovered from the defeat in the Crimean War;

- the international prestige of Russia and Emperor Alexander II, who was nicknamed the Liberator, was restored;

- this war was the last major Russian-Turkish conflict - Russia finally entrenched itself in the Black Sea.