The reforms of Peter I split the Russian society, led to the formation of two different ways. One of them, according to the terminology of V.O. Klyuchevsky, called "soil", the other - "civilization".

“Soil” is a way of life, the main features of which were formed in the conditions of the Muscovite kingdom. It was dominated by a community-corporate structure, vertical ties, relations of subjects

stva. Development was slow and tended to stagnation. The vast majority of the population was associated with this way of life, primarily the communal peasantry, which was dependent on the landowner or the state. Collectivism, leveling principles dominated here.

principles of social justice, anti-proprietary sentiments.

All aspects of the soil structure were determined by Russian Orthodoxy. The Church urged to focus on the spiritual side of life, to renounce earthly worries and burdens, to humbly bear one's cross. She condemned the desire for profit as the goal of economic activity, and did not agree to recognize entrepreneurship as a charitable activity. The anti-market orientation of Orthodoxy is obvious.

Soil developed the richest traditions of folk culture: songs, legends, epics, folk rituals. There was its own system of education, which ensured the continuity of the tradition.

The “soil” was a way of life that also prevailed in terms of volume: the majority of the population was associated with it. The worldview here was determined by Russian Orthodoxy and the traditions of communality.

"Civilization" is a way of life of the Western type. It included only a small part of Russia, mostly literate and active. Within the framework of this mode, the modernization of public life began: the formation of a class structure, the development of entrepreneurship, market relations, the emergence of professional intelligentsia. But this way of life was imposed by the state, it was controlled by it, it was not ordained.

ganic for society, and therefore was not in the full sense of the word

fallen. It was significantly deformed.

The outlook of this part of the population became rationalistic. The personal principle received impulses for its development, and social ideals were formed under the influence of European education, European thinkers. European achievements began to boil in the cauldron of national culture: the ideas of the French enlighteners and socialists, the achievements of the latest philosophy and science.

However, the possibilities for the rationalization of consciousness and the individualization of society were limited. Pressed corporatism and a powerful state. The state intervened in everything, pointed out

what to produce, what to trade, in which ports to unload goods, where to live, etc. The formation of the market was slower than it was possible with the resources of the country. The circle of owners, people with capital, was narrow. The stratum of small and medium-sized proprietors practically did not grow. There was no small private ownership of land.

Lack of a developed market for hired labor, competition

among workers held back the growth of skills, reduced the growth of production. AT 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing private entrepreneurs to buy serfs to work in factories. Labor is strong

This method was extremely inefficient, and therefore the way of solving this issue can be considered Asian. In most European countries in the seventeenth century. much softer than in Russia, serfdom was abolished. in Russia in the seventeenth century. serfs were not only peasants, but also a new class of workers. Allegiance relations remained unchanged.

The Western way of life in Russia had strong eastern features. Competition in the industry was very weak. All entrepreneurs were obliged to fulfill, first of all, government orders. Everything that was produced in excess of the state order was sold on the free market. The lack of competition did not provide incentives for improving technology and production in general.

The culture of the Western way was secular: theater, literature, painting - everything developed on a rational basis. Despite the fact that Western culture of the secular type began to take shape in Russia only from the beginning of the 18th century, that is, relatively recently, it reached unprecedented heights in a short historical period. The culture of the "soil" as a whole was little studied and was unknown to "civilized" Russia. The Western way, despite state control, in comparison with the "soil" developed dynamically, was leading in importance. It was its development that determined Russia's place in the world.

Between "soil" and "civilization" there was an abyss. Within the framework of one state, two societies coexisted, possessing different values ​​and ideals, following different paths of development. The gap in the levels of development of these ways was constantly increasing. The confrontation between the two ways from top to bottom, the constant threat of violation of social harmony and sliding into civil war were an everyday reality and the most important factor in social development during the 18th-20th centuries. Society was constantly faced with a choice: either the “soil” and, therefore, the eastern type of development, as happened during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, or the European path and the revival of the traditions of Kievan Rus, republican Novgorod.

Thus, the reforms of Peter I had large-scale long-term consequences, which have a tangible effect in modern Russia. The legacy of Peter the Great for almost three centuries causes controversy and ambiguous assessments. Westerners argued that Russia owed all the best in its history to Peter I, he made the state European, reunited Russia with Europe.

Supporters of the "soil" (they are called Slavophiles) argued the opposite: Peter I betrayed the national principle in the history of Russia, distorted Russian culture by borrowing from the West and harmed the natural course of the country's development.

Decembrist historian M.A. Fonvizin assessed the Petrine era in the following way: “If Peter tried to introduce European civilization into Russia, then he was attracted by a more external side. The spirit of this civilization, the spirit of lawful freedom and citizenship, was alien to him, the despot, and even repugnant. Dreaming of re-educating his subjects, he did not think of instilling in them a high sense of human dignity, without which there is neither true morality nor virtue. He needed capable tools for material improvements on the models seen abroad.

The results of the transformational activities of Peter I are as follows:

1. Russia received access to the Baltic Sea and thus entered the environment of European peoples.

2. Created a first-class army and navy.

3. A new apparatus of state power has been created, more suitable

ny for society than the old system of orders.

4. A large industry was created, which made Russia an eco-

nomically independent from other countries.

5. The foundations of secular Russian culture have been laid.

6. A start has been made on the creation of a system of national education

vaniya and medicine.

7. The church is subordinate to the state, the patriarchate is liquidated.

8. Russia became an empire.

Thanks to the vigorous activity of Peter I in the economy, the level and forms of development of the productive forces, in the political system of Russia, in the structure and functions of the authorities, in the organization of the army, in the class and class structure of the population, in the life and culture of peoples, tremendous changes took place. Medieval Muscovite Rus turned into the Russian Empire. The place of Russia and its role in international affairs has changed radically.
The complexity and inconsistency of the development of Russia during this period determined the inconsistency of the activities of Peter I in the implementation of reforms. On the one hand, these reforms were of great historical significance, since they met the national interests and needs of the country, contributed to its progressive development, being aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, the reforms were carried out by the same feudal methods and thereby contributed to the strengthening of the rule of the feudal lords.
The progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the development of the country, became more and more powerful and could not ensure the elimination of its backwardness in full. Objectively, these reforms were of a bourgeois nature, but subjectively, their implementation led to the strengthening of serfdom and the strengthening of feudalism. They could not be different - the capitalist way of life in Russia at that time was still very weak.
It should also be noted the cultural changes in Russian society that took place in the time of Peter the Great: the emergence of first-level schools, schools for specialties, the Russian Academy of Sciences. A network of printing houses appeared in the country for printing domestic and translated publications. The first newspaper in the country began to appear, the first museum appeared. Significant changes have taken place in everyday life.

13) Peter's military reform1

The essence of the military reform was the elimination of the noble militias and the organization of a permanent, combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and charters.

In the spring of 1690, the famous "amusing regiments" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. , the "capital city of Preshburg" is being built on the Yauza.
The Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future permanent (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships.

Before Peter the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations. The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruitment sets. Recruitment sets were distributed to the population. In 1699, the first recruitment set was made, since 1705, sets have become annual. From 20 yards they took one person, a single person aged 15 to 20 years. The service life of a recruit was practically unlimited.
The officers of the Russian army were replenished at the expense of the nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (Pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720 - the Naval Charter, a large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks),
The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:
- the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight with its main opponents and defeat them;
- the emergence of a galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);
- creation of a powerful navy;
- a gigantic increase in military spending and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

14) The empire grew in the era of palace coups (1725-1762)

Peter I died on January 28, 1725 without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle of various noble groups for power began. In 1725, A.D. Menshikov, a representative of the new tribal nobility, enthroned the widow of Peter I, Catherine I. To strengthen her power in 1726, the Empress established the Supreme Privy Council. From 1726 to 1730 The council, limiting the power of the Senate, actually decided all state affairs. After the death of Catherine I, 12-year-old Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, became the crown emperor. Dolgoruky and Golitsyn. Peter II fell under the influence of the old boyar aristocracy, in fact, gave power to the Supreme Privy Council. In 1730, Peter II died of smallpox, and the niece of Peter I, the wife of the Duke of Courland, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to reign. Before accepting the crown, she agreed to the terms of limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council, but, after becoming Empress, she immediately dissolved the council and repressed its members. From 1730 to 1740 the country was ruled by the favorite of the Empress E.I. Biron and his close associates from the Germans. It was a decade of dominance of foreigners, a time of rampant cruelty of the authorities and embezzlement of public funds. In 1740, Anna Ioannovna declared her sister's three-month-old grandson the heir to the throne, and appointed Biron as regent.

In November 1740, as a result of a palace coup, the regency was transferred to Anna Leopoldovna. In November 1741, after another coup caused by dissatisfaction with the continuation of German dominance, Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761) ascended the throne, supported by the guards, with help from France and Sweden, she arrested and imprisoned the baby emperor, exiled to Siberia I.Minich, A.I.Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power. During her reign, there was a return to the Petrine order and their strengthening. Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs fees were abolished. The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to conclude an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 began. A 100,000-strong Russian army was sent to the territory of Austria against Prussia. In the summer of 1757, Russian troops, having entered Prussia, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Gros-Egersdorf. In 1758 Koenigsberg was taken. In the same year, the main battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick II near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykov, with the support of the allied Austrian troops, practically destroyed the Prussian army as a result of a bloody battle. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. From this, she was saved by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25. 1761

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter III (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who ended the war and returned all the previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick II. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter III did not understand the beliefs and customs of the Orthodox Church and neglected them. The pro-Prussian policy caused dissatisfaction with his rule and led to the growth of the popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being a German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended divine services. In Orthodoxy, she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.

On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seizes power. Peter III signs the act of renunciation and dies at the hands of security officers.

Among the noteworthy personalities associated with the unforgettable pages of the annals of the state, there are many sonorous names, but the deeds of Peter the Great deserve special attention.

As well as the methods and styles by which they were achieved, the results of the reign of Peter 1 are ambiguous. There are enough adherents of his reformist practices, despite the fact that the goals outlined in them were achieved by the most severe exploitation and coercion. There are many critics who assert that the threshold of backwardness of the Russian State has not been overcome. But, in any case, it is impossible to underestimate the key role of this Great ruler in the development of Russia as a state with a fundamentally new regime of government.

Drawing a line under the activities of Peter the Great

So, summing up the results of the reign of Peter 1, first of all, it should be noted that the main set of his activities is determined by the change in the ruling regime of power. By titanic efforts, a harmonious mechanism of government was achieved, a stronghold of a powerful, strong, victorious fleet and army was founded. Like a Phoenix bird, the country's economy, resurrected from the ashes, not only loudly declared itself in the entire world trade space, but also got the opportunity to exert considerable influence on certain issues of world politics. For some, the regime seemed absolutism, but it was precisely this interpretation of it that radically changed the essence of governance.

Without changing the principles of the captain in life, Peter 1 managed to transform a huge, unbridled country into a military ship, where the captain's absolute command determines the success of the maneuver. The crown of transformations was characterized by the changes of 1721, when Russia tried on the new title "Empire", and the sovereign himself began to be called the Emperor.

Thanks to the extraordinary data of the autocrat, Russia did not just overcome swampy places. Without running aground, masterfully bypassing the reefs, reefs, she victoriously entered the expanses of the seething world ocean.

Period of the Great Reign

Undoubtedly, the years of the reign of Peter 1 are called difficult, but managed to take a worthy place in history. The baptism of fire occurred in deep childhood, when the Streltsy rebellion began in Moscow, made an indelible impression on the future monarch. Forced to stay with his mother in the villages belonging to the palace family, the teenager did not waste time. A sweet childhood passion for military craft was transformed into a serious transformation of the regiments of Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky, many times superior in number and skill to the army of archers.

The history of the reign of Peter 1 began with the revival of a poor, backward, devastated country, with no definite prospects for the future. The rehabilitation path was chosen hard, different from the European reformation of society, when changes came from the bottom, from the poorly protected sections of society to its top. The so-called path in Russian assumed the dictatorship of the ruling layer of power, with a gradual increase in the degree of despotism, at each new round of development.

The very activity of the leader, the commander can conditionally be divided into several periods. During the first, which covers the time period from 1695 to 1715, rash decisions often took place. The only reasoned explanation for this can be the Northern War, in which Russia was drawn. Hence the hasty, not always justified actions. The need to equip the army became the prerequisite for a hard way of collecting money for these purposes.

The time frame of the second period of reign falls on the years 1715-1725. The main goal of the sovereign's activity provided for the need for internal reorganization of the country. To this end, a number of reforms were carried out, lightning-fast, superficial, but as a result they turned out to be quite effective.

Reformatory transformations in Russia

Characterizing generally positively the reforms of Peter 1, it is necessary to briefly note a number of the most significant changes that affected various spheres of economic and industrial activity of the country.

Changes in government

The prototype of the future Senate of the Government can be considered the creation of the Council of Ministers, which assumed the duties of the Duma of the Boyars, which had long lost confidence, and the effectiveness of its meetings was reduced to zero. The direct goals of the Council included managing the collection and spending of funds, with the obligatory consideration of the feasibility of future costs. Moreover, the priority direction has always been the equipment of the army.

The transformation of the executive power provided for the creation of 11 colleges, the forefathers of the current ministries.

The policy of Peter 1 assumed the strengthening of local self-government, which was facilitated by the division of the Russian state into several provinces, each of which was headed by a governor. In the initial interpretation, the decrees did not lead to anything other than additional costs for the maintenance of the administrative apparatus. But the second wave of reforms turned out to be more effective, which really made it possible to formalize an absolute monarchy, in strong tandem with the bureaucratic apparatus, on which the ruler relied.

Denunciations and secret denunciations formed the basis of control over the activities of civil servants in order to convict them of embezzlement, bribery, and corruption.

Transformation of the army, navy

It was possible to achieve the creation of a powerful regular army and a powerful navy thanks to the experience of foreign specialists. It was he who formed the basis of the Naval Academy, which opened to educate its own officers, recruited from their nobility.

Competent training of the general set of recruits, similar to that followed by the formation of the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, ended with the triumph of the Russian army in the Northern War.

Church - Reformed Innovations

Touched upon the policy of Peter 1 church reform, providing for the improvement of the hierarchy of church management. The Holy Synod replaced the activities of the patriarchate, and the autonomy of the clergy was abolished. The church passed into unquestioning submission to the state.

There has been a strong trend towards religious tolerance. The green light was given to faiths and denominations other than Christianity.

Economic transformation

Russia under Peter 1 received a new monetary unit - a penny, the household tax was replaced by a poll tax. This made it possible to increase the collection of funds for the restoration and maintenance of the army. Not only representatives of peasants, but also landowners fell under the tax.

Industry, trade - the principle of cardinal reform

The misfortune of the Russian industry was a clear lack of qualified specialists. The results of the reign of Peter 1 on the development of this branch of economic activity of the state were marked by the involvement of specialists from abroad, as well as the training and advanced training of their own forces abroad. By the way, this gave rise to the development of another sphere - education.

The domestic manufacturer became a priority, but a significant tax was imposed on foreign-made products.

The result of the transformations was more than convincing - the first place of the Russian state in the vast world industrial market.

Social Policy Transformations

Russia under Peter 1 ceased to be known as a serf power, since the reforms of his reign provided for the transfer of part of the serfs to the category of personally free.

Peasants could be attached to manufacturing establishments, working on them, or on the land.

The principle of place management has changed. The introduced city self-government was represented by the City Magistrate, who had an elective character.

The results of the reign of Peter 1 are more than obvious. Transformations never went smoothly, especially in the conditions of a country that fell into anarchy, which neighboring states tried to occupy.

However, the reforms of Peter 1 briefly speak about the extraordinary abilities of the ruler, who were able to direct Russia to a fundamentally new path of development, which became an important factor for all future generations.

Lesson objectives: 1. Repeat, summarize the studied material on the topic "The era of Peter I." Give an assessment of the activities of Peter I. 2. Show the skills and abilities of using ICT in preparation for the lesson, as well as the skills and abilities of conducting active search and research activities, working with sources and literature. 3. Show your creativity, interest in history; development of speech culture of public speaking, development of skills to defend one's convictions, respect the opinions of others, answer questions, and lead a discussion.

Problem questions: What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition?

Lesson content Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Solving problematic issues Solving problematic issues

For almost three hundred years now, the figure of Peter I, his transformations have caused controversy among scientists. From the very beginning, two opposite approaches were outlined in the dispute: apologetic (admiration) and critical, which at times converged, but then diverged again. Apparently, a compromise assessment of the activities of Peter I is more realistic.

Childhood. Youth. The beginning of the reign On April 27, 1682, the ten-year-old prince Peter was proclaimed king, but soon he was approved by the 3rd Yemsky Cathedral as the "second king", and John as the "first". Their elder sister, Princess Sophia, became their ruler. Until 1689, Peter and his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, coming to Moscow only for official ceremonies. In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Until 1694, his mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on behalf of Peter I. In 1696, after the death of John V, Peter became the sovereign king.

Personality of Peter I The characteristic features of Peter were his mind, will, energy, breadth of views, purposefulness, curiosity, and incredible capacity for work. Peter, having not received a systematic education in his youth, studied all his life. At the same time, Peter was quick-tempered and cruel, personally involved in torture and executions. The king did not take into account the interests and life of an individual.

The Great Embassy In 1697, the tsar sent a "Great Embassy" to Europe and joined it himself under the name of Peter Mikhailov. In Prussia, the tsar studied artillery and received a certificate of a firearms master. Peter went to England and Holland to study shipbuilding. During his stay in Europe, Peter visited factories, libraries, listened to lectures at universities. In 1698 the tsar hastily returned to Russia.

The First Transformations In 1699 the calendar was reformed. A printing house was set up in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian. The first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded. The king ordered to send young men from noble families to study abroad. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow.

Transformations in the economy Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome the technical backwardness of Russia and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs are most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, new branches of industry arose.

Lessons of the Northern War The war began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in 1700. However, this lesson went well for Peter: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily the backwardness of the Russian army. The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Soon, Peter I managed to win the first victories over the enemy, capture and devastate a significant part of the Baltic. In 1703, at the mouth of the Neva, Peter founded St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia.

Management Reform In 1711, setting off for the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Senate. Senate. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. From 1717, the creation of central collegiums began. From 1717, the creation of collegiums of central bodies of branch administration, branch administration bodies began. In 1718, the poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1718, a poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. institutions. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles "Great" and "The Father honored Peter with the titles" Great "and" Father of the Fatherland. fatherland". In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the organization of military and civil service. organization of military and civil service.

Transformations in the field of culture The time of Peter I was a time of active penetration into Russian life of secular European culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc., have changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment.

Personal life of the tsar In January 1689, at the insistence of his mother, Peter I married Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. After 10 years, he imprisoned her in a monastery. Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (Catherine I). She bore him several children, of whom only daughters Anna and Elizabeth survived. Peter, apparently, was very attached to his second wife and in 1724 crowned her with the imperial crown, intending to bequeath the throne to her. The relationship between the tsar and his son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, did not develop, who died under unclear circumstances in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the years of hard work and bad habits undermined the health of the emperor. On January 28, 1725, as a result of illness, Peter I died without leaving a will. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.

Results of Peter's reforms 1) The most important result of Peter's reforms was overcoming the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. 2) Russia became a full-fledged participant in international relations, pursuing an active foreign policy. 3) Significantly increased the authority of Russia in the world, and Peter himself became for many a model of the ruler-reformer. 4) At the same time, violence was the main tool for carrying out reforms. 5) Peter's reforms did not rid the country of the previously established system of social relations embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, conserved and strengthened its institutions.

2. The result of the reforming activities of Peter I is considered to be 1) overcoming the economic backwardness of Russia from Western countries 2) turning Russia into a strong European power 3) the rapid growth of the Russian economy 4) the beginning of the democratization of political life Correct answer: 2

5. Among the phenomena that prompted Peter I to carry out reforms in Russia, there was no such thing as 1) Russia's economic lagging behind the advanced countries of the West 2) backwardness in the organization and armament of the Russian army 3) the isolation of Russian cultural life from European 4) the promise of European powers to support reforms in Russia with their capital investments Correct answer: 4

6. The reasons for the uprising under the leadership of K. Bulavin cannot be attributed to 1) attempts by the authorities to limit Cossack self-government 2) mass mobilization of peasants to build a fleet 3) increased repression against fugitive peasants 4) dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners in the Russian service Correct answer: 4

7. The increase in agricultural productivity under Peter I was associated primarily with 1) the annexation of more fertile lands 2) the strengthening of state coercion of peasants 3) the replacement of the sickle with a Lithuanian scythe during harvesting 4) the provision of assistance to peasants by the state Correct answer: 2

8. As a result of the state and administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, 1) the absolute power of the monarch increased 2) the foundations of a constitutional monarchy were laid 3) the emperor began to rule together with the Supreme Privy Council 4) the functions of Zemsky Sobors expanded Correct answer: 1

3

Active transformative activity of Peter I began immediately after returning from abroad.

What were the goals of Peter's reforms? I?

Radical Petrine transformations, according to A.B. Kamensky, were "a response to a comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism that befell the Russian state in the second half of XVII in.". The reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, to eliminate the backlog from Western Europe, to preserve and strengthen independence, to put an end to the "old Moscow traditional way of life."

The reforms covered many spheres of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, needs Northern wars, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721 biennium). In particular, the war forced to urgently create a new efficient army and navy. Therefore, the main reform was the military.

Before Peter I the basis of the Russian army was the noble militia. At the call of the tsar, the servants appeared "on horseback, in crowds and in arms." Such an army was poorly trained, poorly organized. Attempts to create a regular army (Streltsy regiments of Ivan IV , regiments of the “foreign system” of Alexei Mikhailovich) did not have much success due to the lack of money in the treasury for their maintenance. In 1705 Peter I introduced recruiting sets from taxable estates (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier service was lifelong (in 1793 Catherine II limited it to 25 years). Before 1725 83 recruiting was carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand people.

Recruitment kits solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into a single service estate(initially it was called the nobility, but later the name nobility). Each representative of the service class was obliged to serve from the age of 15 (the only privilege was that the nobles served in the guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky). Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. Nobles stopped receiving estates for service. Now they were paid a salary. Refusal to serve led to the confiscation of the estate. In 1714 was published" Decree about uniform inheritance”, according to which the estate was inherited only by one of the sons, and the rest had to earn a livelihood. For the training of officers, schools were opened - navigation, artillery, engineering.

In 1722 by decree of the king, the so-called. " report card about ranks". 14 military and equivalent civilian ranks were introduced. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his diligence and intelligence, could move up the career ladder up to the very top. The way was not closed to representatives of the taxable estates. A soldier could receive an officer's rank for bravery and automatically acquired personal nobility. Having risen to the eighth rank, he became a hereditary nobleman - the nobility began to be given to his children. Now the position in society was determined not only by his origin, but also place in official hierarchy. The main principle was - "He is not a nobleman who does not serve."

Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy was formed with the king at the head. All estates were in the public service, bearing duties in favor of the state.

As a result of the reforms of Peter I were created regular army, numbering 212 thousand people and powerful fleet(48 battleships and 800 galleys with 24 thousand sailors).

Maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of the state income. I had to find more and more new sources of income for the treasury. Taxes were the most important means of replenishing the treasury. Under Peter I indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dresses, on beards, etc.). In order to increase the collection of taxes, a tax reform was carried out. Before Petra I the unit of taxation was the peasant yard(farm). Peasants, in order to pay less taxes, huddled several families into one yard - grandfathers, fathers, brothers, grandchildren, great-grandchildren lived together. Peter replaced the household tax poll. The unit of taxation is soul male gender, from infants to the elderly.

In 1710 was held census all hard-working people, both state and landowners. All of them were taxed. Was introduced passport system No one could leave their place of residence without a passport. Thus, the final enslavement Total population and not just landlord peasants. In European countries, there was nothing like a passport system*. With the introduction of the poll tax, per capita taxes increased three times on average.

Constant wars (out of 36 years of his reign, Peter I fought for 28 years), radical reforms dramatically increased the burden on central and local authorities. The old state machine was unable to cope with the new tasks and began to falter.

Peter I spent reorganization of the entire system of power and administration. In pre-Petrine Russia, laws were adopted by the tsar together with the Boyar Duma. After the approval of the tsar, the decisions of the Duma took the force of law. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Middle Office, which was called from 1708. "Consilium of Ministers", i.e. with a narrow circle of confidants. Thereby, legislative branch power was liquidated. Laws were formalized by decrees of the king.

In 1711 was created ruling Senate. Unlike the Boyar Duma, the Senate did not pass laws. His functions were purely control. The Senate was given the task of supervising the bodies of local government, checking the compliance of the actions of the administration with the laws issued by the tsar. The members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Since 1722 position was introduced general-prosecutor, who was appointed by the king to control the work of the Senate ("the sovereign's eye"). In addition, the institute fiscals”, obliged to secretly check and report on the abuses of officials.

In 1718-1720. Was held collegiate reform, which replaced the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - colleges. The collegiums were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the territory of the whole country. The internal structure of the collegium was based on a collegial, clear regulation of the duties of officials, the stability of full-time employees. In total, 11 collegiums were created (instead of 50 orders): Military, Admiralty, Chamber Collegium, Revision Collegium, Justice Collegium, Kammerz Collegium, State Offices Collegium, Berg, Manufactory Collegium, Collegium of Foreign Affairs. The most important “state” colleges were those in charge of foreign and military affairs. Another group of colleges dealt with finance; revenues of the Chambers - board; expenses - State - offices - collegium; control over the collection and spending of funds - the Audit Board. Trade and industry were led, respectively, by the Commerce Collegium and Berg, the Manufactory Collegium, which was divided into two departments in 1722. In 1721 The patrimonial board was created, which was engaged in land ownership of the nobility and was located in Moscow. Another class college was created in 1720, the Chief Magistrate, who controlled the urban class - artisans and merchants.

The system of local government was reorganized. In 1707 issued a decree of the king, according to which the whole country was divided into provinces. Initially there were six of them - Moscow, Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk. Then there were ten of them - the Ingrian (Petersburg)*and Siberian, and Kazan - is divided into Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan. At the head of the provinces were appointed by the king governors. The governors had broad powers, exercised administrative, judicial power, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces with governors at the head, and the provinces were divided into counties, counties into districts, abolished later.

The reforms of central and local government were supplemented by church reform. Before Petra I Russian Orthodox Church headed patriarch elected by the higher clergy. Although the Orthodox Church recognized the primacy of the state over the church, nevertheless, the power of the patriarch was still quite great. The patriarch, like the tsar, bore the title of "great sovereign", enjoyed great independence. Reforms of Peter I , his desire to borrow Western customs, clothes, appearance, the dominance of foreigners in the royal court - all this caused discontent of the church. To limit its influence, Peter in 1721. abolished patriarchate. Instead, a collegium for church affairs was created - Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the tsar from among the higher clergy, at the head of the Synod was appointed by the sovereign ober-prosecutor. Secret control over the activities of the Synod was exercised by the Chief Fiscal for Spiritual Affairs. Thus, the church was finally subordinate state, became part of the state apparatus, to the point that priests were required to immediately report all anti-government plans that became known during confession. This role of the church continued until 1917.

Thus, Peter I created a harmonious, centralized system of power and administration: autocrat - Senate - boards - provinces - provinces - counties. It was supplemented by the same harmonious system of control (Preobrazhensky order, fiscality), punitive bodies (Secret Chancellery, police) 22 September 1721 (on the day of the solemn celebration of the Peace of Nishtad, which marked the end of the long and difficult Northern War for Russia), the Senate awarded Peter I titles " Emperor», « Father Fatherland" and " Great". This act completed the process of transforming the estate-representative monarchy into an absolute one. Unlimited power of Peter I received legal consolidation, and Russia turned into empire.

Economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the military power of the country. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade, Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods must always exceed their import. Such a policy ensured a positive trade balance, which led to the accumulation of money in the treasury.

To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammerz Collegium. The means of implementing the policy of mercantilism were high duties on imported goods, reaching 60%. For trade in a number of goods that brought the greatest profit (salt, tobacco, flax, leather, caviar, bread, etc.), state monopoly Only the state could sell and buy them.

Merchants were forced to unite in trading companies, indicated which ports to transport goods, at what prices to sell them, forcibly relocated from one city to another. Such a policy solved the problems of protectionism - the protection of domestic producers from the competition of foreign goods. At the initial stages of modernization, the policy of protectionism was fully justified. However, its long-term preservation could lead to the fact that, in the absence of competition, manufacturers would no longer care about the quality of goods and reduce their cost.

An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. This was due to the fact that it was impossible to supply the army and navy with everything necessary without a powerful industrial base. Under Peter I industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By 1712 the army and navy were fully provided with weapons of their own production. By the end of Peter's reign I in Russia there were over 200 manufactories, ten times more than before him.

Iron smelting increased from 150,000 poods in 1700. up to 800 thousand pounds in 1725 Russian pig iron from the Ural factories was exported even to England.

A typical feature of the economy of the time of Peter the Great was gain roles states in industrial leadership. Manufactory production could not develop in a natural way, since economic conditions were not ripe for this - the process of primitive accumulation was at the very beginning. Therefore, most manufactories were built with public money and belonged to the state. Almost all manufactories worked on state orders. Often the state itself built new factories, and then transferred them to private hands. But if the plant owner did not cope with the business - he gave expensive and low-quality products - the plant could be taken away and transferred to another owner. Such enterprises were called "possession" (ownership). It is no coincidence that Russian breeders were called "factory owners". The Russian factory owners of the time of Peter the Great were not capitalist entrepreneurs in the Western sense. They were rather landowners, only the plant played the role of the estate.

This similarity was especially vividly demonstrated by the way in which the question of working strength. As a result of the tax reform, serfdom became universal, the entire taxable population was attached to the land, and there were no free laborers. Therefore, Russian industry was based on use serf labor. Entire villages of state peasants were assigned to factories. They had to work for 2-3 months a year at the factory for corvée (mining ore, burning coal, etc.). These peasants were called ascribed. In 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing factory owners to buy peasant property for work at the factory. These workers were called sessional. Consequently, manufactories under Peter I , well technically equipped, were not capitalist enterprises, but feudal-serf enterprises.

Particularly impressive were the transformations of Peter I in area education, science and technology, culture and life.

The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, who were in dire need of the country. The introduction of secular education in Russia took place almost 600 years after Western Europe. In 1699 Pushkar school was founded in Moscow, and in 1701. in the building of the Sukharev Tower, a “school of mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened, which became the predecessor of the school founded in 1715. Petersburg Maritime Academy. During the time of Peter the Great, the Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigational, mining and craft schools. In the province, primary education was carried out in 42 digital schools, where local officials were trained, and garrison schools, where soldiers' children were taught. In 1703-1715. in Moscow there was a special general education school - the "gymnasium" of pastor E. Gluck, in which they taught mainly foreign languages. In 1724 A mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals.

Secular education demanded new textbooks. In 1703 “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals ...” was published by L.F. Magnitsky, who introduced Arabic numerals instead of alphabetic ones. Magnitsky and English mathematician A. Farvarson released "Tables of logarithms and sines". The Primer, Slavic Grammar and other books appeared. F.P. Polikarpov, G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, F. Prokopovich.

The development of science and technology in the time of Peter the Great was based primarily on the practical needs of the state. Great successes were achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of the bowels and the search for minerals, in inventive business. M. Serdyukov was known for his achievements in the construction of hydraulic structures; Ya. Batishchev invented a machine for turning gun barrels with water; E. Nikonov presented a project for the creation of "hidden ships" (submarines); A. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, the creator of an optical sight, was a famous mechanic of the time of Peter the Great.

Initiated by Peter I began collecting scientific collections. In 1718 a decree was issued ordering the population to present “both human and bestial, animal and bird freaks”, as well as “old inscriptions on stones, iron or copper, or some old unusual gun, dishes and everything else that is very old and unusual”. In 1719 The Kunstkamera, a collection of “rarities”, was opened for public viewing, which served as the basis for the collection of future museums: the Hermitage, the Artillery Museum, the Naval Museum, and others. In Petersburg academies Sciences. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725

During the reign of Peter I the Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before)*. Printing houses, a newspaper appeared (from December 1702, the first periodical in Russia began to appear - the newspaper Vedomosti, with a circulation of 100 to 2500 copies). Libraries, a theater in Moscow, and much more were established.

A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I its state character. Culture, art, education, science, Peter assessed from the standpoint of the benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary. The work of a writer, actor, artist, teacher, scientist was turned into a kind of public service, provided with a salary. Culture provided certain social functions.

The second characteristic feature of Russian culture, which developed in the time of Peter I became civilizational split Russian society. Western customs, clothing, lifestyle, even language were actively borrowed. But all this was the lot of the service class - the nobility. The lower classes (peasantry, merchants) preserved the traditional culture. The upper and lower classes differed even externally. In essence, two cultures existed independently of each other in Russian culture: Western - noble, and traditional, soil - peasant, opposing each other.

* Passports were abolished in Russia in 1917. and reintroduced in 1932.

* In 1713, Peter I moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg.

* Peter I, in order not to enter into unnecessary contention with the Orthodox Church, introduced the Julian calendar, although Europe lived according to the Gregorian. Hence the difference of 13 days, which lasted until 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar.