The end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century is the era of the rapid development of literature. On a chronologically short period of history, the main problems of the eighteenth century were concentrated and questions were posed that had to be solved by the nineteenth century. The complexity of the literary situation explains the emergence in Russian literary criticism of many terms to characterize the phenomena of this period: Baroque, Classicism, Postclassicism, Neoclassicism, Enlightenment Classicism, Enlightenment Realism, Sentimentalism, Pre-Romanticism, Romanticism, Empire, Romantic Hellenism.
A significant place in the literature of this period is occupied by the theme antiquity Ancient Greece, Rome are gradually ceasing to be only a conditional background for talking about modernity. At the same time, the awareness of the historical, geographical and national specificity of ancient culture, in a strange way, does not remove it from contemporaries, but brings it closer, including it in the circle of the most acute social, political, and aesthetic problems.
Neoclassicism demanded a different attitude to antiquity than that of the classicists. The historical view of Greek culture made ancient works not an absolute, but a specific historical ideal, therefore, imitation of the Greeks acquired a different meaning: in the perception of ancient art, it was not its normativity that came to the fore, but freedom, the conditionality of rules that would later become the canon, the real life of the people .
In the 1790s, “the hour of great changes has come” in literature (in the words of V.L. Pushkin). under the pen Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766–1826) the very idea of the goals and objectives of literature is changing
With Karamzin begins a short era of domination "sensitive" language. The attention of Kramzinist writers is drawn to the "soul", to the inner world of a person, to his hesitation, doubts, fleeting experiences. They love shades and transitions, not the tragic sharpness of contrasts between good and evil, delight and horror, high and low. The works of Karamzin and his followers have in common with the literature of classicism the task of educating the reader. This is no longer direct didactics, but a lesson in sensitivity, humanity and fine taste, taught by the author by his own example.
The first writer who opened the world to us "little people" was Karamzin. Karamzin's word echoes Pushkin and Lermontov. The greatest influence on subsequent literature was Karamzin's story “Poor Lisa. ” The author laid the foundation for a huge cycle of works about “little people ”, took the first step into this previously unknown topic. It was he who opened the way for such writers of the future as Gogol, Dostoevsky and others. Pushkin was the next writer whose sphere of creative attention began to include all of vast Russia, its open spaces, the life of villages, St. Petersburg and Moscow, in general, writers at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. are increasingly striving not to teach, but to capture in a word the image of a complex and contradictory world Even deeper than Pushkin, this topic was revealed by Lermontov. The naive charm of the folk character was recreated by the poet in the image of Maxim Maksimych.
Krylov's work (1769–1844). He started as a comedian and satirist journalist, exposing social vices, and then in the "joke tragedy" "Trumph, or Podshchipa" (1800) he cruelly laughed at the entire value system of the Enlightenment and Russian classism in particular. Later, in a fable - the most didactic of the "low" classical genres - Krylov managed to give a picture of the world that cannot be reduced to simple ideas and moralizing.
Krylov and Karamzin stepped over into the 19th century. One - in his fables, the other - in the great "History of the Russian State." They stand at the very edge of a new era. State and socially useful literature of the 18th century. ends with them. In literature, there comes a time of moral, religious and historical questions, a time of overcoming the cultural conflict begun by the Petrine reforms.
The beginning of the 19th century in literary terms represents a sharp contrast with the end of the 18th century
The literature of the 19th century seems to have manifested itself at once in all its maturity. If Belinsky called the literature of the previous century literature, then in the 19th century. found literature as an expression of the spiritual self-consciousness of the people. It is no coincidence that it is defined as classical, that is, exemplary. But it becomes such by inheriting the achievements of previous cultural epochs and developing what has been achieved.
The early 19th century was characterized by the coexistence of four literary movements. From the last century still live classicism and sentimentalism . New time forms new directions: romanticism and realism.
Romanticism , which arose at the turn of the century, in Russian literature develops as a result of 1) the influence of European romanticism, 2) the awakening of national consciousness in the Patriotic War of 1812, 3) the formation of the ideologies and aesthetics of Decembrism. As a new artistic method, romanticism affirms the problem of national identity
The romantic worldview is characterized by an insoluble conflict between the dream, the ideal and reality. The difference between the supporters of romanticism essentially boils down to the meaningful embodiment of a dream (ideal). The character of the romantic hero corresponds to the author's position: the hero
Realism is one of the new literary trends. Its very name is opposed to romanticism (novel-book, romantic, that is, book
The generally accepted point of view was formulated by Sokolov.
early Russian romanticism −1801-1815; representatives - Zhukovsky and Batyushkov;
civil romanticism - 1816-1825; representatives - Decembrist poets;
the establishment of realism begins in 1825, since by that time in Russian literature realism was represented by the work of Pushkin (“Boris Godunov”, “Eugene Onegin”) and the work of Griboyedov (“Woe from Wit”).
-about neoclassicism mainly at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries, because the return to antiquity in different eras is dictated by different reasons
In domestic literary criticism, there are different points of view on Russian Renaissance , one of them - the tasks of the Renaissance was performed by the era of the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. It was then that national self-consciousness was embodied in European literature, which allows one to master the diverse life of the nation, affirms the sovereign human personality, the literary form of the national language is developed in literature, and on its basis the classical forms of the national art of the word arise. More than once, attention was paid to the Renaissance nature of A. WITH. Pushkin
Periodization of the history of Russia
IX - XXI centuries
Ancient Russia - IX - XII centuries
Formation of the Old Russian state. The legend of the calling of the Varangians - 862. Rurik. Oleg. Campaigns against Byzantium 867, 907, 911. Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv lands - 882.
Prince Igor. Duchess Olga. The political structure of the Old Russian state before the adoption of Christianity. Prince Svyatoslav, his campaigns against the Khazars and Bulgarians. Old Russian paganism. Life of the ancient Slavs.
Prince Vladimir. Background, course, results and significance of the adoption of Christianity by Russia (Baptism of Russia) - 988. The device of Russian lands by the beginning of the XI century. The structure of the Russian Church. Princely civil strife after the death of Vladimir.
The reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054). Activities of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Metropolitan Hilarion, "Sermon on Law and Grace". "Russian Truth", its content and meaning. Russian chronicle. Old Russian architecture.
Princely civil strife in the second half of the 11th century. 1097 - princely congress in Lyubech: "Let everyone keep his fatherland."
Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125). The fight against the raids of the Polovtsy. "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh".
The collapse of the Old Russian state: causes, course, consequences. The main principalities, their political structure: Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Novgorod land. The activities of the princes Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest.
Culture of Ancient Russia. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Social system in Ancient Russia: the main groups of the population.
Mongol-Tatar invasion and the formation of a centralized Russian state - XIII - XV centuries
Battle on the Kalka River - 1223. The invasion of the Mongols - 1237 - 1238. The ruin of North-Eastern Russia. The invasion of Batu in South-Western Russia - 1240 - 1241. Consequences of the Mongol invasion. Mongolian system of government of the Russian principalities.
The struggle of Russia against the invasion of German and Swedish invaders. Prince Alexander Nevsky. The Battle of the Neva (1240) and the Battle of the Ice (1242).
The rise of Moscow at the beginning of the XIV century: causes and significance.
Prince Ivan Kalita, his activities. Prince Dmitry Donskoy (1359 - 1389). Battle of Kulikovo - 1380: background, course, meaning.
Internecine war in the Moscow principality in 1425-1453, its result.
The reign of Ivan III (1460 - 1505). The overthrow of the Mongol yoke, standing on the Ugra - 1480. Unification of Russian lands, annexation of Tver and Novgorod to Moscow. Creation of a centralized system of state administration under Ivan III. Sudebnik of 1497.
Russian culture of the XIV-XV centuries. Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. Architecture, Moscow Kremlin. Aristotle Fioravanti. The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the unification of Russian lands. Sergius of Radonezh.
The Russian State in the 16th-17th Centuries.
The reign of Prince Vasily III (1505 - 1533). Completion of the unification of the Russian lands. The reign of Ivan the Terrible (1533 - 1584). The reforms of the Chosen One are glad. Sudebnik of 1550. Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. Accession of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556). Livonian War (1558 - 1583): causes, course, results. Domestic policy of Ivan the Terrible. Oprichnina (1565 - 1572). The beginning of the enslavement of the peasants, reserved years, fixed years. The results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. The establishment of the patriarchate in the Russian Church - 1589.
Suppression of the Rurik dynasty (1598). Tsar Boris Godunov. Beginning of Troubles. Causes of Troubles. False Dmitry I. Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Rebellion of Ivan Bolotnikov. False Dmitry II. Polish and Swedish intervention. The first and second militias. K. Minin and D. Pozharsky. Liberation of Moscow. The accession of the Romanov dynasty (1613 - 1917). Consequences of the Troubles.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645). Restoration of the economy.
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676). Foreign policy of Russia. War with Poland. Reunification with Ukraine (1653 - 1654). Domestic policy. Social structure and management system. Cathedral Code of 1649, its main provisions. The final enslavement of the peasants. "Rebellious Age" - urban, peasant and Cossack uprisings. The uprising led by S. Razin (1667 - 1671). Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century. Church schism: causes and consequences. Patriarch Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum. New features in everyday life and culture. The beginning of the secularization of culture. Literature of the 17th century. Architecture, "Naryshkin" baroque. Simon Ushakov. Russian army in the 17th century, regiments of the "foreign" system.
Princess Sophia. Crimean campaigns. Establishment of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy - 1687.
Tsar Peter Alekseevich (1672 - 1725) - (1682 - 1725). Personality of Peter, traits of his character. The first years of Peter's reign. Azov campaigns, their results. The Great Embassy of 1698 - 1699: goals, results. Streltsy uprisings at the end of the 17th century.
Russia in the XVIII - early XX century (Russian Empire - 1721 - 1917).
The beginning of the Northern War (1700 - 1721). Reasons for the war. Narva battle. Foundation of St. Petersburg - 1703. Military reform of Peter the Great. Changes in culture and everyday life: the introduction of European customs: calendar, clothing. Reform of administration, establishment of provinces. Astrakhan uprising. The uprising of Kondraty Bulavin.
Battle of Poltava - 1709. The course and significance of the Poltava battle. Creation and development of the Russian military fleet. Naval battles of the Northern War: Grengam and Gangut. The course of the Northern War in the 1710s. Peace of Nystadt in 1721, its main provisions and its significance. Reorganization of the central administrative apparatus: creation of the Senate and collegiums. Reorganization of the management of the Russian Church, the abolition of the patriarchate and the establishment of the Holy Synod. Tax reform of Peter the Great. The case of Tsarevich Alexei.
Changes in culture: the first newspaper "Vedomosti" - 1703. Establishment of military and naval schools. Establishment of the Academy of Sciences - 1724. The proclamation of Peter I as emperor and Russia as an empire - 1721, the significance of this event. Decree of succession to the throne, 1721. Death of Peter the Great - 1725. Results of the reign of Peter the Great.
Russia in the era of palace revolutions - 1725 - 1762. Problems of succession. The role of the guard in palace coups. Empress Catherine I (1725 - 1727). Emperor Peter II (1727 - 1730). Supreme Privy Council. The political crisis of 1730. "Conditions" of the Privy Council. Accession of Anna Ivanovna (1730 - 1740). Bironovshchina. Foreign policy of Russia in the 1730s: wars with Turkey, their results. Palace coup of 1740. Ruler Anna Leopoldovna. Palace coup of 1741.
The accession of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741 - 1761). Domestic policy in 1741-1761. Cancellation of internal customs duties, establishment of the first commercial banks. Culture in the middle of the XVIII century. The first Russian permanent theater. Foundation of Moscow University - 1755. Activities of M.V. Lomonosov. Russian architecture of the middle of the 18th century, baroque, V. Rastrelli. Painting: Rokotov, Antropov.
Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, participation of Russia in it. Battles of Gross-Egersdorf and Kunersdorf. The results of the war for Russia.
Emperor Peter III (1761 - 1762). His policy. Decree on the freedom of the nobility - 1762. The palace coup of 1762.
The reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796). Personality of Catherine. Beginning of Catherine's reign. Strengthening the enslavement of the peasants. Favoritism. Convocation of the Legislative Commission - 1767: "Instruction" of Catherine, the progress of the work of the Commission, the results of its work.
Russian-Turkish war of 1769 - 1774. The military activity of P.A. Rumyantsev. Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace of 1774, its provisions. The beginning of the accession to Russia of the Northern Black Sea region.
Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev (1773 - 1775). Causes of the war, its course, results and significance.
Provincial reform of Catherine II - 1775. Decrees on the establishment of private printing houses and the permission of free enterprise. Letters granted to the nobility and cities - 1785. The main content and meaning of letters.
Russian-Turkish war of 1787 - 1791: causes, course, results. The military activity of A.V. Suvorov: Ishmael. Activities of G.A. Potemkin. Peace of Jassy - 1791, its significance. Annexation of Crimea to Russia - 1783. Foundation of the Black Sea Fleet, Admiral Ushakov. Catherine's attitude to revolutionary France.
Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Architecture: M. Kazakov, P. Bazhenov. Painting: V. Borovikovsky, D. Levitsky. References: D. Fonvizin, G. Derzhavin, A. Radishchev.
The results of the reign of Catherine II.
Emperor Paul I (1796 - 1801). Paul's domestic policy. Decree on the imperial family - 1797, its provisions. Peasant policy of Paul. Paul's military transformations. Foreign policy of Paul I. Participation in anti-French coalitions. Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov - 1799. Conspiracy against Paul, its causes. Palace coup March 11, 1801, the assassination of Emperor Paul.
Accession of Emperor Alexander I (1801 - 1825). Personality of Emperor Alexander I. Reforms of the first years of Alexander's reign. Reorganization of the public administration system, establishment of ministries. Decree on free cultivators - 1803. Educational reforms, establishment of new universities, censorship rules.
MM. Speransky, his personality. Speransky's projects, their significance. Establishment of the State Council.
Foreign policy of Alexander I. Wars with Napoleonic France (1805 - 1815). Peace of Tilsit - 1807, its significance. Wars with Turkey and Persia at the beginning of the 19th century, their results.
Patriotic War of 1812: course, results, significance. The military activity of M.I. Kutuzov. Battle of Borodino - August 26-28, 1812: the course of the battle, the result, consequences and significance. Partisan movement during the Patriotic War of 1812. Commanders and heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812: P.I. Bagration, M. Barclay de Tolly, D. Davydov. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army - 1813 - 1815. Congress of Vienna - 1814 - 1815, its results.
Domestic policy of Alexander I in 1815-1825. Politics on the peasant question, projects to abolish serfdom. Establishment of military settlements. Activities of A.A. Arakcheev. Constitutional projects, "State statutory charter of the Russian Empire" - 1820. Strengthening reactionary tendencies in domestic politics.
Decembrist movement - 1816 - 1825. The first secret organizations of officers: the Union of Salvation, the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern secret societies. P. Pestel and his "Russian Truth". N. Muravyov and his constitutional project. Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825: course, result, results, significance. The fate of the Decembrists.
The Caucasian war of 1817-1864: causes, course, results, significance of the annexation of Transcaucasia and the Caucasus to the Russian Empire.
Emperor Nicholas I (1825 - 1855). Personality of Nicholas I. Internal policy of Nicholas I. Administrative reforms: 3rd branch of His Imperial Majesty's own chancellery, gendarme corps. Codification of laws: M.M. Speransky. Peasant question in the reign of Nicholas I. Decree on obligated peasants - 1842. Reform of the State Peasants, P.D. Kiselev. Economic development of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia.
Foreign policy of Nicholas I. Caucasian war. Wars with Turkey and Persia, their results. Relations with Europe. Eastern question. The Crimean War of 1853 - 1856, its causes, course, results, the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856.
Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. "Golden Age" of Russian culture. A.S. Pushkin. Literature of the Pushkin era: M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, V. Zhukovsky, P. Vyazemsky, E. Boratynsky. Painting of the first half of the 19th century: O. Kiprensky, P. Fedotov, K. Bryullov. Architecture of the first half of the 19th century: Russian Empire and classicism, K. Rossi, A. Voronikhin. The Birth of Russian Classical Music, M.I. Glinka, A. Dargomyzhsky.
The reign of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). Preparations for the abolition of serfdom - 1856 - 1861. "Thaw" in public life. The abolition of serfdom - February 19, 1861. Documents on the liberation of the peasants, their content, significance. Progress in the implementation of the peasant reform. Society's reaction to the peasant reform. The rise of the social movement in the 1860s. Polish uprising of 1863-1864, its impact on the social situation in Russia. Judicial, zemstvo and city reforms - 1864, 1866, 1870. Military reform D.A. Milyutin - 1874.
The beginning of the populist revolutionary movement in Russia. Revolutionary organizations of populists: "People's Will", "Land and Freedom". The revolutionary terror of the Narodniks. Assassination attempt on Alexander II.
Foreign policy of Russia under Alexander II. Relations with Germany and France. The war with Turkey in 1877-1878: causes, course, results, significance. Berlin Congress of 1878, its decisions.
Domestic policy at the turn of the 1870s - 1880s. M. Loris-Melikov, his reform projects. Assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya on March 1, 1881.
The reign of Emperor Alexander III (1881 - 1894). Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy April 29, 1881. Activities of K.P. Pobedonostsev. Counter-reforms of the 1880s - the first half of the 1890s, their content and significance. Revolutionary activity of the People's Will. The first Marxist circles, the Emancipation of Labor group.
Economic development of Russia in the 1880s - 1890s. Work question, factory legislation 1880s-1890s. Activities of N. Bunge, I. Vyshnegradsky, S. Witte.
Foreign policy of Russia in the reign of Alexander III. Creation of the Russian-French Union 1891-1894.
The reign of Emperor Nicholas II (1894 - 1917). Personality of Emperor Nicholas II. Political situation in Russia at the turn of the XIX - XX century. Social movement, revolutionary groups, "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class". The beginning of the revolutionary activity of V.I. Lenin.
The first all-Russian population census in 1897, its results. Economic development of Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Reforms S.Yu. Witte. Monetary reform of 1897: background, content, consequences.
New industrial regions: Donbass, Baku. Social consequences of modernization and industrialization. The situation in the Russian village at the turn of the XIX - XX century.
Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Russian classical literature: L. Tolstoy, I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, N. Nekrasov, A. Chekhov, I. Goncharov. Russian painting, Wanderers. Russian music, "The Mighty Handful", P. Tchaikovsky. Architecture and sculpture. Literacy and education, educational reforms in the 1860s-1880s. Russian theatre, A.N. Ostrovsky, the foundation of the Moscow Art Theater, the activities of K. Stanislavsky.
Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905: background, course, results. Portsmouth Peace Treaty of 1905 - content and significance.
The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907: causes, course, main events, consequences. "Bloody Sunday", the first workers' councils, the uprising on the battleship "Potemkin", the October general strike of 1905. Manifesto of October 17, 1905, its content and meaning. Moscow December armed uprising of 1905.
Fundamental Laws of 1906. Law on elections to the State Duma. The First State Duma of 1906: composition, main issues. Second State Duma of 1907: composition, main issues. The third and fourth State Dumas of 1907 - 1017: composition and main issues.
Political parties of Russia: left, right, center. Ideology, programs, activities. Social Democrats: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Socialist-revolutionaries, their terrorist activities. Cadets. Octobrists. Right parties, Black Hundreds. National and nationalist parties.
Activity P.A. Stolypin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of the Interior. Law on courts-martial. Stolypin's reform program. Stolypin's agrarian reform: goals, content, implementation, results, significance.
Political and socio-economic development of Russia in 1907 - 1914. Political system after the revolution of 1905. June 3 coup d'état of 1907. Economic development of the country in 1907-1914. The growth of the labor movement, the events at the Lena mines in 1912.
Foreign policy of Russia in 1905-1914. Aggravation of relations with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Agreement with Great Britain in 1907.
Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Literature: A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, I. Bunin. Poetry of the Silver Age: A. Blok, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Tsvetaeva, S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky. Painting: modernism, abstract art. M. Vrubel, K. Malevich, V. Kandinsky, K. Somov, M. Nesterov, B. Kustodiev. Russian architecture of the early 20th century, F. Shekhtel. Music: K. Scriabin, S. Rachmaninoff.
The First World War of 1914-1918: causes, alignment of forces, opposing blocs, goals of the parties, main events and battles. Campaign of 1914 on the Eastern Front: East Prussian operation of 1914, results. Campaign of 1915: causes of the Russian retreat. Campaign on the Austrian front. Political consequences of the Russian retreat, crisis phenomena in the rear. Formation of an opposition bloc in the State Duma. "Ministerial mess". Rasputinism. Growing war weariness and revolutionary sentiment. Campaign of 1916, Brusilov breakthrough. The formation of the revolutionary situation by 1917.
February Revolution of 1917: causes, course, main events. Abdication of Nicholas II from the throne. Formation of the Provisional Government. Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.
The 19th century in the history of Russia was marked by such events as the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrists and their uprising on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square, the Crimean War (1853-1856), the abolition of serfdom in 1861.
The 19th century is the reign of Alexander I, his brother Nicholas I, Alexander II and Alexander III.
A revolution in geometry was made by the research of Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, and in medicine - by the surgeon Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov. Russian navigators Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky made the first trip around the world (1803-1806).
In the 19th century, such writers as Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, Alexander Sergeyevich Griboedov, Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky worked.
And this is only a brief description of this complex, difficult, sometimes tragic period of Russian history.
So what was the 19th century like?
From this tragic event, the 19th century began for Russia. Although for the entire population, the death of the emperor, which occurred as a result of a conspiracy, was more of a joyful event than a sad one. On the evening of March 12, not a single bottle of wine was left in St. Petersburg shops.
Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne and became Emperor Alexander I.
What was Russia like at the beginning of the 19th century?
Together with England and France, Russia was one of the largest European powers, but nevertheless lagged far behind Europe in terms of economic development. The basis of the economy was agriculture; Russia exported raw materials and agricultural products to the countries of Western Europe. Imports mainly consisted of machines, tools, luxury goods, as well as cotton, spices, sugar, fruits.
Economic development was hampered by serfdom, and many spoke of freeing millions of the Russian peasantry from such cruel dependence. Alexander I, realizing the need for reforms, adopted in 1803 a decree on free cultivators, according to which the peasants could receive release from the landowner for a ransom.
Russia's foreign policy was characterized by the contradictions that arose between Russia and France and its emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.
In 1811, Napoleon proposed to conclude a new peace agreement with Russia (instead of the Peace of Tilsit in 1807), but Alexander refused it, because. after signing the treaty, Napoleon intended to marry the sister of the Russian Tsar.
June 12, 1812 600 thousand soldiers of Napoleon invaded Russia.
The Emperor of France intended for 1 month. give a frontier battle and force Alexander to make peace. But one of Alexander's plans for the conduct of the war was this: if Napoleon turns out to be stronger, then retreat as much as possible.
We all remember the phrase of Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov from the film: “There is nowhere to retreat further, ahead is Moscow!”
As you know, the Patriotic War lasted a year and ended with the defeat of France.
Alexander nevertheless refused French indemnities, saying: "I fought for glory, not for money."
The finances of the state were in a difficult state, the budget deficit was huge. The foreign policy of that time was called "counter-revolutionary", and Russia until the 50s. 19th century called the "gendarme of Europe." Nicholas I was forced to continue this aggressive foreign policy, and he also set himself the task of strengthening the autocracy and the economy, but without reforms.
Nicholas I began with the creation of "His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery". It was his own bureaucracy, which was supposed to oversee the execution of decrees.
This indicated that the tsar did not trust the nobility (which, in principle, was natural after the Decembrist uprising) and officials were becoming the ruling class. As a result, the number of officials increased by 6 times.
During the reign of Nicholas I, he carried out the following transformations:
- The codification of Russian legislation or the reduction of all laws into codes, carried out by Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky. Speransky, the son of a poor village priest, becomes, thanks to his abilities, the first adviser to the emperor. It publishes 15 volumes of laws that were in force until 1920.
- The reform of Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, one of the first economists admitted to power. Kankrin annulled all the old money and a silver ruble was introduced instead (because Russia had a large silver reserve). In addition, Kankrin introduced customs duties on almost all imported goods, as a result of which the budget deficit was eliminated.
- The reform of Pavel Dmitrievich Kisilev or the reform of the state village. As a result, her peasants received the right to own real estate - private property.
In the 1850s Russia will be drawn into a series of military conflicts, of which the conflict with Turkey was the most significant. ended with the Crimean War, which lasted 2 years and Russia was defeated in it.
The defeat in the Crimean War led to the death of the emperor, because. according to one version, Nicholas I committed suicide due to military failures.
They called him the king of liberation because of the reform he carried out in 1861, the abolition of serfdom. In addition, he carried out a military reform (the service was reduced from 20 to 6 years), a judicial one (a 3-level judicial system was introduced, including a magistrate's court, a district court and the Senate, the highest judicial instance), a zemstvo (zemstvos became a body of local self-government) .
Alexander II was killed in 1881, his reign ended, and his son Alexander III ascended the throne, who during his reign did not conduct a single war, for which he was called the "Peacemaker".
In addition, he concluded that his father was killed because he reformed a lot, so Alexander III refuses to reform, and the reign of Nicholas I was the ideal for him. But he believes that his grandfather’s main miscalculation is the poor development of industry and does everything so that the money is directed to the development of large industrial enterprises.
The main source of financing for industrial production was the export of bread, but this money is not enough. With the appointment of Sergei Yulievich Witte as Minister of Finance, the policy changed. Witte announces that the export of bread is an unreliable source of income and introduces a wine monopoly (the budget began to be called "drunk"), the gold backing of the ruble.
- The golden Russian ruble appears, which attracts foreign investment.
The result of this policy was that at the end of the 19th century. rapid economic growth begins and Russia becomes an industrial power, although Russian industry was only 1/3 Russian, and 2/3 foreign.
So, despite the wars, unstable domestic politics, Russia is experiencing a rapid growth in industrial production, and in order to reach its country it took a whole century - the nineteenth.
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The eighteenth century includes the reign of Peter I, the era of palace coups and the golden age of Catherine II. Such vicissitudes in domestic policy led to the unevenness of its social and foreign policy development, but its general direction remained consistent with the reforms of Peter the Great.
It is difficult to separate the domestic and foreign policy of this period. Peter I decided to establish trade with European countries; for this, access to the sea was necessary. So in 1700 the war with Sweden began. It ended only in 1721, after the signing of peace in the city of Nystadt, Russia received access to the Baltic Sea. But even during the war, it became clear that the country's industrial development did not allow for large-scale European wars. This requires guns, guns, ships and educated cadres. The war required the construction of factories, ships and the opening of educational institutions. By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical plants were operating in Russia, which provided the country with the necessary pig iron and sent the metal for export. A combat and merchant marine fleet appeared and, thanks to a number of technical universities that opened, their own military personnel.
The same line of state development was continued by Catherine II. After the bloody war of 1768-1774. Russia ousted the Ottoman Empire from the Black Sea and gained access to the Black Sea. After the partition of Poland, the lands of the Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire. As a result, trade turnover increased several times, the number of manufactories increased, and new branches of production appeared. Thus, by the end of the 18th century, Russia from a distant insignificant state in the north became an empire playing one of the leading roles in the international politics of that time.
The large-scale reforms of Peter the Great and Catherine II were little supported by the old nobility of the country. To strengthen the throne and imperial power, Peter I began to actively rely on the military class, distributing land for service. So the nobility appeared and began to strengthen. In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the nobility was divided into personal and hereditary. All persons of this class were obliged to serve. Over time, the rights of the nobility expanded more and more. Lands and titles began to be inherited, and at the end of the century, service ceased to be mandatory. The expansion of the rights of the nobility led to the enslavement of the peasants, and to several large-scale revolts of the people.
Another feature of this century was the secularization of public life. Peter I abolished the patriarchate and established a holy synod, and Catherine II decided to confiscate church lands. Church reform was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history. By the end of the 18th century, under the influence of the ideas of Voltaire and Diderot, enlightened absolutism was established in the country. Secular culture began to develop in Russia, a theater appeared, Fonvizin wrote his comedies, sculpture and a formal portrait appeared in the fine arts.
In this century, the country has chosen a path that catches up with European countries, taking from them what they like. This line of development influenced the consciousness of society, the development of culture, sciences and social thought.
In the course of the ongoing modernization of humanitarian education, the main attention is drawn to the selection of the content of the academic discipline "History of Russia" ("National History"). Competitions for worthy textbooks for secondary and higher schools have shown that this task is being solved more or less satisfactorily. However, the development of didactic approaches and the content design of textbooks still remain an unresolved problem.
The proposed allowance includes:
Text material - on the main topics of the course;
Questions and tasks (1st level) - reproductive questions that require the perception of knowledge from the texts just read;
Questions and assignments (2nd level) - productive questions that require self-substantiation of the material being studied;
Problematic tasks (3rd level) - theoretical or real contradictions that require a creative search for information from texts read and previously acquired knowledge;
Practical tasks, the implementation of which involves the application of historical experience to the problems of our time;
Primary sources (fragments) and questions to them - to confirm the reliability and credibility of the material being studied;
Poems (fragments) - to enhance the emotional perception of historical information;
Satirical digressions - to give historical events more artistry;
Headings “It is worth thinking”, “Let's think together”, etc. - for active comprehension in a dialogue form (reader - author) of controversial, alternative issues that arise in the course of reading the text;
Schemes (structural and logical) and tables - for the accumulation of historical knowledge for perception and understanding in a more accessible form;
Definitions for terms that carry a high semantic load (placed along the text) - for the purpose of continuous and conscious reading of a piece of text;
Supporting notes (symbols-signals reflecting the information necessary for assimilation - for summarizing knowledge and more efficient use of visual memory of students, etc.
The presentation of history in the proposed manual is designed, according to the author's intention, for four levels of assimilation and comprehension of historical material with the aim of teaching the course by future teachers: for students in grades 8–9; students in grades 10–11; students of history under the program of humanitarian schools (classes); students. Such an approach and a specially developed author's methodology take into account different levels of education and training, the real abilities of students, the goals and objectives of studying and teaching history.
Birth of a great empire
§ 1. Origin
Peter the Great is the first emperor of Russia. Before him, as you remember, starting from Ivan the Terrible, the rulers of Russia bore the title of "tsar".
Peter I was majestic in everything. Almost three yards tall (arshin = 71 cm), “a whole head higher than any crowd”, remarkable power in his hands - he broke horseshoes and rolled silver plates into tubes, flattened silver bowls between his palms, cut a piece of cloth on the fly with a knife, deftly snatched from the fire with tongs a piece of iron weighing several pounds (a pood = 16 kg) and without much effort lifted it to the anvil. Once, while in Amsterdam (Netherlands), during a strong wind, he stopped a windmill with one hand - so he wanted to examine a device with rotating wings, unprecedented for Russia. The king walked quickly, the persons accompanying him were forced to run, he had a passion for frenzied galloping in a gig. He did not like swagger (conceited pride, pomp; arrogance, arrogance) and reverence of the “eastern” type: he forbade falling to the ground or knees in front of him, he ordered him to simply bow at a meeting.
“King, come on, you mastered 14 working crafts!” (This conclusion was made by the German princesses after meeting with him.) As a real carpenter, carpenter, turner, he owned an ax, chisel, saw, lathe. Success in the crafts and the lack of such in his environment instilled in him the confidence that now he is able to do everything. Peter even considered himself a good dentist and practiced dentistry. They say that after him there was a whole bag with teeth pulled out by him - a monument to his personal stamotological action.
Peter worked, loved, hated - everything is hot, without a trace, to the bottom. This passion extended to his fun. He was a hospitable person, but sometimes for many his treats became "worse than Demyan's fish soup." Not being a drunkard, the king forced some dignitaries and foreigners to drink "to death." He established that at assemblies (balls, public meetings) even ladies would not refuse alcoholic beverages - in the Western manner. According to the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, “in that century they drank a lot everywhere in Europe, no less than now, and in the highest circles, especially the courtiers, perhaps even more. The Petersburg court did not lag behind its foreign samples. In England, for example, in order to overcome drunkenness, a sobriety movement was already created at that time.
Peter was unpretentious and simple in everyday life. The tsar's servants, 10–12 nobles, evoked contempt among many nobles, tacitly, of course, by a small number, not nobility (“artfulness”) and a meager salary for the tsarist level - for all 1000 rubles. in year. The total expenses of the court did not exceed 60,000 rubles. per year, while before it this amount poured into hundreds of thousands of rubles, and after it - into millions and tens of millions.
The fate of the first emperor of Russia was given only about 53 years of life. With his mighty body, he could have lived and benefited the Fatherland for many more years, but the overstrain of mental and physical strength and some excesses in everyday life gradually destroyed his health. Peter was sick, and not really trusting the doctors, he himself treated himself with such monstrous, but, in his opinion, miraculous drugs, which in fantastic visions may not appear to everyone - the consumption of wood lice, worms and similar creatures. Finally, the sovereign fell ill in the autumn of 1724, after one incident. Russian boat in the sea ran aground. Peter threw himself into the icy water and, standing waist-deep in it, helped save the soldiers, as a result of which he caught a bad cold.
Peter suffered much less from bodily illnesses than from the pains of the soul that had befallen him early. He put his whole life without a trace on the altar of the Fatherland, from which he became immensely tired. It was especially bitter to realize that he had very few like-minded people who sincerely care for the fate of Russia. The king sometimes fought like a fish on ice, and many plans, small and great, did not develop into the desired transformations, since their implementation at all levels was neither shaky nor rolly, and all sorts of obstacles were frankly raised to many.
Three months after the incident described, Peter the Great died.
The death of Peter I in Catholic Europe was not met everywhere in a Christian way. The Danes, for example, forgetting about mercy, rejoiced, many celebrated this event vigorously. Russian Ambassador to Denmark A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin reported with resentment to St. Petersburg: "In general, everyone here took great joy in that"; not only the nobles, but also "all the vile ones were drunk with joy." Blaspheming, they took revenge on the late tsar, because during his lifetime he canceled illegal duties when Russian ships passed through their straits, supported the political opponents of Denmark, gave his daughter Anna Petrovna to Karl Friedrich, whose possession was seized by Denmark and on this basis new contradictions arose, etc. .d.
In some Western countries, they deliberately misled their citizens: they openly wrote that Peter did not die a natural death, he was allegedly poisoned by his wife Catherine.
