from Plutarch:
ANCIENT CUSTOMS OF THE SPARTANS

1. The elder, pointing to the door, warns everyone entering the sissitia:
"Not one word goes beyond them."

3. Spartans drink little in their sissits and leave without torches. Them
it is generally not permitted to use torches either in this case or when they are on other roads. It is ordained that they may learn boldly and fearlessly
walk the roads at night.

4. The Spartans studied literacy only for the needs of life. All other types of education were expelled from the country; not only the sciences themselves, but also people,
dealing with them. Education was aimed at ensuring that young men could
obey and courageously endure suffering, and die in battles or
seek victory.

5. The Spartans did not wear chitons, using a single himation for a whole year. They went about unwashed, abstaining for the most part both from baths and from anointing the body.

6. Young people slept together on silts on beds, which they themselves prepared from reeds growing near Eurotas, breaking it with their hands without any tools. In winter, they added to the reeds another plant, which they call lycophon, as it is believed that it is able to warm.

7. Among the Spartans, it was allowed to fall in love with honest-hearted boys, but it was considered a shame to enter into a relationship with them, because such a passion would be bodily, and not spiritual. A person accused of a shameful relationship with a boy was deprived of civil rights for life.

8. There was a custom according to which the older ones questioned the younger ones,
where and why they go, and scolded those who did not want to answer or came up with excuses. The one who, being present at the same time, does not choose the violator of this law, was subject to the same punishment as the violator himself. If he resented the punishment, he was subjected to even greater reproach.

9. If someone was guilty and was convicted, he had to go around
altar that was in the city, and at the same time sing a song composed in reproach to him, then
is to expose oneself to reproach.

10. Young Spartans had to honor and obey not only their own fathers, but also take care of all the elderly; when meeting, give way to them, get up, freeing up space, and also not make noise in their presence. Thus, everyone in Sparta disposed not only of his children, slaves, property, as was the case in other states, but also had the right to
neighbors property. This was done in order for people to act together and
treat other people's affairs as if they were their own.

11. If someone punished a boy and he told his father about it,
then, having heard the complaint, the father would consider it a shame not to punish the boy a second time.
The Spartans trusted each other and believed that none of the faithful fatherly laws
will not order the children anything bad.

12. Youths, whenever given the opportunity, steal food, thus learning to attack sleeping and lazy guards. Those caught are punished with starvation and flogging. Their dinner is so meager that they are forced to be impudent and stop at nothing to escape want.

13. This explains the lack of food: it was scarce so that the young men got used to constant hunger and could endure it. The Spartans believed that young men who received such an upbringing would be better prepared for war, as they would be able to live for a long time with almost no food, do without any seasonings and
eat whatever comes to hand. The Spartans believed that poor food makes young men healthier, they will not be prone to obesity, but will become tall and even beautiful. They believed that a lean physique provided the flexibility of all
members, and the heaviness and completeness prevent this.

14. The Spartans took music and singing very seriously. In their opinion, these arts were intended to encourage the spirit and mind of a person, to help him in his
actions. The language of Spartan songs was simple and expressive. They did not contain
nothing but praise for people who lived their lives nobly, died for Sparta and are revered as blessed, as well as condemnation of those who fled from the battlefield, oh
who were said to have led a miserable and miserable life. In songs
praised the valor inherent in every age.

17. The Spartans did not allow anyone to change the rules in any way.
ancient musicians. Even Terpander, one of the best and oldest kyfareds
of his time, praising the exploits of heroes, even his ephors were punished, and his cithara was pierced with nails because, trying to achieve a variety of sounds, he pulled an additional string on it. The Spartans only liked simple melodies. When Timothy took part in the Carnean festival, one of the ephors, taking up a sword, asked him on which side it would be better to cut off the strings on his instrument, added in excess of the seven.

18. Lycurgus put an end to the superstitions that surrounded the funeral, allowing burial within the city and near the sanctuaries, and decided not to count anything,
associated with the funeral, filth. He forbade putting anything with the dead
property, but allowed only to wrap it in plum leaves and a purple veil and bury everyone in the same way. He forbade inscriptions on grave monuments, with the exception of those erected by those who died in the war, and
also weeping and sobs at funerals.

19. The Spartans were not allowed to leave the borders of their homeland, so that they could not
to join the foreign customs and way of life of people who have not received the Spartan
education.

20. Lycurgus introduced xenolasia - the expulsion of foreigners from the country, so that when they come to
country, they did not teach the local citizens anything bad.

21. Which of the citizens did not go through all the stages of raising boys, did not have
civil rights.

22. Some argued that if any of the foreigners endured a way of life,
established by Lycurgus, then it could be included in the assigned to him from the very
moira started.

23. Trade was banned. If there was a need, it was possible to use the neighbors' servants as their own, as well as dogs and horses, unless the owners needed them. In the field, too, if someone was lacking in something, he opened, if necessary, someone else's warehouse, took what he needed, and then, putting back the seals, left.

24. During the wars, the Spartans wore red clothes: firstly, they
considered this color more courageous, and secondly, it seemed to them that the blood-red color should terrify opponents who had no combat experience. In addition, if one of the Spartans is injured, it will not be noticeable to the enemies, since the similarity of colors will hide the blood.

25. If the Spartans succeed in defeating the enemy by cunning, they sacrifice a bull to the god Ares, and if the victory is won in an open battle, then a rooster. In this way, they teach their commanders to be not just militant, but also to master the art of generalship.

26. To their prayers, the Spartans also add a request to grant them the strength to endure injustice.

27. In prayers, they ask to adequately reward noble people and more
nothing.

28. They venerate Aphrodite armed and in general depict all gods and goddesses with a spear in her hand, for they believe that military prowess is inherent in all of them.

29. Lovers of proverbs often cite the words: "Do not call on the gods without putting your hands on it," that is: you need to call on the gods only if you set to work and work, and
otherwise not worth it.

30. The Spartans show drunken helots to children in order to turn them away from drunkenness.

31. The Spartans had a custom not to knock on the door, but to speak out from behind the door.

33. The Spartans do not watch either comedies or tragedies, so as not to hear something said in jest or in earnest that goes against their laws.

34. When the poet Archilochus came to Sparta, he was expelled the same day, as he wrote in a poem that throwing down weapons is better than dying:

The Saian now proudly wears my impeccable shield:
Willy-nilly, I had to throw it to me in the bushes.
I myself escaped death. And let it disappear
My shield. As good as a new one I can get.

35. In Sparta, access to the sanctuaries is open equally to both boys and girls.

36. The ephors punished Skyraphids because many offended him.

37. The Spartans executed a man only because, wearing rags, he adorned
his colored stripe.

38. They reprimanded one young man only because he knew the road leading from the gymnasium to Pylaea.

39. The Spartans expelled Cephisophon from the country, who claimed that he was able to talk all day on any topic; they believed that a good orator's speech should be proportionate to the importance of the matter.

40. Boys in Sparta were whipped on the altar of Artemis Orthia during
whole day, and they often died under the blows. The boys are proud and cheerful
they competed to see which of them would endure the beatings longer and more worthily; the winner was praised, and he became famous. This competition was called "diamastigosis", and it took place every year.

41. Along with other valuable and happy institutions provided by Lycurgus for his fellow citizens, it was also important that the lack of employment was not considered reprehensible by them. The Spartans were forbidden to engage in any kind of crafts, and the need for business activities and the accumulation of money from
they were not. Lycurgus made the possession of wealth both unenviable and inglorious. The helots, cultivating their land for the Spartans, paid them a dues fixed in advance; demanding a large rent was forbidden under pain of damnation. This was done so that the helots, receiving benefits, worked with pleasure, and the Spartans would not strive to accumulate.

42. Spartans were forbidden to serve as sailors and fight at sea. However, later they participated in naval battles, but, having achieved dominance at sea, they abandoned it, noticing that the morals of citizens change from this for the worse.
However, morals continued to deteriorate in this and in everything else. Before, if
one of the Spartans accumulated wealth, the accumulator was sentenced to
of death. After all, even Alkamen and Theopompus were predicted by an oracle: "The passion for the accumulation of wealth will someday destroy Sparta." Despite this prediction, Lysander, having taken Athens, brought home a lot of gold and silver, and the Spartans accepted him and surrounded him with honors. While the state adhered to the laws of Lycurgus and given oaths, it excelled in Hellas for five hundred years, distinguished by good morals and enjoying a good reputation. However, gradually, as the laws of Lycurgus began to be violated, self-interest and the desire for enrichment penetrated the country, and the power of the state decreased, and the allies, for the same reason, began to be hostile to the Spartans. Such was the state of affairs when, after the victory of Philip at Chaeronea, all the Hellenes proclaimed him commander-in-chief on land and sea, and later, after the destruction of Thebes, recognized his son Alexander. Only the Lacedaemonians,
although their city was not fortified with walls and due to constant wars they had very few people left, so to defeat this state that had lost its military power
it was not difficult at all, only the Lacedaemonians, thanks to the fact that weak sparks of the Lycurgus institutions were still glimmering in Sparta, dared not to accept
participation in the military enterprise of the Macedonians, not to recognize either these or those who ruled in
subsequent years of the Macedonian kings, do not participate in the Sanhedrin and do not pay
foros. They did not depart completely from the Lycurgus institutions until they
their own citizens, having seized tyrannical power, did not completely reject the way of life of their ancestors and thus did not bring the Spartans closer to other peoples.
Having abandoned their former glory and the free expression of their thoughts, the Spartans
began to drag out a slave existence, and now, like the rest of the Hellenes, they turned out to be
under Roman rule.

The glory of Sparta - the Peloponnesian city in Laconia - is very loud in historical chronicles and in the world. It was one of the most famous policies of ancient Greece, which did not know unrest and civil upheavals, and its army never retreated from enemies.

Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, who reigned in Laconia one and a half thousand years before the birth of Christ and named the city after his wife. In the first centuries of the existence of the city, there were no walls around it: they were erected only under the tyrant Naviz. True, they were later destroyed, but Appius Claudius soon erected new ones.

The ancient Greeks considered the legislator Lycurgus to be the creator of the Spartan state, whose life time falls approximately in the first half of the 7th century BC. e. The population of ancient Sparta in its composition was divided in those days into three groups: Spartans, perieks and helots. The Spartans lived in Sparta itself and enjoyed all the rights of citizenship of their city-state: they had to fulfill all the requirements of the law and they were admitted to all honorary public positions. The occupation of agriculture and handicrafts, although it was not forbidden to this class, did not correspond to the image of the upbringing of the Spartans and therefore was despised by them.

Most of the lands of Laconia were at their disposal and cultivated for them by the helots. In order to own a plot of land, a Spartan had to fulfill two requirements: to follow all the rules of discipline exactly and to provide a certain part of the income for a sissitium - a public table: barley flour, wine, cheese, etc.

Game was obtained by hunting in state forests; moreover, everyone who sacrificed to the gods sent a part of the carcass of the sacrificial animal to the sissitium. Violation or failure to comply with these rules (for any reason) led to the loss of citizenship rights. All full citizens of ancient Sparta, young and old, had to participate in these dinners, while no one had any advantages and privileges.

The circle of perieks was also made up of free people, but they were not full citizens of Sparta. Perieki inhabited all the cities of Laconia, except for Sparta, which belonged exclusively to the Spartans. They did not constitute a politically whole city-state, since they received control in their cities only from Sparta. The periaeci of the various cities were independent of each other, and at the same time each of them was dependent on Sparta.

Helots made up the rural population of Laconia: they were slaves of those lands that were cultivated in favor of the Spartans and perieks. Helots also lived in cities, but urban life was not typical for helots. They were allowed to have a house, a wife and a family, it was forbidden to sell the helot outside the possessions. Some scholars believe that the sale of helots was generally impossible, since they were the property of the state, and not of individuals. Some accounts of the cruel treatment of the helots by the Spartans have come down to our times, although again some of the scholars believe that contempt was more visible in this regard.

Plutarch reports that every year (by virtue of the decrees of Lycurgus) the ephors solemnly declared war against the helots. Young Spartans, armed with daggers, went all over Laconia and exterminated the unfortunate helots. But over time, scientists found that this method of exterminating the helots was not legalized during Lycurgus, but only after the First Messenian War, when the helots became dangerous for the state.

Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, starting his story about the life and laws of Lycurgus, warned the reader that nothing reliable could be reported about them. And yet he had no doubt that this politician was a historical figure.

Most scientists of modern times consider Lycurgus a legendary person: one of the first, back in the 1820s, was the famous German historian of antiquity, K.O. Muller, who doubted his historical existence. He suggested that the so-called "laws of Lycurgus" are much older than their legislator, since these are not so much laws as ancient folk customs, rooted in the distant past of the Dorians and all other Hellenes.

Many of the scientists (W. Wilamowitz, E. Meyer and others) consider the biography of the Spartan legislator, preserved in several versions, as a late revision of the myth of the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. Adherents of this trend questioned the very existence of "legislation" in ancient Sparta. E. Meyer classified the customs and rules that regulated the daily life of the Spartans as “the way of life of the Dorian tribal community”, from which classical Sparta grew almost without any changes.

But the results of archaeological excavations, which were carried out in 1906-1910 by the English archaeological expedition in Sparta, served as a pretext for the partial rehabilitation of the ancient legend about the legislation of Lycurgus. The British explored the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, one of the most ancient temples of Sparta, and discovered many works of art of local production: wonderful examples of painted ceramics, unique terracotta masks (not found anywhere else), objects made of bronze, gold, amber and ivory.

For the most part, these finds somehow did not fit in with the ideas of the harsh and ascetic life of the Spartans, of the almost complete isolation of their city from the rest of the world. And then scientists suggested that the laws of Lycurgus in the 7th century BC. e. were not yet put into action and the economic and cultural development of Sparta proceeded in the same way as the development of other Greek states. Only towards the end of the 6th century BC. e. Sparta closes in on itself and turns into the city-state as ancient writers knew it.

Because of the threats of a rebellion by the helots, the situation was then restless, and therefore the "initiators of reforms" could resort (as was often the case in ancient times) to the authority of some hero or deity. In Sparta, Lycurgus was chosen for this role, who gradually began to turn from a deity into a historical legislator, although ideas about his divine origin persisted until the time of Herodotus.

Lycurgus had a chance to put in order a cruel and outrageous people, therefore it was necessary to teach him to resist the onslaught of other states, and for this to make everyone skillful warriors. One of the first reforms of Lycurgus was the organization of the management of the Spartan community. Ancient writers claimed that he created the Council of Elders (gerousia) of 28 people. The elders (geronts) were elected by the apella - the people's assembly; The Gerousia also included two kings, one of whose main duties was to command the army during the war.

From the descriptions of Pausanias we know that the period of the most intensive building activity in the history of Sparta was the 6th century BC. e. At that time, the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya on the acropolis, the portico of Skiada, the so-called "throne of Apollo" and other buildings were erected in the city. But on Thucydides, who saw Sparta in the last quarter of the 5th century BC. e., the city made the most bleak impression.

Against the backdrop of the luxury and grandeur of Athenian architecture from the time of Pericles, Sparta already seemed a nondescript provincial town. The Spartans themselves, not being afraid to be considered old-fashioned, did not stop worshiping archaic stone and wooden idols at a time when Phidias, Myron, Praxiteles and other outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece created their masterpieces in other Hellenic cities.

In the second half of the VI century BC. e. there was a noticeable cooling of the Spartans for the Olympic Games. Prior to that, they took an active part in them and accounted for more than half of the winners, and in all major types of competitions. Subsequently, for all the time from 548 to 480 BC. e., only one representative of Sparta, King Demarat, won the victory, and only in one type of competition - horse racing at the hippodrome.

In order to achieve harmony and peace in Sparta, Lycurgus decided to permanently eradicate wealth and poverty in his state. He forbade the use of gold and silver coins, which were used throughout Greece, and instead introduced iron money in the form of obols. They bought only what was produced in Sparta itself; in addition, they were so heavy that even a small amount had to be transported on a wagon.

Lycurgus also prescribed the way of home life: all Spartans, from a simple citizen to a king, had to live in exactly the same conditions. A special order indicated what houses could be built, what clothes to wear: it had to be so simple that there was no place for any luxury. Even the food had to be the same for everyone.

Thus, in Sparta, wealth gradually lost all meaning, since it was impossible to use it: citizens began to think less about their own good, and more about the state. Nowhere in Sparta did poverty coexist with wealth, and as a result, there was no envy, rivalry, and other greedy passions that exhausted a person. There was also no greed that opposes private benefit to the public good and arms one citizen against another.

One of the Spartan youths, who bought land for nothing, was put on trial. The accusation said that he was still very young, and was already tempted by profit, while self-interest is the enemy of every inhabitant of Sparta.

The upbringing of children was considered in Sparta one of the main duties of a citizen. The Spartan, who had three sons, was exempted from guard duty, and the father of five from all existing duties.

From the age of 7, the Spartan no longer belonged to his family: the children were separated from their parents and began social life. From that moment on, they were brought up in special detachments (agels), where they were supervised not only by fellow citizens, but also by specially assigned censors. Children were taught to read and write, they were taught to be silent for a long time, and to speak concisely - briefly and clearly.

Gymnastic and sports exercises were supposed to develop dexterity and strength in them; so that there was harmony in the movements, the young men were obliged to participate in choral dances; hunting in the forests of Laconia developed patience for hard trials. They fed the children rather poorly, therefore they made up for the lack of food not only by hunting, but also by theft, since they were also taught to steal; however, if someone came across, they beat them mercilessly - not for theft, but for awkwardness.

Young men who reached the age of 16 were subjected to a very severe test at the altar of the goddess Artemis: they were cruelly flogged, but they had to be silent. Even the smallest cry or groan contributed to the continuation of the punishment: some did not stand the test and died.

In Sparta, there was a law according to which no one was supposed to be more complete than necessary. According to this law, all young men who had not yet achieved civil rights were shown to the ephors - members of the election commission. If the young men were strong and strong, then they were honored with praise; young men, whose body was considered too flabby and loose, were beaten with sticks, as their appearance dishonored Sparta and its laws.

Plutarch and Xenophon wrote that Lycurgus legitimized that women also perform the same exercises as men, and through that they became strong and could give birth to strong and healthy offspring. Thus, Spartan women were worthy of their husbands, as they were also subject to a harsh upbringing.

The women of ancient Sparta, whose sons died, went to the battlefield and looked where they were wounded. If in the chest, then the women proudly looked at those around them and honorably buried their children in their father's tombs. If they saw wounds on their backs, then, weeping with shame, they hurried to hide, leaving others to bury the dead.

Marriage in Sparta was also subject to the law: personal feelings did not matter, because it was all a matter of state. Boys and girls could enter into marriage, whose physiological development corresponded to each other and from whom healthy children could be expected: marriage between persons of unequal builds was not allowed.

But Aristotle speaks of the position of Spartan women in a completely different way: while the Spartans led a strict, almost ascetic life, their wives indulged in extraordinary luxury in their home. This circumstance forced men to get money often in dishonest ways, because direct funds were forbidden to them. Aristotle wrote that Lycurgus tried to subject Spartan women to the same strict discipline, but met with a decisive rebuff from their side.

Left to their own devices, women became self-willed, indulged in luxury and licentiousness, they even began to interfere in state affairs, which eventually led to a real gynecocracy in Sparta. “And what difference does it make,” Aristotle asks bitterly, “whether the women themselves rule or whether the ruling persons are under their power?” The blame for the Spartans was that they behaved boldly and impudently and allowed themselves luxury, which challenged the strict norms of state discipline and morality.

To protect his legislation from foreign influence, Lycurgus limited Sparta's ties with foreigners. Without permission, which was given only in cases of special importance, the Spartan could not leave the cities and travel abroad. Foreigners were also forbidden from entering Sparta. The inhospitality of Sparta was the most famous phenomenon in the ancient world.

The citizens of ancient Sparta were something like a military garrison, constantly exercising and always ready for war either with the helots or with an external enemy. The legislation of Lycurgus took on an exclusively military character also because those were the times when there was no public and personal security, there were no general principles on which state tranquility is based. In addition, the Dorians in a very small number settled in the country of the helots they conquered and were surrounded by half-subdued or not subdued Achaeans at all, therefore they could only hold on to battles and victories.

Such a harsh upbringing, at first glance, could make the life of ancient Sparta very boring, and the people themselves unhappy. But from the writings of ancient Greek authors it is clear that such unusual laws made the Spartans the most prosperous people in the ancient world, because everywhere only rivalry in the acquisition of virtues dominated.

There was a prediction according to which Sparta would remain a strong and powerful state as long as it followed the laws of Lycurgus and remained indifferent to gold and silver. After the war with Athens, the Spartans brought money to their city, which seduced the inhabitants of Sparta and forced them to retreat from the laws of Lycurgus. And from that moment on, their prowess began to gradually fade away ...

Aristotle, on the other hand, believes that it was the abnormal position of women in Spartan society that led to the fact that Sparta in the second half of the 4th century BC. e. terribly depopulated and lost its former military power.

Sparta is an ancient state in Greece, now known throughout the world. Such concepts as "Spartan", "Spartan" came from Sparta. Everyone also knows the custom of the Spartans to kill weak children in order to maintain the gene pool of the nation.

Now Sparta is a small town in Greece, the center of the Laconia nome, located in the Peloponnese region. And earlier, the Spartan state was one of the main contenders for supremacy in the ancient Greek world. Some milestones in the history of Sparta are sung in the works of Homer, including the outstanding Iliad. In addition, we all know the films "300 Spartans" and "Troy", the plot of which also touches on some historical events involving Sparta.

Officially, Sparta was called Lacedaemon, hence the name of the nome Laconia. The emergence of Sparta is attributed to the 11th century BC. Some time later, the area in which the city-state was located was conquered by the Dorian tribes, who, having assimilated with the local Achaeans, became Spartakiates in the sense we know. The former inhabitants of the city were turned into helot slaves.

One of the key figures in the formation of Sparta as a strong state is Lycurgus, who ruled the city in the 9th century BC. Before the advent of Lycurgus Sparta, Greece was not much different from other ancient Greek city-states; art, trade, and crafts were also developed here. The poetry of its poets also speaks of the high culture of the Spartan state. However, with the coming to power of Lycurgus, the situation changed radically, military art received priority in development. From that moment on, Lacedaemon was transformed into a powerful military state.

Beginning in the 8th century BC, Sparta began to wage wars of conquest in the Peloponnese, conquering its neighbors one by one. So, the glory of the so-called Messenian wars, the 1st and 2nd, has reached our days, as a result of which Sparta won. The citizens of Messenia were turned into helot slaves. Argos and Arcadia were conquered in the same way.

After a series of military operations to seize works and new territories, Lacedaemon moved on to establishing diplomatic relations with neighbors. Through the conclusion of treaties, Lacedaemon became the head of the union of the Peloponnesian states - a powerful formation of Ancient Greece.

The creation of the Peloponnesian Union of States by Sparta served as a prototype for a future alliance with Athens to repel the threat of a Persian invasion. During the war with Persia in the 5th century BC, the famous Battle of Thermopylae took place, which served as the source for the plot of the famous American film "300 Spartans". And although the plot of the film is far from historical reality, thanks to it, millions of people around the world learned about this battle.

Despite the joint victory in the war with the Persians, the union of Athens and Sparta did not last long. In 431 BC, the so-called Peloponnesian War broke out, in which, a few decades later, the Spartan state won.

However, not everyone in Ancient Greece was satisfied with the supremacy of Lacedaemon, and 50 years after the Peloponnesian War, a new war broke out. This time, Thebes and its allies became the rivals of the Spartans, who managed to inflict a serious defeat on Sparta, after which the power of the Spartan state was lost. It is worth noting that between these two bloody and cruel wars for dominance on the peninsula, the Spartans did not sit idle, almost all this time there were wars against various city-states of Ancient Greece, which ultimately crippled the forces of Lacedaemon.

After being defeated by Thebes, Lacedaemon waged several more wars. Among them are the war with Macedonia in the 4th century BC, which brought the defeat of the Spartans, the war with the invading Galatians in the early 3rd century BC. The Spartans also fought for dominance in the Peloponnese with the newly created Achaean Union, and a little later, already at the beginning of the 2nd century BC, they were participants in the Laconian War. All these battles and wars clearly showed a strong decline in the former power of the Spartan state. In the end, Sparta, Greece was forcibly included in Ancient Rome, along with other ancient Greek states. Thus ended an independent period in the history of a proud and warlike state. Sparta - the ancient state in Greece ceased to exist, becoming one of the provinces of Ancient Rome.

The device of the ancient Spartan state differed significantly from other ancient Greek city-states. So, the rulers of Lacedaemon were two kings from two dynasties - Agids and Eurypontides. They ruled the state together with a council of elders, the so-called gerousia, which included 28 people. The composition of the gerusia was for life. In addition, important state decisions were made at a national assembly called an appellation. Only free citizens who had reached the age of 30 and had sufficient funds took part in the meeting. A little later, the state body of the ephors arose, which included 5 officials from 5 Spartan regions, who in the aggregate had more power than the kings.

The population of the Spartan state was class unequal: Spartans, perieks - free residents from nearby cities who did not have the right to vote, and helots - state slaves. The Spartans had to deal exclusively with the war, they could not participate in trade, crafts and agriculture, all this was at the mercy of the perieks. The estates of the Spartans were processed by helots rented from the state. During the heyday of the Spartan state, the Spartans were 5 times less than the perieks and 10 times less than the helots.

Such was the ancient Sparta, from which the ruins of its buildings, the unfading glory of the state-warrior and a small city of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese now remain.

Ancient Sparta was the main economic and military rival of Athens. The city-state and its surrounding territory were located on the Peloponnese peninsula, southwest of Athens. Administratively, Sparta (also called Lacedaemon) was the capital of the province of Laconia.

The adjective "Spartan" in the modern world came from energetic warriors with an iron heart and steel endurance. The inhabitants of Sparta were famous not for arts, science or architecture, but for brave warriors, for whom the concept of honor, courage and strength were put above all else. Athens of that time, with its beautiful statues and temples, was a stronghold of poetry, philosophy and politics, which dominated the intellectual life of Greece. However, such superiority was bound to end someday.

Raising children in Sparta

One of the principles that guided the inhabitants of Sparta was that the life of every person, from the moment of birth until death, belongs entirely to the state. The elders of the city were empowered to decide the fate of newborns - healthy and strong children were left in the city, and weak or sick children were thrown into the nearest abyss. So the Spartans tried to secure physical superiority over their enemies. Children who have passed the "natural selection" were brought up in conditions of severe discipline. At the age of 7, the boys were taken away from their parents and brought up separately, in small groups. The strongest and most courageous young men eventually became captains. The boys slept in the common rooms on hard and uncomfortable reed beds. Young Spartans ate simple food - a soup of pig blood, meat and vinegar, lentils and other coarse food.

One day, a wealthy guest who came to Sparta from Sybaris decided to taste the “black stew”, after which he said that now he understands why Spartan warriors lose their lives so easily. Often the boys were left hungry for several days, thereby inciting petty theft in the market. This was not done with the intent to make the young man a skilled thief, but only to develop ingenuity and dexterity - if he was caught stealing, he was severely punished. There are legends about a young Spartan who stole a young fox from the market, and when it was time for dinner, he hid it under his clothes. So that the boy would not be convicted of theft, he endured the pain from the fact that the fox gnawed his stomach, and died without issuing a single sound. Over time, the discipline only became tougher. All adult males between the ages of 20 and 60 were required to serve in the Spartan army. They were allowed to marry, but even after that, the Spartans continued to spend the night in barracks and eat in common canteens. Warriors were not allowed to own any property, especially gold and silver. Their money looked like iron bars of various sizes. Restraint extended not only to life, food and clothing, but also to the speech of the Spartans. In conversation, they were very laconic, limiting themselves to extremely concise and specific answers. This manner of communication in ancient Greece was called "conciseness" on behalf of the area in which Sparta was located.

Life of the Spartans

In general, as in any other culture, issues of life and nutrition shed light on interesting little things in people's lives. The Spartans, unlike the inhabitants of other Greek cities, did not attach much importance to food. In their opinion, food should not serve to satisfy, but only to saturate the warrior before the battle. The Spartans dined at a common table, while the products for lunch were handed over in the same amount - this was how the equality of all citizens was maintained. Neighbors on the table vigilantly watched each other, and if someone did not like the food, he was ridiculed and compared with the spoiled inhabitants of Athens. But when the time came for the battle, the Spartans changed dramatically: they put on the best outfits, and marched towards death with songs and music. From birth, they were taught to perceive each day as their last, not to be afraid and not to retreat. Death in battle was desirable and equated to the ideal end of a real man's life. There were 3 classes of inhabitants in Laconia. The first, most revered, were inhabitants of Sparta who had military training and participated in the political life of the city. Second class - perieki, or residents of surrounding small towns and villages. They were free, although they did not have any political rights. Engaged in trade and handicrafts, the perieks were a kind of "service personnel" for the Spartan army. lower class - helots, were serfs, and did not differ much from slaves. Due to the fact that their marriages were not controlled by the state, the helots were the most numerous category of inhabitants, and were kept from rebellion only thanks to the iron grip of their masters.

Political life of Sparta

One of the features of Sparta was that two kings were at the head of the state at the same time. They ruled jointly, serving as high priests and military leaders. Each of the kings controlled the activities of the other, which ensured the openness and fairness of the decisions of the authorities. The kings were subject to a "cabinet of ministers", consisting of five ethers or observers, who exercised general guardianship over laws and customs. The legislative branch consisted of a council of elders headed by two kings. The Council elected the most respected people of Sparta who have overcome the 60-year age barrier. Army of Sparta, despite the relatively modest number, was well trained and disciplined. Each warrior was filled with the determination to win or die - to return with a loss was unacceptable, and was an indelible shame for life. Wives and mothers, sending their husbands and sons to war, solemnly handed them a shield with the words: "Come back with a shield or on it." Over time, the militant Spartans captured most of the Peloponnese, significantly expanding the boundaries of possessions. A clash with Athens was inevitable. The rivalry came to a head during the Peloponnesian War, and led to the fall of Athens. But the tyranny of the Spartans caused the hatred of the inhabitants and mass uprisings, which led to the gradual liberalization of power. The number of specially trained warriors decreased, which allowed the inhabitants of Thebes, after about 30 years of Spartan oppression, to overthrow the power of the invaders.

History of Sparta interesting not only from the point of view of military achievements, but also the factors of the political and life structure. Courage, selflessness and the desire for victory of the Spartan warriors - these are the qualities that made it possible not only to restrain the constant attacks of enemies, but also to expand the boundaries of influence. The warriors of this small state easily defeated armies of many thousands and were a clear threat to the enemies. Sparta and its inhabitants, brought up on the principles of restraint and the rule of force, was the opposite of the educated and pampered rich life of Athens, which in the end led to a clash of these two civilizations.

Athenian cemeteries and burial customs

Keramik, the district of potters, is also the territory of an ancient cemetery. It is located west of the Agora. Part of the ancient cemetery is occupied by excavations of German archaeologists. The first cemetery is the most interesting of those that emerged after the restoration of the independence of Athens. Both cemeteries contain the most touching pieces of art from that era. According to ancient Athenian custom, the dead were buried outside the city walls. The fallen in the war were usually buried where they died, but at the beginning of the 5th century BC. e. the dead began to be brought home and given a state funeral in a common cemetery outside the city walls, in Keramika

Crete, Monastery of Preveli

This place in Crete was developed many centuries ago. The Preveli Monastery is interesting not only for adherents of the Christian faith, but also for ordinary tourists who are used to appreciating the beautiful and amazing.

From the history of Sparta - the city of warriors

This is a special lifestyle and worldview. The Spartans have always amazed enemies and supporters with their courage, invention, endurance and ... cruelty. These ancient warriors are no less great inventors than the ancient Hellenes or other peoples. The Spartans brought to life the idea of ​​​​creating a recruit camp, training on a state basis, a frontal attack.

Vatopedi monastery

The Vatopedi Monastery (otherwise known simply as Vatopedi) is located in the northeast of the Athos Peninsula. This is a male monastery belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church. It is the second most important in the hierarchy of Athos monasteries (the honorable first place is occupied by the Lavra of St. Athanasius). Vatopedi is one of the largest, oldest and richest Athos monastic cloisters.

The novelty of the winter season 2008 was the hydropathic "Lutra Aridea" in the mountainous Aridea. The mountainous area, known since the time of Alexander the Great, is replete with hot springs located directly under the open sky. The water temperature in them is kept around 38-39 degrees. Around the springs we see rich vegetation, clean air and waterfalls.

Sparta was the main state Dorian tribe. Her name already plays a role in the legend of the Trojan War, since Menelaus, Helen's husband, because of which the war of the Greeks with the Trojans flared up, was the Spartan king. The history of later Sparta began with Dorians conquest of the Peloponnese under the leadership of the Heraclides. Of the three brothers, one (Temen) received Argos, the other (Cresfont) - Messenia, the sons of the third (Aristodem) Proclus and Eurysthenes - Laconia. There were two royal families in Sparta, who descended from these heroes through their sons. Agisa and Eurypont(Agides and Eurypontides).

Genus Heraclides. Scheme. Two dynasties of Spartan kings - in the lower right corner

But all these were only folk tales or conjectures of Greek historians, which do not have full historical authenticity. Among such legends, one should also include most of the legend, which was very popular in antiquity, about the legislator Lycurgus, whose life time was attributed to the 9th century. and to whom directly attributed the entire Spartan device. Lycurgus, according to legend, was the youngest son of one of the kings and the guardian of his young nephew Charilaus. When the latter himself began to rule, Lycurgus went on a wandering trip, and visited Egypt, Asia Minor and Crete, but had to return to his homeland at the request of the Spartans, who were dissatisfied with internal strife and with their king Harilaus himself. Lycurgus was instructed draw up new laws for the state, and he took up the matter, asking the advice of the Delphic oracle. The Pythia told Lycurgus that she did not know whether to call him a god or a man, and that his decrees would be the best. Having finished his work, Lycurgus took an oath from the Spartans that they would fulfill his laws until he returned from a new trip to Delphi. The Pythia confirmed her previous decision to him, and Lycurgus, having sent this answer to Sparta, took his own life, so as not to return to his homeland. The Spartans honored Lycurgus as a god, and built a temple in his honor, but in essence Lycurgus was originally a deity who later turned into a popular fantasy in the mortal legislator of Sparta. The so-called legislation of Lycurgus was kept in memory in the form of short sayings (retros).

102. Laconia and its population

Laconia occupied the southeastern part of the Peloponnese and consisted of the river valley Eurota and limiting it from the west and east of the mountain ranges, of which the western one was called Tayget. In this country there were arable lands, and pastures, and forests in which a lot of game was found, and in the mountains of Taygetus there were a lot of iron; from it the locals made weapons. There were few cities in Laconia. In the center of the country near the bank of the Eurotas lay Sparta, otherwise called Lacedaemon. It was a combination of five settlements, which remained unfortified, while in other Greek cities there was usually a fortress. In essence, however, Sparta was the real a military camp that held the whole of Laconia in obedience.

Laconia and Sparta on the map of the ancient Peloponnese

The population of the country consisted of descendants Dorian conquerors and the Achaeans they conquered. First, spartans, were alone full citizens states, the latter were divided into two classes: some were called helots and were serfs, subordinate, however, not to individual citizens, but to the entire state, while others were called perieks and represented personally free people, but standing to Sparta in relation subjects without any political rights whatsoever. Most of the land was considered common property of the state, of which the latter gave the Spartans separate plots for subsistence (clear), originally former approximately the same size. These plots were cultivated by the helots for a certain dues, which they paid in kind in the form of the greater part of the collection. The Periecs were left part of their land; they lived in cities, engaged in industry and trade, but in general in Laconia these studies were underdeveloped: already at the time when other Greeks had a coin, in this country, as an instrument of exchange, were used iron bars. Perieki were obliged to pay tax to the state treasury.

Theater ruins in ancient Sparta

103. Military organization of Sparta

Sparta was military state, and its citizens were primarily warriors; the perieks and helots were also involved in the war. Spartans, divided into three phyla with division into phratries, in an era of prosperity there were only nine thousand for 370 thousand perieks and helots, whom they by force kept under their power; The main occupations of the Spartans were gymnastics, military exercises, hunting and war. Education and lifestyle in Sparta were directed to be always ready against the possibility helot uprisings, which actually flared up from time to time in the country. Detachments of young people followed the mood of the helots, and all suspicious ones were ruthlessly killed. (cryptia). The Spartan did not belong to himself: the citizen was above all a warrior, all life(actually up to the age of sixty) obligated to serve the state. When a child was born in the family of a Spartan, he was examined to see if he would later be fit for military service, and frail babies were not left to live. From the age of seven to eighteen, all the boys were brought up together in state "gymnasiums", where they were taught gymnastics and exercised in military affairs, as well as taught singing and playing the flute. The upbringing of the Spartan youth was severe: boys and youths were always dressed in light clothes, walked barefoot and bareheaded, ate very poorly and were subjected to cruel corporal punishment, which they had to endure without screaming and groaning. (They were flogged for this on purpose in front of the altar of Artemis).

Spartan army warrior

Adults also could not live as they wanted. And in peacetime, the Spartans were divided into military partnerships, even having dinner together, for which the participants in common tables (sissy) they brought in a certain amount of different products, and their food was necessarily the most coarse and simple (the famous Spartan stew). The state observed that no one deviated from the implementation of the general rules and did not deviate from the way of life prescribed by law. Each family had their own allotment from common state land, and this plot could neither be divided, nor sold, nor left under a spiritual will. Between the Spartans was to dominate equality; they so bluntly called themselves "equal" (ομοιοί). Luxury in private life was pursued. For example, when building a house, it was possible to use only an ax and a saw, with which it was difficult to make anything beautiful. It was impossible to buy anything from the products of industry in other states of Greece with Spartan iron money. Moreover, the Spartans were not allowed to leave their country, and foreigners were forbidden to live in Laconia (xenelasia). The Spartans did not care about mental development. Eloquence, which was so valued in other parts of Greece, was not in use in Sparta, and Laconian laconic ( conciseness) even became a proverb among the Greeks. The Spartans became the best warriors in Greece - hardy, persistent, disciplined. Their army consisted of heavily armed infantry (hoplites) with lightly armed auxiliary detachments (from the helots and part of the perieks); they did not use cavalry in their wars.

Ancient spartan helmet

104. The structure of the Spartan state

105. Spartan conquests

This military state set out on the path of conquest very early. The increase in the number of inhabitants forced the Spartans look for new lands from which one could make new allotments for citizens. Having gradually mastered the whole of Laconia, Sparta in the third quarter of the 8th century conquered Messenia [First Messenian War] and its inhabitants too turned into helots and perieks. Part of the Messenians moved out, but the rest did not want to put up with someone else's domination. In the middle of the 7th century they rebelled against Sparta [Second Messenian War] but were again subdued. The Spartans made an attempt to extend their power towards Argolis, but were at first repulsed by Argos and only later took possession of part of the coast of Argolis. They had more luck in Arcadia, but having already made the first conquest in this area (the city of Tegea), they did not annex it to their possessions, but entered into with the inhabitants military alliance under its leadership. This marked the beginning of a great Peloponnesian Union(symmachy) under Spartan supremacy (hegemony). To this symmachy, little by little, all the parts arcadia, and also Elis. Thus, by the end of the VI century. Sparta stood at the head of almost the entire Peloponnese. Symmachy had an allied council, in which issues of war and peace were decided under the chairmanship of Sparta, and Sparta also owned the very leadership in the war (hegemony). When the Persian Shah undertook the conquest of Greece, Sparta was the most powerful Greek state and therefore could become the head of the rest of the Greeks in the fight against Persia. But already during this struggle she had to yield superiority to Athens.