The noun is one of the most important parts of speech both in Russian and in many other Indo-European languages. In most languages, nouns are divided into proper and common nouns. This division is very important as these categories have different spelling rules.

The study of nouns in Russian schools begins in the second grade. Already at this age, children are able to understand how proper names differ from common nouns.

Usually, students easily learn this material. The main thing is to choose interesting exercises, during which the rules are well remembered. In order to correctly distinguish between nouns, the child must be able to generalize and attribute familiar objects to a specific group (for example: “dishes”, “animals”, “toys”).

Own

To proper names in modern Russian Traditionally, it is customary to refer names and nicknames of people, nicknames of animals and geographical names.

Here are typical examples:

A proper name can answer the question "who?" when it comes to people and animals, as well as the question "what?" when it comes to geographical names.

common nouns

Unlike proper names, common nouns do not denote the name of a particular person or the name of a particular settlement, but the generalized name of a large group of objects. Here are the classic examples:

• Boy, girl, man, woman;
• River, village, village, settlement, aul, kishlak, city, capital, country;
• Animal, insect, bird;
• Writer, poet, doctor, teacher.

Common nouns can answer both the question "who?" and the question "what?". Usually, in discrimination exercises, younger students are asked to choose suitable common noun to a group of proper names, for example:

You can build a task and vice versa: match proper nouns to common nouns.

1. What dog names do you know?
2. What are your favorite girls names?
3. What is the name of a cow?
4. What are the names of the villages you visited?

Such exercises help children quickly learn the difference. When students have learned to distinguish one noun from another quickly and correctly, you can proceed to the study of spelling rules. These rules are simple, and elementary school students learn them well. For example, a simple and memorable rhyme can help the guys with this: “Names, surnames, nicknames, cities - everything is always written with a capital letter!”.

Spelling rules

In accordance with the rules of the modern Russian language, all proper names are written only with a capital letter. This rule is typical not only for Russian, but also for most other languages ​​of Eastern and Western Europe. Capital letter at the beginning names, surnames, nicknames and geographical names are used to emphasize respect for every person, animal, locality.

Common nouns, on the other hand, are written with a lowercase letter. However, there may be exceptions to this rule. This usually happens in fiction. For example, when Boris Zakhoder translated Alan Milne's Winnie the Pooh and All, All, All, the Russian writer deliberately used capital letters in writing some common nouns, for example: "Big Forest", "Great Expedition", "Farewell Evening". Zakhoder did this in order to emphasize the importance of certain phenomena and events for fairy tale characters.

This is often found both in Russian and in translated literature. Especially often such a phenomenon can be seen in adapted folklore - legends, fairy tales, epics. For example: "Magic Bird", "Rejuvenating Apple", "Dense Forest", "Grey Wolf".

In some languages, capitalization is capitalization- in spelling names can be used in different cases. For example, in Russian and some European languages ​​(French, Spanish) it is traditional to write the names of months and days of the week with a small letter. However, in English, these common nouns are always written only with a capital letter. Also, the spelling of common nouns with a capital letter is found in German.

When proper names become common nouns

In modern Russian, there are situations when proper names can become common nouns. This happens quite often. Here is a classic example. Zoilus is the name of an ancient Greek critic who was very skeptical of many works of contemporary art and frightened the authors with his caustic negative reviews. When antiquity faded into the past, his name was forgotten.

Once Pushkin noticed that literary critics perceived one of his works very ambiguously. And in one of his poems, he ironically called these critics "my zoiles", implying that they are bilious and caustic. Since then, the proper name "Zoil" has become a household name and is used when it comes to a person who unfairly criticizes, scolds something.

Many proper names from the works of Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol have become common nouns. For example, stingy people are often called "buns", and elderly women of a close mind are often called "boxes". And those who like to soar in the clouds and are not at all interested in reality are often called "manila". All these names came into the Russian language from the famous work "Dead Souls", where the writer brilliantly showed a whole gallery of landlord characters.

Proper names become common nouns quite often. However, the opposite also happens. A common noun can become a proper name if it turns into the nickname of an animal or a nickname of a person. For example, a black cat might be called "Gypsy", while a loyal dog might be called "Friend".

Naturally, these words will be written with a capital letter, according to the rules for writing proper names. This usually happens if a nickname or nickname is given due to the fact that a person (animal) has some pronounced qualities. For example, Donut was nicknamed so because he was overweight and looked like a donut, and Syrup was nicknamed because he was very fond of drinking sweet water with syrup.

Distinguishing proper names from common nouns is very important. If younger students do not learn this, they will not be able to correctly use capitalization when writing proper names. In this regard, the study of common nouns and proper nouns should occupy an important place in the school curriculum of the Russian language as a native and as a foreign language.

From school time, we remember how a proper name differs from a common noun: the first is written with a capital letter! Masha, Rostov, Leo Tolstoy, Polkan, Danube - compare with a girl, city, count, dog, river. And only this? Perhaps, to figure it out, you will need the help of Rosenthal.

Proper name- a noun indicating a specific object, person, animal, object in order to distinguish them from a number of homogeneous

Common noun- a noun that names a class, type, category of an object, action or state, not taking into account their individuality.

These categories of nouns are usually studied in the 5th grade, and schoolchildren remember once and for all that the difference between a proper name and a common noun is in an uppercase or lowercase letter at the beginning. For the majority, it is enough to understand that names, surnames, nicknames, names of topographic and astronomical objects, unique phenomena, as well as objects and objects of culture (including literary works) belong to their own. All the rest are common nouns, and there are much more of the latter.

Comparison

Proper names are always secondary and secondary, and not every object or object requires their presence. For example, naming natural phenomena, with the exception of typhoons and hurricanes of enormous destructive power, is not accepted and is useless. You can describe, concretize your instructions in different ways. So, speaking about a neighbor, you can give his name, or you can give a description: a teacher, in a red jacket, lives in apartment number 7, an athlete. It becomes clear what we are talking about. However, only proper nouns can uniquely define individuality (there can be many teachers and athletes nearby, but Arkady Petrovich is alone), and their relationship with the object is closer. Common nouns denote concepts or categories.

Proper names are most often random, not connected in any way with the characteristics of the object, and if they are connected (Zlyuka's cat, Bystrinka river), then it is very ambiguous: a cat can turn out to be good-natured, and a river can be slow-flowing. Common nouns name and describe the subject, these nouns necessarily carry lexical information.

Only animate and inanimate objects that have significance for a person and need a personal approach are called proper names. So, an average person sees stars at night, and an amateur astronomer, for example, sees the constellation Taurus; for the Minister of Education, schoolchildren are just schoolchildren, and for the class teacher 3 "B" - Vasya Petrov, Petya Vasechkin, Masha Startseva.

We have already determined what is the difference between a proper name and a common noun in terms of semantics. Grammatically, they can be distinguished using the plural form: the first ones are not used in such a form (Moscow, Lev Nikolaevich, dog Sharik). An exception is made for geographical names that do not have a singular number (Velikie Luki), as well as in the case of combining persons by kinship or belonging to a homogeneous group (the Karamazov brothers; all Peters are now birthdays; there are many Ivanovkas in Russia).

When processing foreign texts, proper names are not translated, they are written either in practical transcription (preserving phonetics and as close as possible to the original), or in transliteration (the word is transferred character by character in accordance with international rules).

And, of course, lowercase letters for common nouns, uppercase letters for proper nouns. Have we already talked about this?

§one. General characteristics of the noun

The noun is an independent significant part of speech.

1. grammatical meaning- "subject".
Nouns are words that answer the questions:
Who? , What?

2. Morphological features:

• constants - common noun / proper, animate / inanimate, gender, type of declension;
• changeable - number, case.

3. Syntactic role in a sentence any, especially often: subject and object.

The kids love the holidays.

As an appeal and introductory words, the noun is not a member of the sentence:

- Sergey!- my mother calls me from the yard.

(Sergey- address)

Unfortunately, it's time to go do your homework.

(Unfortunately- introductory word)

§2. Morphological features of nouns

Nouns have a set of morphological features. Some of them are permanent (or immutable). Others, on the contrary, are non-permanent (or changeable). Unchangeable signs refer to the whole word as a whole, and changeable to the forms of the word. So noun Natalia- animated, own, female, 1 cl. In whatever form it may be, these signs will be preserved. Noun Natalia may be in the form of and many others. numbers, in different cases. Number and case are inconstant signs of nouns. In the illustration, dotted lines lead to such non-permanent or variable morphological characters. It is necessary to learn to distinguish which signs are permanent and which are non-permanent.

§3. Common nouns - proper nouns

This is the division of nouns according to the features of the meaning. Common nouns denote homogeneous objects, i.e. any object from their series, and proper nouns call a separate specific object.
Compare nouns:

• child, country, river, lake, fairy tale, turnip - common nouns
• Alexey, Russia, Volga, Baikal, "Repka" - own

Common nouns are varied. Their ranks by value:

• specific: table, computer, document, mouse, notebook, fishing rod
• abstract (abstract): surprise, joy, fear, happiness, miracle
• real: iron, gold, water, oxygen, milk, coffee
• collective: youth, foliage, nobility, spectator

Proper nouns include names of people, nicknames of animals, geographical names, names of works of literature and art, etc.: Alexander, Sasha, Sashenka, Zhuchka, Ob, Ural, "Teenager", "Gingerbread Man" etc.

§four. Animation - inanimateness

Animate nouns call "living" objects, and inanimate - not "living".

• Animated: mother, father, child, dog, ant, Kolobok (hero of a fairy tale, acting as a living person)
• Inanimate: orange, ocean, war, lilac, program, toy, delight, laughter

For morphology, it is important that

• in plural in animate nouns
  Near the school, I saw familiar girls and boys (vin. pad. = born. pad.), and in inanimate nouns wine form. pad. matches the shape. pad.: I love books and films (vin. pad. = im. pad.)
• in the singular for animate masculine nouns wine form. pad. matches the form. fall:
  The fox saw Kolobok (vin. fall. = genus. fall.), and for inanimate nouns of masculine gender wine form. pad. matches the shape. pad.: I baked a gingerbread man (wine. pad. = im. pad.)

The rest of the nouns have the form im., vin. and genus. cases are different.

Means, sign of inanimateness can be determined not only based on the meaning, but also on the set of word endings.

§5. Genus

gender of nouns is a permanent morphological feature. Nouns do not change by gender.

There are three genders in Russian: male, female and average. The sets of endings for nouns of different genders differ.
In animate nouns, the reference to the masculine or feminine gender is motivated by gender, since the words denote male or female persons: father - mother, brother - sister, husband - wife, man - woman, boy - girl etc. The grammatical sign of gender correlates with gender.
For inanimate nouns, the belonging of the word to one of the three genders is not motivated. The words ocean, sea, river, lake, pond- different gender, and the gender is not determined by the meaning of the words.

The morphological indicator of the genus is the endings.
If the ending word has:

a, u or a, oh, e in the singular and s, ov, am, s or ow, ah, ah in plural , then it is a masculine noun

a, s, e, y, oh, e in the singular and s, am or s, ami, ah in the plural, it is a feminine noun

oh, a, u, oh, om, e in the singular and ah, ah, ah, ah, ah in the plural, it is a neuter noun.

Do all nouns belong to one of the three genders?

No. There is a small group of amazing nouns. They are interesting in that they can refer to both males and females. These are the words: smart girl, glutton, sleepyhead, greedy, crybaby, ignorant, ignorant, wicked, bully, slob, wicked, muddler, slobber, daredevil etc. The form of such words coincides with the form of feminine words: they have the same set of endings. But the syntactic compatibility is different.
In Russian you can say:
She is so smart! AND: He is so smart! The meaning of the gender of an animate person can be found out by the form of a pronoun (as in our example) or an adjective, or a verb in the past tense: Sonya woke up. AND: Sonya woke up. Such nouns are called common nouns.

Common nouns do not include words that name professions. You may already know that many of these are masculine nouns: doctor, driver, engineer, economist, geologist, philologist etc. But they can designate both male and female persons. My mother is a good doctor. My father is a good doctor. Even if the word names a female person, then adjectives and verbs in the past tense can be used in both masculine and feminine: The doctor came. AND: The doctor came.

How to determine the gender of immutable words?

There are invariable nouns in the language. All of them are borrowed from other languages. In Russian, they have a gender. How to determine the genus? It's easy if you understand what the word means. Let's look at examples:

Monsieur - madam- in words denoting an animated person, gender matches gender.

Kangaroo, chimpanzee- words for animals male.

Tbilisi, Sukhumi- words - city names - male.

Congo, Zimbabwe- words - names of states - neuter.

Mississippi, Yangtze- words - names of rivers - female.

Coat, muffler- words denoting inanimate objects are more often neuter.

Are there any exceptions? There is. Therefore, it is recommended to pay attention to unchangeable words and remember how they are used. The gender is expressed not by the ending (there are no endings for indeclinable words), but by the form of other words that are connected with the unchangeable noun in meaning and grammatically. These can be adjectives, pronouns or verbs in the past tense. For example:

Mississippi wide and full.

Short adjectives in the form of f.r. indicate that the word Mississippi zh.r.

§6. declination

declination is a type of word change. Nouns change in number and case. Number and case are variable morphological features. Depending on what forms the word has in different numbers and cases, in the totality of all possible forms, nouns belong to one of the declensions.

Nouns have three declensions: 1st, 2nd and 3rd. The vast majority of Russian nouns are nouns of the 1st, 2nd or 3rd declension. The type of declension is a constant, unchanging morphological feature of nouns.

The 1st declension includes feminine and masculine words with endings a, I in its original form.
Examples: mom, dad, grandfather, water, earth, Anna, Anya, lecture - ending [a].

The 2nd declension includes masculine words with zero ending and neuter gender with endings about, e in its original form.
Examples: father, brother, house, Alexander, sea, lake, building - ending [e] , genius, Alexey.

The 3rd declension includes null-ending feminine words in its original form.
Examples: mother, mouse, night, news, rye, lies.

initial form- this is the form of the word in which it is usually fixed in dictionaries. For nouns, it is the nominative singular form.

Pay attention to the words traditionally called nouns on ia, ie, uy : lecture, building, genius.

What is the correct ending for these words?

Do you remember that the letters I and e, which are written at the end of such feminine and neuter nouns after vowels, and the letter and - vowel represent two sounds? Lecture- [i'a], building- [i’e], and the sound [i’] is the last consonant of the base. So, in words like lecture ending [a], in words like building- [e], and in words like genius- null ending.

So the feminine nouns are: lecture, station, demonstration belong to the 1st declension, and masculine: genius and middle: building- to the 2nd.

Another group of words requires commentary. These are the so-called neuter nouns me , the words path and child. These are inflected nouns.

Inflected nouns- these are words that have endings characteristic of forms of different declensions.
There are few such words. All of them are very ancient. Some of them are common in today's speech.

List of nouns on me: stirrup, tribe, seed, burden, udder, crown, time, name, flame, banner.

For their spelling, see All spelling. Spelling of nouns

§7. Number

Number- this is a morphological feature that is changeable for some nouns and unchanged, constant for others.
The vast majority of Russian nouns change in number. For example: home - at home, girl - girls, elephant - elephants, night - nights. Nouns that change in number have both singular and plural forms and endings corresponding to these forms. For a number of nouns, the singular and plural forms differ not only in endings, but also in the stem. For example: man - people, child - children, kitten - kittens.

A smaller part of Russian nouns does not change in numbers, but has the form of only one number: either singular or plural.

Singular nouns:

• collective: nobility, children
• real: gold, milk, curdled milk
• abstract (or abstract): greed, anger, kindness
• some of their own, namely: geographical names: Russia, Suzdal, Petersburg

Plural nouns:

• collective: shoots
• real: cream, cabbage soup
• abstract (or abstract): chores, elections, twilight
• some own, namely geographical names: Carpathians, Himalayas
• some specific (objective), watches, sledges, as well as a group of nouns denoting objects that consist of two parts: skis, skates, glasses, gates

Remember:

Most things denoted by nouns that have only the form of a singular or plural person cannot be counted.
For such nouns, the number is an invariable morphological feature.

§eight. case

case- this is a non-permanent, changeable morphological feature of nouns. There are six cases in Russian:

1. Nominative
2. Genitive
3. Dative
4. Accusative
5. Instrumental
6. Prepositional

You need to firmly know the case questions, with the help of which it is determined in which case the noun is. Since, as you know, nouns are animate and inanimate, there are two questions for each case:

• I.p. - who what?
• R.p. - who?, what?
• D.p. - to whom; to what?
• V.p. - who?, what?
• etc. - who?, what?
• P.p. - (About who about what?

You see that for animate nouns the questions of win.p. and genus. etc., and for the inanimate - to them. p. and wine. P.
In order not to be mistaken and correctly determine the case, always use both questions.

For example: I see an old park, a shady alley and a girl and a young man walking along it.
I see (who?, what?) a park(vin. p.), alley(vin. p.), girl(vin. p.), human(vin. p.).

Do all nouns change by case?

No, not all. Nouns that are called invariable do not change.

Cockatoo (1) sits in a cage in a store. I approach the cockatoo (2) . This is a big beautiful parrot. I look at the cockatoo (3) with interest and think: - What do I know about the cockatoo (4)? I don't have a cockatoo (5) . With cockatoo (6) interesting.

Word cockatoo met in this context 6 times:

• (1) who?, what? - cockatoo- I.p.
• (2) I approach (to) whom ?, what? - (k) cockatoo- D.p.
• (3) look (at) whom?, what? - (to) cockatoo- V.p.
• (4) know (about) whom?, what? -( o) cockatoo- P.p.
• (5) no one?, what? - cockatoo- R.p.
• (6) wondering (with) whom?, what? - (with cockatoo)- etc.

In different cases, the form of immutable nouns is the same. But the case is easily determined. Case questions, as well as other members of the sentence, help with this. If such a noun has a definition expressed by an adjective, pronoun, numeral or participle, i.e. word that changes in cases, then it will be in the form of the same case as the invariable noun itself.

Example: How much can you talk about this cockatoo?- (about) who?. how? - P.p.

§9. The syntactic role of nouns in a sentence

The mother is sitting by the window. She leafs through a magazine, looks at photographs of people and nature. My mother is a geography teacher. "Mom," I call her.

Mother - subject

Near the window - circumstance

Magazine- addition

Photo- addition

Of people- definition

nature- definition

Mother- subject

Teacher- predicate

Geography- definition

Mother- appeals, as well as introductory words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles are not members of the sentence.

test of strength

Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.

Final test

1. What nouns denote individual specific objects, and not groups of homogeneous objects?

   • proper names
   • Common nouns

2. Which group of nouns has the most variety of meanings?

   • proper names
   • Common nouns

3. Is animateness-inanimateness expressed grammatically: by a set of endings?

4. How can you find out the gender of a noun?

   • By value
   • By compatibility with other words (adjectives, pronouns, past tense verbs) and by endings

5. What are the names of nouns that have endings characteristic of different declensions?

   • Indeclinable
   • Differing

6. What is the sign of the number of nouns good, evil, envy?

   • Permanent (immutable)
   • non-permanent (changing)

7. I'm very sorry for the flood, but can't they write this in a simpler way?

   
   

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   See what "Common" is in other dictionaries:

   common noun- This word (used in combination with a common noun) is a derivational tracing paper from the Latin appellativum (nomen), which in turn is a tracing paper from the Greek prosegorikon (onoma). Latin appello means I call, I call ... Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Krylov

   Name, gram., tracing paper lat. nōmen appellativum from Gr. ὄνομα προσηγορικόν; see Thomsen, Gesch. 16 … Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Max Fasmer

   common noun- (name). Word-building. tracing paper of the 18th century lat. appellative, suf. derived from appellare "to name, name". Wed a terminological synonym for appellative, which is a direct borrowing from lat. lang. See denounce, speech... Etymological dictionary of the Russian language

   Common nouns are nouns denoting the name (general name) of a whole class of objects and phenomena that have a certain common set of features, and naming objects or phenomena according to their belonging to such a class. ... ... Wikipedia

   Common nouns (tracing paper from Latin nōmen appellativum from Greek ὄνομα προσηγορικόν) are nouns denoting the name (common name) of a whole class of objects and phenomena that have a certain common set of features, and ... ... Wikipedia

   See nomen actionis... Five-language dictionary of linguistic terms

   Substantive noun), naming an object or phenomenon according to its belonging to a given category, that is, characterized by features that allow the selection of the category [i] itself (a person, a blonde, a city, a river, a constellation, a ship, a book, ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

   common noun- 1) A generalized name for homogeneous objects and concepts (for example: brother, lake, country, victory) 2) Name, name (usually a literary hero, historical figure, event, etc.), personifying what l. certain properties, qualities, etc. ... ... Dictionary of many expressions

   A common expression denoting an unfair trial. It is associated with the same name of the Russian satirical story of the 2nd half of the 17th century, written on the basis of a fairy tale plot common among many peoples. The theme of the story... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

   Laisa- A common name denoting a young, beautiful, but cold and soulless courtesan. It originates from ancient anecdotes. (Modern Dictionary Reference: Antique World. Compiled by M.I. Umnov. M .: Olympus, AST, 2000) ... Antique world. Dictionary reference.

   Possessing a certain common set of features, and naming objects or phenomena according to their belonging to such a class, however, they themselves do not carry any special indication of this class. A common noun in linguistics is usually the same as an appellative.

   Common names are signs of linguistic concepts and are opposed to proper names. The transition of common nouns to proper names is accompanied by the loss of a linguistic concept by the name (for example, "Gum" from "gum" - "right"). Common nouns are concrete (table), abstract or abstract (love), real or material (sugar), and collective (students).

   A common noun can denote not only a class of objects, but also some separate object within this class. The latter happens when:

   • the individual characteristics of the subject matter. For example: "If you tease a dog, it may bite you" - "dog" refers to any dog, not to any particular one.
   • in the described situation, only one object of this class. For example: "Meet me at the corner at noon" - the interlocutors know which corner will serve as the meeting place.
   • the individual attributes of an object are described by additional definitions. For example: "I remember the day I first set sail" - a particular day stands out from other days.

   The boundary between common nouns and proper names is not unshakable: common nouns can turn into proper names in the form of names, nicknames and nicknames (for example, the common noun "Kalita" in the form of a nickname for Prince Ivan Danilovich), and proper names - into common nouns, used for generalized designation of homogeneous objects. Proper names, which have become common nouns, are called eponyms (for example " Aesculapius" - collective for all doctors, " Pele" - for all football players, " Schumacher" - racing drivers, etc.)

   see also

   Notes

   Literature

   • Russian grammar. T. 1: Phonetics. Phonology. stress. Intonation. Word formation. Morphology / N. Yu. Shvedova (editor-in-chief). - M .: Nauka, 1980. - 25,000 copies.
   
   

   Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

   See what "common noun" is in other dictionaries:

   common noun- 1) A generalized name for homogeneous objects and concepts (for example: brother, lake, country, victory) 2) Name, name (usually a literary hero, historical figure, event, etc.), personifying what l. certain properties, qualities, etc. ... ... Dictionary of many expressions

   See nomen actionis... Five-language dictionary of linguistic terms

   Substantive noun), naming an object or phenomenon according to its belonging to a given category, that is, characterized by features that allow the selection of the category [i] itself (a person, a blonde, a city, a river, a constellation, a ship, a book, ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

   - (tracing paper from Latin nomen proprium, which in turn is tracing paper from Greek ὄνομα κύριον), a proper name is a noun denoting a word or phrase intended to name a specific, well-defined ... ... Wikipedia

   A proper name is a noun denoting a word or phrase intended to name a specific, well-defined object or phenomenon, distinguishing this object or phenomenon from a number of objects or phenomena of the same type. Name ... ... Wikipedia

   Name Personal name Name in jurisprudence is a sign that serves to distinguish one person from others. Name in grammar A noun is a part of speech, which is characterized by the meaning of objectivity. The name is a proper word or phrase, ... ... Wikipedia

   Wiktionary has an entry for "noun"... Wikipedia

   common noun- This word (used in combination with a common noun) is a derivational tracing paper from the Latin appellativum (nomen), which in turn is a tracing paper from the Greek prosegorikon (onoma). Latin appello means I call, I call ... Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Krylov

   1) The common name of nouns, adjectives and numerals, united by the grammatical category of case and thus opposed as significant parts of speech to the verb and adverb (a pronoun that represented a rich class in the past ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

   Wed the name, the name, the word by which one is called, means an individual, a person. Item name, name; animal name, nickname; person's name. own name, according to the saint, angelic, godfather and reklo, which in old times was not announced; patronymic or vich; ... ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary