Source

Definition

"Methodology (from "method" and "logy") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity"

“Methodology is a system of principles and methods for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system”

"The doctrine of the methods of activity (method and "logos" - teaching)"

“Methodology - 1) a set of research methods used in any science; 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world "

“The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action"

“The main goal of the methodology of science is the study of those methods, means and techniques by which new knowledge in science is acquired and substantiated. But, in addition to this main task, methodology also studies the structure of scientific knowledge in general, the place and role of various forms of cognition in it, and methods for analyzing and building various systems of scientific knowledge.

"Methodology is a discipline about the general principles and forms of organization of thinking and activity"

General approach to solving problems of a particular class

V.V. Kraevsky)

Methodology as a way, means of communication between science and practice

ON THE. Masyukov, groups of specialists began to form, calling themselves "methodologists", and their scientific direction of "systemic activity" methodology. These groups of methodologists (O.S. Anisimov, Yu.V. Gromyko, P.G. Shchedrovitsky, etc.) began to conduct "organizational and activity games" with teams of workers, first in the field of education, then agriculture, with political scientists, etc. .d., aimed at comprehending innovative activity, which brought them quite wide popularity. In parallel with this, the publications of scientists began to appear in the press, devoted to the analysis and scientific substantiation of innovative activity - in education, in engineering, in economics, etc. . In recent years, the term “methodology” has spread among programmers in a completely new “sound”. By methodology, programmers began to understand one or another type of strategy, that is, one or another general method for creating computer programs. So, along with the methodology of research activities, a new direction began to form - the methodology of practical activity.

Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology - the organization of activities. It is necessary to consider the content of the concept of "organization". In accordance with the definition given in, organization - 1) internal order, consistency in the interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, due to its structure; 2) a set of processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole; 3) an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules.

Note that not every activity needs organization, the application of methodology. As you know, human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive activities (see, for example,). Reproductive activity is a cast, a copy from the activity of another person, or a copy of one's own activity, mastered in previous experience. Productive activity aimed at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively new result. In the case of productive activity, it becomes necessary to organize it, that is, it becomes necessary to apply the methodology. Based on the classification of activities according to the target orientation: game-learning-labor, then we can talk about the following focus of the methodology:

Game activity methodologies

Methodologies of educational activity;

Methodology of labor, professional activity.

Thus, the methodology considers the organization of activity (activity is a purposeful activity of a person). To organize an activity means to streamline it into an integral system with clearly defined characteristics, a logical structure and the process of its implementation - a temporal structure (the authors proceed from a pair of categories of dialectics "historical (temporal) and logical"). The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, object, forms, means, methods of activity, its result. External in relation to this structure are the following characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms.

The methodology structure diagram contains the following major components (Fig. 5).

General scheme of the structure of the methodology

Rice. 5 - General outline of the structure of the methodology

Such an understanding and construction of methodology allows us to generalize from a unified position and in a single logic the various approaches and interpretations of the concept of “methodology” available in the literature and its use in a wide variety of activities.

Each science has its own methodology.

Ultimately, both lawyers and philosophers under the methodology of scientific research understand the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of the methods of research of state-legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology (Table 2.).

Table 2 - Basic level methodologies

3. Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research

Among the universal (philosophical) methods, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles (Fig. 6.).

Rice. 6 - Compliance with the principles of dialectics in scientific research

All general scientific methods in scientific research should be divided into three groups (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7 - Classification of general scientific methods of scientific research

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy. We present a detailed description of the general logical research methods in Table 3.

Table 3 - Characteristics of general logical research methods

The methods of the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

We present the characteristics of the essential content of these methods in Table 4.

Table 4 - Characteristics of theoretical level methods

The empirical level methods include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling. We characterize the essence of these methods using Table 5.

Table 5 - Characteristics of empirical level methods

4. Private and special methods of scientific research

There are private and special methods of scientific research. Private, as a rule, are used in related sciences, have specific features that depend on the object and conditions of knowledge. Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge or their application is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge.

For example, private methods of state science and jurisprudence are:

1) formal legal (special legal);

2) concrete sociological.

The formal legal method is a special system of methods and techniques for studying state-legal phenomena. It includes:

a) description of the rules of law;

b) establishment of legal signs of certain phenomena;

c) development of legal concepts;

d) classification of legal concepts;

e) establishing their nature from the point of view of the provisions of legal science;

f) their explanation from the point of view of legal theories;

g) description, analysis and generalization of legal practice.

This method is also applicable in the study of the forms of the state, determining the competence of its bodies, etc.

Concrete sociological methods are based on the application of the methods of concrete sociology to the study of state-legal phenomena. Concrete sociological research is the scientific study, analysis and systematization of social facts, phenomena and processes related to various spheres of society.

The methods of specific sociological research include: the study of documents (documentary method), surveys in the form of questionnaires and interviews, the method of expert assessments, and others.

Of great importance are not only methods for obtaining information about phenomena, but also methods for collecting, processing and evaluating them.

In this regard, in sociology, for example, the following methods are distinguished:

registration of single events (observation, survey, study of documents, etc.);

data collection (continuous, sample or monographic survey);

data processing and analysis (description and classification, typology, system analysis, statistical analysis, etc.).

Consider the essence of the most common methods of concrete sociological research of phenomena with the help of Table 6.

Table 6 - The essence of common methods of sociological research

When conducting specific sociological studies of phenomena, other methods are also used: sociometry, tests, biographical, psychological and logical-mathematical.

List of sources used

Archibald R.S. Management of high-tech programs and projects. – M.: DMK Press, 2002.

Bezrukova V.S. Pedagogy. Projective Pedagogy. - Yekaterinburg: Business book, 1996.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd edition. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1968-1979.

Descartes R. Reasoning about the method. Beginnings of philosophy. – M.: Vezha, 1998.

Kagan M.S. Human activity. – M.: Politizdat, 1974.

Kanke V.A. Basic philosophical directions and concepts of science.

Results of the XX century. - M.: Logos, 2000.

Kotarbinsky T. Treatise on good work. Per. from Polish. - M.: Economics, 1975.

Kochergin A.N. Methods and forms of knowledge. – M.: Nauka, 1990.

Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of scientific research: A manual for students and graduate students of humanitarian universities. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg. GUP, 2001.

Kraevsky V.V., Polonsky V.M. Methodology for the teacher: theory and practice. - Volgograd: Change, 2001.

Leshkevich T.G. "Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations" M.: PRIOR, 2001

Masyukova N.A. Design in education. - Minsk: Technoprint, 1999.

Methodological problems of modern science. – M.: Nauka, 1978.

Methodology: yesterday, today, tomorrow. In 3 vols. ed.-st. Krylov G.G., Khromchenko M.S. - M .: Publishing house of the School of Cultural Policy, 2005.

Nikitin V.A. Organizational types of modern culture: abstract of diss. Doctor of Cultural Studies. - Togliatti, 1998.

New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 volumes - M .: Thought, 2000.

Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. Moscow: Sinteg, 2007.

Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Educational project / Methodology of practical educational activities. – M.: Egves, 2004.

Novikov A.M. Russian Education in the New Era: Paradoxes of Heritage; development vectors. – M.: Egves, 2000.

Fundamentals of Philosophy of Science: Textbook for Postgraduate Students / V.P. Kokhanovsky and others - Ed. 2nd. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2005.

Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific research: Proc. Allowance for universities. – M.: UNITI-DANA, 1999.

Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2002.

Philosophy//under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov - n / a.: Phoenix, 2000

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. MM. Rosenthal. Ed. third. - M .: Publishing house of political literature, 1972.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983. Shchedrovitsky P.G. To the analysis of the topic of organizational and activity games. – Pushchino, 1987.

scientific research. CONCEPTS METHOD And METHODOLOGIES SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Method scientific research ...

1. Methods scientific research (3)

   Study Guide >> Philosophy

   Methods scientific research Main concepts scientifically-research work Aspect - the angle of view ... Delo, 2000. 2. Mogilevsky V.D. Methodology systems. -M.: Economics, 1999. 3. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology scientific research. –M.: UNITI, 1999. 4. Tatarova...

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   Lecture >> Physical culture and sports

   ... methodology scientific research ... concept method scientific research and its classification 5.2. Methodological functions of philosophy in scientifically- research activities 5.3. General scientific (general logical) methods 5.1. concept method scientific research ...

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   Abstract >> Pedagogy

   Head Sh. METHODOLOGY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH§ one. CONCEPTS METHOD AND METHODOLOGY "SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Method scientific research It is a way of knowing the objective reality. ...

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

MOSCOW STATE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY

Krivshenko L.P.,

Weindorf-Sysoeva M.E., Yurkina L.V.

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

MOSCOW 2007

Methodology and methods of scientific research

Tutorial

Reviewer: Ph.D., prof. Lyamzin M.A.

annotation

The manual tells about the methodology and methods of organizing scientific research to solve the problems of enhancing the learning of schoolchildren and students of primary and secondary vocational education. Research methods, experiments, most often, among an unprepared audience are associated with technical and natural sciences, and in these areas there are indeed theoretical and methodological recommendations. This manual reveals the specifics of experimental activities in the humanities, paying special attention to psychology and pedagogy as the main tools of the teacher - the leader of the experiment. The appendix provides methods for studying personality. The manual can be of interest to both teachers and students and parents.

Topic 1. Science as a system of cognition of reality. 4

Topic 2. The concept of scientific research 10

Topic 3. Methodology of scientific research 25

Topic 4. Features of scientific research in psychology and pedagogy 38

Topic 5. Psychology in the system of scientific knowledge 53

Topic 6. Methods of research in psychology 59

Topic 7. Pedagogy in the system of scientific knowledge 68

Topic 8. Research methods in pedagogy 75

Topic 1. Science as a system of cognition of reality.

Scientific principles

Formation of scientific knowledge

The system of scientific knowledge

Science as a social institution

To cleverly prove something, one mind is not enough.

F. Chesterfield

Since ancient times, mankind has sought to identify the patterns of functioning of the surrounding reality and, on their basis, reproduce the picture of the world. The demands of society dictated the acquisition of new knowledge and their use in order to correct reality. In order to meet these demands, ideas about the world had to meet several requirements. : objectivity, generality, reliability and the ability to translate knowledge. Throughout the development of civilization, social institutions were formed that contributed to the receipt and transmission of ideas about the world, but they did not immediately reach the scientific level. In various eras, religious institutions, philosophical and medical schools served as social institutions for the production, preservation and transmission of knowledge. Simultaneously with them, there was a system of pre-scientific and everyday knowledge, within which various systems of scientific knowledge of the world began to emerge.

The very first science, back in antiquity, was philosophy, however, its understanding then was significantly different from the modern one - philosophy was considered a comprehensive wisdom that united all knowledge about the world known to a particular era. Then, as knowledge expanded, separate scientific systems gradually began to emerge from philosophy.

In the ХУ11-ХУ111 centuries. began the formation of science as a social institution - specifically designed to obtain reliable and reliable ideas about the world. During this period, universities, national academies, as well as scientific periodicals were created, which ensured the open nature of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the occult characteristic of previous eras.

Where any science began - with the fact that some sage saw a problem for research and knowledge. The problem is traditionally considered a clash of knowledge and ignorance. If we are talking about the clash of personal knowledge and ignorance, this is an educational problem, i.e. a problem for an individual or a group of people, but not for humanity as a whole. And if, general knowledge collides with general ignorance, then we can talk about

scientific problem. Scheme 1 demonstrates the level of problem.

However, the very selection of a problem area from the mass of philosophical knowledge does not yet speak of the emergence of science. If researchers turn a certain layer of phenomena into a subject of scientific knowledge, including a description of facts and their possible explanation, this does not yet give the status of science. But what gives it? In science there is no place for subjective knowledge, everyday knowledge and not only. It is known that the craft, although learning it requires hard work, time, study, and sometimes talent, is not a science, as it is a skill without a theoretical basis. But a religion that has theoretical schemes is also not a science, since its reasoning has never been tested by practice, much less confirmed by it. What does scientific research include? Strange as it may seem, science begins at the descriptive stage, but at that stage it is not yet a science. At this stage, the facts are described, then they are systematized and explained. On this basis, a theoretical base arises - a system of reliable knowledge about reality (this is where verification by practice appears). The theoretical base will be imperfect if it does not allow deriving certain laws - stable, repetitive connections of phenomena. The prognostic function is very important for the status of science; without it, science is also untenable. The above can be summarized in Figure 2.

Scientists define the concept of law and regularity in different ways. We are closer to the idea that the law is an unconditional, repetitive, stable connection of phenomena and events. Naturally, any law has a certain scope of application in which it works. Talk about universal laws is rather conditional. In addition, laws are most often spoken of in the system of natural, exact sciences, while in the system of humanitarian knowledge, it is customary to talk about patterns - repeating, stable, but conditional connections of phenomena and events. This convention is determined, first of all, by the diversity and complexity - of a person - of the field of study.

Scheme 2.

Today, science is defined as a sphere of human activity, the functions of which are: the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; use of theoretical developments in practice; the possibility of predicting the development of research and their results. The possibility of implementing these functions exists due to the multidimensionality of the scientific phenomenon:

science as a social institution (a community of scientists, a set of scientific institutions and auxiliary structures);

science as a result - scientific knowledge, a system of ideas about the world;

science as a process - directly scientific research, the process of obtaining generalized, reliable, objective and broadcast information;

Formation of science as a social institution. The most important goal of science is the acquisition of new knowledge in accordance with both the already formulated and only possible future demands of society. To meet these demands, knowledge must have such properties as generalization, reliability, communication, objectivity.

Throughout the history of human society, social institutions have been formed that provide these properties of knowledge. Social institution - a concept denoting a steadily reproducing system of values, norms, rules (formal and informal), principles; the beginning that organizes the members of society into a system of relationships, roles and statuses. Social institutions should be distinguished from specific organizations. However, science as a social institution unites specific organizations that conduct research work - these are, first of all, higher educational institutions (academies, universities, institutes), industry institutes, institutes for advanced training, etc.

No scientific work is possible without the appropriate infrastructure. These are the so-called bodies and organizations of scientific service: scientific publishing houses, scientific journals, scientific instrumentation, etc., which are, as it were, sub-branches of science as a social institution.

Science as a social institution can function only if there are specially trained qualified scientific personnel. The training of scientific personnel is carried out through postgraduate studies or competition at the level of the scientific degree of a candidate of sciences. From among the candidates of sciences, through doctoral studies or co-searching, scientific personnel of the highest qualification are trained - at the level of the scientific degree of a doctor of sciences. At the level of the world scientific community, the degree of Ph.D. corresponds to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and the degree of Doctor of Science corresponds to the degree of Doctor of Engineering or Philosophy, respectively, in technical or human sciences.

Along with academic degrees, teachers of higher educational institutions, advanced training institutes are awarded academic titles as the stages of their pedagogical qualification: assistant professor in the department (mainly from among the candidates of sciences, with teaching experience at the university and published scientific papers) and professors (mainly from among the doctors of sciences in the presence of major scientific papers - textbooks, monographs, etc.) . In branch scientific institutes, the title of associate professor in the department corresponds to the title of senior researcher or associate professor in the specialty, and the title of professor in the department corresponds to the title of professor in the specialty.

At present, many secondary educational institutions invite scientific and pedagogical personnel from universities or scientific organizations. This trend is extremely promising, as is the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel from among the leaders and teachers of the educational institutions themselves. The fact that more and more candidates and doctors of sciences are working in general education schools, gymnasiums, educational institutions of primary and secondary vocational education suggests that these educational institutions will be increasingly involved in research activities.

Topic 2. The concept of scientific research

presentation of scientific research

scientific research requirements

scientific research terminology

“Everything that exists has enough

basis for its existence

G. Leibniz

The specifics of scientific research largely depends on the field of science in which it is carried out. But there are common features that make it possible to understand that this is a scientific study. Scientific research is connected, first of all, with the independent creative search of the researcher. However, this creative search is based on a detailed and thorough study of past scientific experience. As mentioned below, it is important to understand the level of problematic research. If you pose a problem without studying the previous achievements of science, then you can get a learning task, in other words, the invention of a bicycle. There is a need for continuity in the development of scientific theories, ideas and concepts, methods and means of scientific knowledge. Each higher stage in the development of science arises on the basis of the previous stage, with the preservation of everything valuable that has been accumulated before.

However, science develops in different ways, continuity is not a mandatory, indispensable option for development. In the development of science, periods of relatively calm (evolutionary) development and violent (revolutionary) breaking of the theoretical foundations of science, the system of its concepts and ideas can be distinguished. The evolutionary development of science is the process of gradual accumulation of new facts, experimental data within the framework of existing theoretical views, in connection with which, there is an expansion, refinement and refinement of previously accepted theories, concepts, principles. Revolutions in science come when a radical breakdown and restructuring of previously established views begins, a revision of fundamental provisions, laws and principles as a result of the accumulation of new data, the discovery of new phenomena that do not fit into the framework of previous views. But it is not the very content of the previous knowledge that is subjected to breaking and discarding, but their misinterpretation, for example, the incorrect universalization of laws and principles, which in reality have only a relative, limited character.

In addition, knowledge must be true. It is characteristic of scientific knowledge that it is not just reported about the truth of a particular content, but the grounds are given for which this content is true (for example, the results of an experiment, the proof of a theorem, a logical conclusion, etc.). Therefore, as a sign characterizing the truth of scientific knowledge, they point to the requirement of its sufficient validity. Thus, it is possible to differentiate scientific and religious systems - assuming that these are two different ways of knowing the world. One - science - is based on the proof of truth, and the other - religion - on the belief in truth, which does not require proof by definition. Between these poles there is another system of cognition of the world, primarily the spiritual, sensual world of man - this is art. Art, it seems to us, is a kind of junction of evidence and belief in the truth of certain ideas about a person. This can be illustrated with a diagram.

Scheme 3. Methods for obtaining ideas about reality

Naturally, one must imagine that the components of this scheme are not mutually exclusive - these are different views of the world and a person, and it is clear to any person who has encountered research activities that the ability to evaluate the same subject with different eyes and from different angles makes the picture more reliable. . This scheme only says that science cannot rely on blind faith or worship of authorities, and for religion this is the norm.

The conditionality of the development of science by the needs of socio-historical practice dictates the main directions of scientific research. This is the main driving force or source of the development of science. At the same time, we emphasize that it is conditioned not simply by the needs of practice, for example, pedagogical, educational, but precisely by socio-historical practice. Each specific research may not be determined by the specific needs of practice, but follow from the logic of the development of science itself or, for example, be determined by the personal interests of a scientist. However, there is no need to oversimplify the picture. Scientific research can be designed both for the immediate (applied) and for the long term (fundamental). The question of their primacy is insoluble, each of the areas is necessary. The scientific competence of a scientist largely depends on his ability to see the benefits of research that are not obvious to an unprepared viewer. Here the relative independence of the development of science is manifested. Whatever specific tasks practice sets before science, the solution of these tasks can be carried out only when science reaches a certain corresponding level, certain stages in the development of the very process of cognition of reality. At the same time, a certain courage is often required from a scientist when his scientific views, his scientific constructions run counter to established traditions and attitudes.

In scientific research, attention should be paid to the interaction and interconnectedness of all branches of science, as a result of which the subject of one branch of science can and should be investigated by the methods and techniques of another science. As a result, the necessary conditions are created for a more complete and deeper disclosure of the essence and laws of qualitatively different phenomena.

An indispensable condition for scientific research is freedom of criticism, unhindered discussion of scientific issues, open and free expression of various opinions. Since the dialectically contradictory nature of phenomena and processes in nature, in society and man is not revealed in science immediately and not directly, only separate contradictory aspects of the processes under study are reflected in the fighting opinions and views. As a result of such a struggle, the initial inevitable one-sidedness of various views on the object of study is overcome and a single view is developed, which today is the most adequate reflection of reality itself.

Finally, the novice researcher needs to pay attention to the language of science. Many terms are understood by us at the everyday level differently than in scientific knowledge. Let's consider the main ones.

Fact (synonym: event, result). A scientific fact includes only such events, phenomena, their properties, connections and relationships that are fixed in a certain way, registered. Facts constitute the foundation of science. Without a certain set of facts, it is impossible to build an effective scientific theory. The statement of I.P. Pavlov that facts are the air of a scientist. The fact as a scientific category differs from the phenomenon. A phenomenon is an objective reality, a separate event, and a fact is a collection of many phenomena and connections, their generalization. A fact is to a large extent the result of a generalization of all analogous phenomena, of reducing them to some definite class of phenomena;

Position - scientific statement, formulated thought;

P notion - a thought that reflects in a generalized and abstracted form objects, phenomena and connections between them by fixing general and specific features - properties of objects and phenomena. For example, the concept of "students" includes students of general education schools and vocational education institutions - students, cadets, listeners, etc.

In science, they often talk about a developing concept, implying that the content of the concept, as scientific data accumulates and scientific theories develop, acquires more and more features and properties. So, for example, the concept of "pedagogical process" has recently been supplemented with new content - pedagogical technologies, diagnostics, testing, etc. The concept must be distinguished from the term, which is only a carrier, a way of designating the concept. For example, the term "pedagogical process". The concept of "pedagogical process" is all that is known to pedagogical science about the goals, content, forms, methods and means of teaching and educating students, etc.

The concept among other forms of organization of scientific knowledge occupies a special place, since facts, provisions, principles, laws, theories are expressed through words-concepts and connections between them, since the highest form of human thinking is conceptual, verbal-logical thinking. (A.M. Novikov 2006). As G. Hegel wrote, to understand means to express in the form of concepts.

Term "proof" can be used in several meanings. First, under the proof understand the facts, with the help of which the truth or falsity of a particular judgment is substantiated.

Secondly, evidence means sources of information.

about facts: chronicles, eyewitness accounts, memoirs, documents, etc. Thirdly, proof is a process of thinking. In logic, the term is used in this sense.

So, proof is a logical reasoning, in the process of which the truth or falsity of any thought is substantiated with the help of other provisions verified by science and concrete practice.

The proof is connected with belief, but not identical to it: the proof must be based on the data of science and concrete practice. Beliefs can be based, for example, on faith, on prejudices, on people's ignorance of certain issues, on various kinds of logical errors.

Proof as a special logical way of substantiating the truth has its own structure. Every proof includes thesis, arguments, demonstration. Each of these elements in the logical structure of the proof performs its own special functions, so none of them can be ignored when constructing a logically correct proof.

Let's give a logical description of each of these elements.

thesis proof is the position, the truth or falsity of which is required to be proved. If there is no thesis, then there is nothing to prove. Therefore, all evidence-based reasoning is entirely subordinate to the thesis and serves to confirm (or refute) it. In proof: the main goal of all reasoning is the thesis, its confirmation or refutation.

The thesis can be formulated both at the beginning of the proof, and at any other moment of it. The thesis is often expressed in the form of a categorical judgment, for example: “The proposition that I am proving is the following”, “Here is my thesis”, “I have the task of proving”, “Here is my position”, “I deeply convinced that ... ”, etc. Often the thesis is formulated in the form of a question.

Proofs are either simple or complex. Their main difference lies in the fact that in a complex proof there is a main thesis and partial theses.

Main thesis - this is the provision to which the justification of a number of other provisions is subordinated. private thesis - this is a position that becomes a thesis only because with its help the main thesis is proved. The private thesis, being proven, then becomes itself an argument for substantiating the main thesis.

Arguments (or grounds) of evidence are those judgments that are given to confirm or refute the thesis. To prove a thesis means to make such judgments that would be sufficient to substantiate the truth or falsity of the thesis put forward.

As arguments in proving the thesis, any true thought can be given, as long as it is connected with the thesis, substantiates it. The main types of arguments are facts, laws, axioms, definitions, documentary evidence, etc.

Axioms are also used as grounds for proof. Axiom - this is a position that does not require proof. The truth of the axioms underlying the proof is not verified in each individual case, because the verification of this truth has been repeatedly carried out earlier, confirmed by practice. Axioms are quite widely used as foundations in jurisprudence. The role of axioms here is played by presumptions.

Presumption - this is a position that is considered established and does not need proof. It is not obvious and is accepted as true not because its correctness seems indisputable and follows from the very position that constitutes the content of the presumption. A presumption is a provision that formulates some of the most common, most common attitude.

Demonstration (or the form of evidence) is the method of logical connection of the thesis with the arguments. The thesis and arguments of the proof are judgments in their logical form. Expressed in grammatical sentences, they are perceived by us directly: the thesis and arguments can be seen if they are written; hear if they are spoken.

macro level and method identification of social strata based on spending strategy. AT scientificresearch T.P.Pritvorova developed ... . - Almaty: Gylym, 2004. - 216 p. 2. Methodology and methodology scientificresearch. - Almaty: Gylym, 2005. - 353 p. 3. ...

FOUR LEVELS OF GENERALITY OF RESEARCH: 1. Industry-wide level of significance - works whose results have an impact on the entire field of a particular science 2. Disciplinary level of significance characterizes research, the results of which contribute to the development of individual scientific disciplines 3. General problem level of significance have studies, results which change the existing scientific ideas on a number of important problems within the same discipline

PHASES STAGES STAGES Design phase Conceptual stage Identification of contradiction Formulation of the problem Definition of the purpose of the study Choice of criteria Stage of modeling (building a hypothesis) 1. Building a hypothesis; 2. Refinement (concretization) of the hypothesis. Research design stage 1. Decomposition (determination of research objectives); 2. Research conditions (resource opportunities); 3. Building a research program. Stage of technological preparation of the study Technological phase Stage of the study Theoretical stage Empirical stage Stage of registration of the results 1. Approbation of the results; 2. Registration of results. Reflexive phase

FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM A scientific problem is understood as such a question, the answer to which is not contained in the scientific knowledge accumulated by society. A problem is a specific form of knowledge organization, the object of which is not the immediate objective reality, but the state of scientific knowledge about this reality.

SUB-STAGES OF FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM 1. Statement of the problem - statement of questions. Isolation of the central problematic issue. 2. Assessment of the problem - determination of the necessary conditions, resource provision, research methods. 3. Substantiation of the problem - proof of the need to solve it, the scientific and / or practical value of the expected results. 4. Structuring the problem - decomposition - the search for additional questions (sub-questions), without which it is impossible to get an answer to the central - problematic - question.

OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF STUDY The object of research is what opposes the cognizing subject in his cognitive activity - that is, it is that part of the surrounding reality with which the researcher is dealing. The subject of research is that side, that aspect, that point of view, “projection”, from which the researcher cognizes the integral object, while highlighting the main, most significant (from the researcher’s point of view) features of the object.

NEW RESULTS CAN BE OBTAINED: 1. A new (indicated by shading in the figure) subject area (Fig. a) has been investigated; 2. New technologies were applied to the previously studied subject area - methods or means of cognition (Fig. b) 3. At the same time, a new subject area is being explored using new technologies (Fig. c). The option (Fig. d) is fundamentally impossible!

REGULARITY: THE BROADER THE SUBJECT AREA, THE MORE DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN GENERAL SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FOR IT Weak sciences introduce the most minimal limiting assumptions (if not introduce them at all) and get the most fuzzy results. "Strong" sciences introduce many limiting assumptions, but get clearer, more substantiated results, the scope of which, however, is very narrowed (more precisely, clearly limited by the introduced assumptions).

“UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE” You can conditionally arrange various sciences on a plane (see the next slide): “Substantiation of the results” - “The area of ​​\u200b\u200btheir applicability (adequacy)”, and formulate (again conditionally, by analogy with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle) the following “ uncertainty principle”: the current level of development of science is characterized by certain joint restrictions on the “validity” of the results and their scope

TOPIC OF RESEARCH In the very first approximation, the topic of research is formulated at its beginning. But, as a rule, it acquires a completed form when the subject of research is formulated - after all, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the topic of research indicates the subject of research, and the key word or phrase in the topic of research indicates, most often, its object.

RESEARCH APPROACHES 2 meanings 1. In the first meaning, the approach is considered as some initial principle, starting position, main position or belief: holistic approach, integrated approach, functional approach, systematic approach, integrated approach, personal approach, activity approach (personal-active approach) .

RESEARCH APPROACHES 2 meanings 2. In the second meaning, the research approach is considered as the direction of studying the subject of research and is classified into paired categories of dialectics, reflecting the polar sides, directions of the research process: content and formal approaches; logical and historical approaches (logical-historical and historical-logical approaches); qualitative and quantitative approaches; phenomenological and essential approaches; single and general (generalized) approaches. 2 to the 5th power = 32 options!

DETERMINING THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH Based on the object and subject of the study, its purpose is determined. The purpose of the study is what, in the most general (generalized) form, must be achieved upon completion of the study. It is understood that upon completion of the study, the problem of the study should be, as it were, completely solved within the framework determined by its subject, purpose and tasks (see below).

CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH RESULTS 1. Criteria for assessing the reliability of the results of a theoretical study. The result of a theoretical study - a theory, concept or any theoretical constructions - constructions must meet the following criteria for any branches of scientific knowledge: 1. objectivity; 2. completeness; 3. consistency; 4. interpretability; 5. verifiability; 6. credibility.

CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH RESULTS 2. Criteria for assessing the reliability of the results of an empirical study: 1. Criteria should be objective (as far as possible in a given scientific field). 2. The criteria must be adequate, valid, that is, evaluate exactly what the researcher wants to evaluate. 3. Criteria must be neutral with respect to the phenomenon under study. 4. A set of criteria with sufficient completeness should cover all the essential characteristics of the phenomenon or process under study.

HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis is a model of future scientific knowledge (possible scientific knowledge). A scientific hypothesis plays a dual role: either as an assumption about some form of connection between observed phenomena and processes, or as an assumption about a connection between observed phenomena, processes and their internal basis. Hypotheses of the first kind are called descriptive, and those of the second kind are called explanatory.

CONDITIONS FOR THE VALIDITY OF THE HYPOTHESIS: 1. The hypothesis must explain the whole range of phenomena and processes for the analysis of which it is put forward. 2. Fundamental testability of the hypothesis. 3. Applicability of the hypothesis to the widest possible range of phenomena. 4. The maximum possible fundamental simplicity of the hypothesis.

THE STAGE OF IDENTIFYING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES A task is understood as the purpose of an activity given under certain specific conditions. Research objectives act as private, relatively independent goals of research under specific conditions for testing the formulated hypothesis.

STAGE OF BUILDING A RESEARCH PROGRAM (METHODOLOGY) Research methodology is a document that includes a description of the problem, object, subject of research, its goals, hypotheses, tasks, methodological foundations and research methods, as well as planning, that is, the development of a time schedule for the implementation of the planned work.

STAGE OF TECHNOLOGICAL PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH It consists in the preparation of experimental documentation, the preparation of forms for observation protocols, questionnaires; acquisition or manufacture of the necessary experimental equipment, creation of the necessary software, etc. The stage of technological preparation of the study is specific to each specific scientific work. TECHNOLOGICAL PHASE OF THE RESEARCH It consists in the direct verification of the constructed scientific hypothesis in accordance with the set of working materials and equipment developed at the stage of designing and technological preparation of the study. The technological phase consists of two stages: 1) conducting the study 2) reporting the results.

STAGE OF RESEARCH includes two stages: theoretical stage (analysis and systematization of literary data, development of the conceptual apparatus, construction of the logical structure of the theoretical part of the study); the empirical stage is the conduct of experimental work.

REQUIREMENTS FOR CLASSIFICATION: 1. Each classification can be carried out only on one basis. 2. The volume of the members of the classification must be exactly equal to the volume of the entire class being classified. 3. Each object can only fall into one subclass. 4. The members of the classification must be mutually exclusive. 5. Subdivision into subclasses must be continuous. The following can serve as the central backbone element (link) of the theory: a concept, an idea, a unified research approach, a system of axioms or a system of axiomatic requirements, etc. In a number of branches of science, for example, in chemistry, pharmacy, microbiology, etc., the fact of obtaining a new chemical substance, a new drug, a new vaccine, etc. can act as a Central system-forming link. THE CENTRAL SYSTEM-FORMING ELEMENT OF THE THEORY

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY: algorithm, apparatus (didactic, conceptual apparatus, etc.); classification; criteria; methods; methods; mechanisms (classes of mechanisms); models (basic, predictive, graph, open, closed, dynamic, complexes of models, etc.); directions; justification; grounds; basics; paradigms; options; periodization; approaches; concepts (developing concepts, systems of concepts, etc.); tricks; principles; programs; procedures; solutions; systems (hierarchical systems, generalized systems, etc.); content; ways; facilities; scheme; structures; strategies; phases; entities; taxonomies; trends; technology; typologies; requirements; conditions; phases; factors (system factors, etc.); forms (sets of forms, etc.); functions; characteristics (essential characteristics, etc.); goals (sets of goals, hierarchies of goals); stages, etc. In the branches of science of the strong version, more theorems, lemmas, and assertions are added.

EMPIRICAL STAGE. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Experimental work, although it often occupies a significant, and sometimes most of the researcher's time budget, serves only to confirm or refute the theoretical constructions made by him in advance, starting with a hypothesis.

STAGE OF RESEARCH RESULTS FORMULATION The stage of approbation of the results. Approbation is carried out in the form of public reports and speeches, discussions, as well as in the form of written or oral review. Results stage. Upon completion of the approbation, the researcher proceeds to the literary design and publication of the results of his research. Scientific research ends with a reflexive phase - "turning back": understanding, comparing, evaluating the initial and final states: - the object of scientific activity - the final assessment (self-assessment) of the results of the study oneself - reflection - systems of scientific knowledge - scientific reflection

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY on the site

Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, the following distinguishing features are usually indicated:

This is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;

This is a process aimed at finding something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration;

It is characterized by systematicity: here both the research process itself and its results are ordered, brought into the system;

It is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.

The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.

The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research, is to find common ground in a number of individual phenomena, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, develop, i.e., to penetrate into their deep essence.

The main means of scientific and theoretical research:

A set of scientific methods, comprehensively justified and consolidated into a single system;

A set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming the characteristic language of science.

The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after their comprehensive evaluation, are they used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a withdrawn, generalized form, are included in the governing documents.

The activity of people in any of its forms (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process takes place, what methods, techniques, means are used in this case. This is the problem with the method.

Method (Greek - a way of knowing) - in the broadest sense of the word - "the path to something", a way of the subject's activity in any of its forms.

The concept of "methodology" has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.

The history and the current state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution of theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true.

The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) is reduced to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action.

It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular area of ​​activity.

It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save time and effort, to move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass, according to which the subject of knowledge and action paves its way, allows you to avoid mistakes.

F. Bacon compared the method with a lamp that illuminates the road in the dark, and believed that one cannot count on success in studying any issue by going the wrong way.

He considered induction to be such a method, which requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to learn the causes and laws on this basis.

G. Descartes called the method "exact and simple rules", the observance of which contributes to the increment of knowledge, allows you to distinguish the false from the true. He said that it is better not to think about finding any kind of truth than to do it without any method, especially without a deductive-rationalistic one.

Problems of method and methodologists occupy an important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in such areas and currents as the philosophy of science, positivism and postpositivism, structuralism and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and others.

Each method will be ineffective and even useless if it is used not as a "guiding thread" in scientific or other form of activity, but as a ready-made template for reshaping the facts.

The main purpose of any method is, on the basis of relevant principles (requirements, prescriptions, etc.), to ensure the successful solution of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increment of knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.

It should be borne in mind that the questions of method and methodology cannot be limited only by philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but must be posed in a broad sociocultural context.

This means that it is necessary to take into account the relationship of science with production at this stage of social development, the interaction of science with other forms of social consciousness, the correlation of methodological and value aspects, the "personal characteristics" of the subject of activity, and many other social factors.

The application of methods can be spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious application of methods, based on an understanding of their capabilities and limits, makes people's activities, other things being equal, more rational and efficient.

Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, means and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Historically, initially the problems of methodology were developed within the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of F. Bacon, the rationalistic method of G. Descartes, the dialectical method of G. Hegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method of E. Husserl. Therefore, methodology is closely connected with philosophy - especially with such sections of it as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics.

Methodology in a certain sense is "wider" than dialectics, since it studies not only the general, but also other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their interconnection, modifications, etc.

The close connection of methodology with dialectics does not mean that these concepts are identical and that materialist dialectics acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectics is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.

Methodology in a certain sense is “narrower” than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and limits of knowledge, the criteria for its truth, etc. On the other hand, methodology is "wider" than epistemology, since it is interested not only in the methods of cognition, but also in all other forms of human activity.

The logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic, which are used to analyze the scientific language, identify the logical structure of scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), explore the possibilities and completeness of the formalization of scientific knowledge.

Traditional logical means were applied mainly to the analysis of the structure of scientific knowledge, then the center of methodological interests shifted to the problems of growth, change and development of knowledge.

This change in methodological interests can be viewed from the following two angles.

The task of the logic of time is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages ​​that can make more clear and accurate, and therefore more fruitful reasoning about objects and phenomena that exist in time.

The task of the logic of change is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages ​​that can make more clear and accurate reasoning about changing an object - its transition from one state to another, about the formation of an object, its formation.

At the same time, it should be said that the really great achievements of formal logic gave rise to the illusion that only its methods can solve all the methodological problems of science without exception. For a particularly long time, this illusion was supported by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed the limitedness, one-sidedness of such an approach - for all its importance "within its competence."

Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thus acts as its necessary prerequisite.

Efficiency, strength of this or that method is due to the content, depth, fundamental nature of the theory, which is "compressed into a method."

In turn, the "method expands into a system", that is, it is used for the further development of science, the deepening and deployment of theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectification in practice.

Thus theory and method are both identical and different. their similarity lies in the fact that they are interconnected and in their unity reflect reality.

Being united in their interaction, theory and method are not rigidly separated from each other and at the same time are not immediately one and the same.

They mutually transition, mutually transform: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed, transformed into a method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which return to theory (and through it to practice), because the subject uses them as regulators, prescriptions, in the course of knowledge and change of the surrounding world according to its own laws.

Therefore, the assertion that the method is a theory addressed to the practice of scientific research is not accurate, because the method is also addressed to practice itself as a sensory-objective, socially transforming activity.

The development of theory and the improvement of methods for studying and transforming reality are, in fact, one and the same process with these two inextricably linked sides. Not only is theory summarized in methods, but methods are also developed into theory and have a significant influence on its formation and on the course of practice.

The main differences between theory and method are as follows:

a) theory is the result of previous activity, method is the starting point and premise of subsequent activity;

b) the main functions of the theory are explanation and prediction (in order to search for truth, laws, causes, etc.), method - regulation and orientation of activity;

c) theory - a system of ideal images that reflect the essence, patterns of an object, method - a system of regulators, rules, prescriptions, acting as a tool for further knowledge and change of reality;

d) the theory is aimed at solving the problem - what is a given subject, method - at identifying ways and mechanisms of its study and transformation.

Thus theories, laws, categories, and other abstractions do not yet constitute a method. In order to perform a methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from the explanatory provisions of the theory into the orientation-active, regulatory principles (requirements, prescriptions, settings) of the method.

Any method is determined not only by the previous ones and share two other methods simultaneously with it, and not only by the theory on which it is based.

Each method is conditioned, first of all, by its subject, i.e., by what is being studied (individual objects or their classes).

The method as a method of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but must change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that not only the final result of cognition must be true, but also the path leading to it, i.e., the method that comprehends and retains precisely the specifics of a given subject.

A method of any level of generality has not only a purely theoretical but also a practical character: it arises from a real life process and again goes into it.

It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of "object of knowledge" is used in two main meanings.

Firstly, as a subject area - sides, properties, relations of reality, which have relative completeness, integrity and oppose the subject in his activity (the object of knowledge). For example, a subject area in zoology is a set of animals. Different sciences about the same object have different subjects of knowledge (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology studies the functions of its organs, etc.).

The objects of knowledge can be both material and ideal.

Secondly, as a system of laws to which this object is subject. It is impossible to separate the object and the method, to see in the latter only an external means in relation to the object.

The method is not imposed on the subject of knowledge or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. Research involves a thorough knowledge of the facts and other data relevant to its subject. It is carried out as a movement in a certain material, the study of its features, connections, relationships.

The mode of movement (method) consists in the fact that the study must become familiar with specific material (factual and conceptual), analyze the various forms of its development, and trace their internal connection.

The variety of human activities causes a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of criteria.

First of all, it is necessary to single out the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.

At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation.

The content of the objects studied by science serves as a criterion for distinguishing between the methods of natural science and the methods of social sciences and the humanities. In turn, the methods of the natural sciences can be subdivided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative.

The characteristic features of the scientific method most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.

In modern science, the multilevel concept of methodological knowledge works quite successfully. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.

1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. In essence, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. They also include such methods as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.

2. General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and applied in science. They act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.

General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

Such a general scientific discipline as synergetics, the theory of self-organization and development of open integral systems of any nature, natural, social, cognitive, has been developing especially rapidly recently.

Among the basic concepts of synergetics are such as order, chaos, non-linearity, uncertainty, instability.

Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, becoming, time, whole, chance, possibility.

3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of cognition, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science, corresponding to a given basic form of matter movement. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences and humanities.

4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that has arisen at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods, aimed mainly at the junctions of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in the implementation of complex scientific programs.

Thus, the methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even a very important method.

Methodology is also not a simple sum of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, direction, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures.

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

1. Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Methodology (from "method" and "logy") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical development of reality, based on the laws of behavior of the object under study.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called general methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio of empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is the knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its specific scientific, special methods, due to the essence of the object of study. However, often methods specific to a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that the objects of biological research include in one form or another the physical and chemical forms of the movement of matter and, therefore, obey physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of cognition of reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside their mutual connection and development.

From the middle of the 19th century, the metaphysical method was more and more displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The ratio of general scientific methods can also be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the unification of the elements known as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: "the mechanical form of energy turns into heat" to to the proposition “every form of energy is converted into thermal energy”.

Abstraction (idealization) - the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study may be excluded from consideration. An example of such an idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point that has mass but no dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular single facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set based on the knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by deduction. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and build their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, aircraft models, building models, photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) ones created by means of a language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually, this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system under study.

The historical method implies the reproduction of the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in fact, the logical reproduction of the history of the object under study. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental, insignificant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but liberated from its historical form.

Classification - the distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig.3.

observation.

Observation is a sensual reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows obtaining some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the task of the study);

regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to the plan drawn up on the basis of the research task);

activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to fix the technical properties, aspects of the object under study, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the studied objects according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct and indirect.

With direct observation, certain properties, sides of the object are reflected, perceived by the human senses. At present, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method for studying the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Earth, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, the boundaries of the removal of muddy river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often the observation is indirect, that is, it is carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, before the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then the invention by Galileo in 1608 of an optical telescope raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observation, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From all of the above, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, providing the collection of extensive information about the world around us.