Despite the difficulties and dangers, in England of the 17th-18th centuries, service in the navy was considered quite prestigious. There were several reasons for this. Among them - a good salary, even for sailors, social security, inaccessible to most of the inhabitants of that time the opportunity to visit distant countries. In addition, Royal Navy for a diligent and capable sailor could play the role of a social elevator, allowing, within certain limits, to move up the career ladder.

Benefits of bureaucracy

What is most important for studying the activities of a corporation? First of all, paper. Documentation, archives, warrants, orders, internal correspondence and so on. All that we usually contemptuously call "bureaucracy". It was the paper bureaucracy that was introduced into the Royal Navy in the 1660s by the new Secretary of State for the Navy, Samuel Peeps.

This does not mean that papers on the fleet did not exist before. They just weren't structured. Since the era of Pepys, every invoice or drawing must go to the archives of the Admiralty. And that is also why today's review begins in the 1660s, because without documents one would have to speculate about how, what and why it happened. Bureaucracy is great. But now is not about that.

In the article on wood, we talked about the construction of ships and their lifespan. Now let's talk about crews. After all, the main item of expenditure of the British naval department is salaries to personnel.

In 1668, Pepys begins to publish an annual Nautical List - Navy List(aka Naval Register), in fact - a report card for officers and sailors of the fleet. This yearbook publishes data on commissioned officers, on dismissed or retired for health reasons, on the dead, on half-pay. In general - all the statistical information on the officer corps. There is also information about reprimands and awards, promotions and demolitions, salary increases, fines and deductions.

It was not only a personnel record sheet from admirals to junior officers, but also a financial and biographical directory. The Naval List made the spending on financing the officers of the fleet absolutely transparent and understandable.

Later, all near-naval services were included in the directory - workers and clerks of state shipyards, the maritime department, the postal maritime service, etc. Now anyone could have complete data on Admiralty spending on personnel.

If you add up the costs of building and maintaining ships and spending on crew and command personnel, you can get a general picture of spending on the fleet over the years. Moreover, the picture is completely transparent, and, in case we are parliamentarians, amenable to our control. What was the problem with the fleets of the Spanish King Philip II, the French ruler Louis XIV, the Russian Tsar Peter I and other naval sovereigns-builders? Yes, complete opacity of spending for those who allocate this money! That is, huge sums are being spent, but for what? Is it right? Can these costs be optimized?

Page of the "Naval List" for 1916. This is how he looked

For the sake of fairness, we still note that under an absolute monarchy (with the possible exception of Philip II of Spain), such a Nautical List was needed only by the monarch himself. In England, however, a unique political system has developed - there those who made the decision to allocate money demanded control over the use of this money.

The marine list did a great job with one more function. This yearbook recorded for the sailors themselves the order of promotion and length of service. Thus, disputes about abuse along the way up the career ladder were practically eliminated.

As a result, archives, strict accounting of the strength and supply of crews slowly but surely turned the Royal Navy from a pseudo-regular military formation into a full-fledged state military corporation. Already by the 1720s Royal Navy was a state within a state. It included not only ships and crews, but also a gigantic number of service personnel, shipyards, real estate, land, supplies of provisions and spare parts. It was a branched structure, dealing not only with military affairs proper, but also with supply, procurement, development, research and development, construction, acquisition of goods, land, real estate, etc.

Royal Navy career ladder

How was a career built in the British Navy, and could a sailor (to paraphrase Napoleon here) carry an admiral's baton in his knapsack? By the way, in France, and later in Germany, admirals really had their own admiral's baton. There was no such practice in England, but I hope readers will forgive such an exaggeration.

Most often, boys got into the service, at the age of 10-12. Why did they go? At the forefront, of course, were economic reasons. The fact is that the salary of even the lower ranks in the British Navy was considered quite high - from 10 (cabin boy) to 24 (senior sailor) shillings per month. It was a lot of money - for example, a hatter in London in the same period of time earned about 10-12 shillings a month, that is, at the level of a cabin boy. Shoemaker - up to 15 shillings. The peasant earned 3–4 pounds a year (20 shillings in a pound, that is, only 5–7 shillings a month came out).

The incomes of cabin boys and sailors could not be compared with the salaries of cooks (2 pounds 2 shillings per month), boatswains (4 pounds) or navigators (6 pounds 6 shillings per month). Naturally, gentlemen officers received even more. True, in peacetime they sat on half the salary.

So, despite the cruel order and drill, the people in Royal Navy dragged on. Yes, in the merchant fleet it was possible to earn much more in certain seasons, but the armourers often deceived the sailors by paying the sums not in full (or not paying at all). And the very inconsistency of such earnings did not inspire thoughts of a stable income.

Naturally, this state of affairs did not apply to wartime. For those who were recruited with the help of "pressure", the lowest rates possible worked. But the main backbone of the military fleet, which was preserved even in peacetime, received a regular salary, and the amounts of monetary allowance were relatively large.

In addition, the work of a military sailor was relatively easy, but this statement will not seem strange to our readers. Lord Howe wrote in 1793:

“If we introduce the measurement of “man-tons” (which is akin to population density) into maritime affairs, it turns out that for each sailor in the merchant fleet there are from 10 to 20 tons of displacement, on the ships of the East India Company - 15 tons per person, per warship - 2-3 tons of displacement per person. In other words, there are a lot of idlers on warships in their usual state. Indeed, after all, most of the crew on a warship is needed only in battle, in normal navigation or in the port you can get by with a much smaller number of people..

As Julius Cesar wrote in 1761,

« whether in peacetime or in wartime, the navy was a place for a sailor that provided a relatively easy and comfortable existence..

A typical sailor in the British Navy, 1740s

Well, do not forget about social security and benefits.

And this is food at public expense, and a device in case of injury in one of the marine hospitals. For these purposes, six pence (pence - 1/12 of a shilling) per month was deducted from the sailor's salary - something like paying the funded part to the pension fund today. And, of course, it's prize money. Yes, there have been delays in the payment of monetary allowances. But after Anson's reforms in 1757, it was established that when the ship was in home waters, this delay could not be more than two months, and if the ship was at some colonial station, then no more than six months. In general, service in the Royal Navy had visible advantages over other professions of the time.

Noting the monetary and social benefits, let's not forget about the romance of the sea, as well as the thirst for the unknown inherent in people. Here it would be appropriate to recall a well-known anecdote from the times of the late USSR:

"only in Rybalko's 3rd Guards Tank Army will you be able to visit cities such as Lvov, Sandomierz, Berlin and Prague, and at public expense."

As Adam Smith wrote in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and reasons for wealth peoples»:

“lower-class mothers are often afraid to send their sons to schools located near the seaport, because the sight of the ships and the stories of the sailors may tempt them to escape to the fleet and go to sea”.

William Spevens, the son of a butcher who fled to the Navy at age 11, wrote in his memoirs:

“Before serving in the Navy, I thought that sailors should be happy people. They visit different countries, see other places, nature, visit even the most remote corners of the earth. I only thought about gentle storms, tropical beauties, easy money and successful voyages.”

Well, do not forget about one more fact. Discipline on merchant ships was very weak, or rather, it did not exist at all. Rebellions very often took place there, armators and customers periodically deceived their subordinates, did not pay them the money they earned, and people went to court for months in an attempt to sue at least something of their honestly earned money. So, very often the captains and even the Admiralty helped sailors who enlisted in the navy to win such courts and provided legal support.

There is a famous case when Robert Barker, a carpenter from Liverpool, not only did not receive his money, but was beaten by his employer so that he lost an eye. However, in 1758 the carpenter enlisted in the 74-gun Torbay commanded by Augustus Cappel. He proved to be an excellent sailor, the ship's officers provided Barker with all possible support. Upon his return to England, with the help of the officers, Robert won a lawsuit against his former employer and received 26 pounds in compensation for the beating, as well as all the money he had earned (about 4 more pounds). At the same time, the merchant, frightened by such powerful support, paid the money right in the courthouse, without waiting for the decision to be published in the newspapers. And this was far from an isolated case. As Admiral Harvey wrote:

“Our sailors are like stubborn children who do not know how to realize themselves, and the task of officers is to help them, cherish them, as a loving mother cherishes a firstborn child, for the honor and good of the nation”.

The sailors were a real, even self-contained caste, isolated from most of their compatriots. They even lived on the shore in a certain "Pale of Settlement" coastal cities spoke their own language, and this caste and closeness for many was also one of the attractive features of service on ships.

From cabin boy to sub-officer

So, what was the hierarchy on the warship? Here we will consider the hierarchy of the 1760s-1790s, since it was by this time that it had developed into a uniform structure. First of all, one must clearly distinguish "gentlemen"(from noble families) and "ungentlemen"(Natives of working-class families or raznochintsy), because their rights and obligations were completely different.

Rest on the lower deck, 1740s. Judging by the presence of women and maps, somewhere in the port

In the 18th century, "ungentlemen", that is, professional sailors of ignoble origin, were called Tarpaulins (tarpaulins), because of the canvas cloaks used by sailors. Boys - "ungentlemen" who came to the ships, initially received positions jung, or boys (boy). Jung on board was the lowest echelon. He was a servant, helped the cook in the dining room, was engaged in washing dishes, darning uniforms, etc. In battle, the yoongi performed the role of "powder monkeys" (powder monkey), that is, they scattered gunpowder for guns in bags under the supervision of higher-ranking sailors and brought caps with gunpowder to the guns.

Yoongi "gentlemen" (young gentlemen) were, rather, students undergoing industrial practice on a ship in order, having gained experience, to become midshipmen ( midshipmen). They, of course, were not used as servants, in navigation they were most often on the upper deck along with midshipmen, learning to work with an astrolabe and a chronometer. And in battle they could even command a gun crew.

The British did not have naval schools until 1733. It was then that the Royal Naval Academy was founded in Portsmouth ( Royal Naval Academy), where the first 40 recruits came. It's funny, but even in "wild" Russia, the Maritime Academy was created 18 years earlier.

The study plan was an alternation of natural disciplines with the acquisition of practical knowledge. The term of study was 2 years. In order to stimulate admission to the academy, its Charter stated that graduates could take the exam for the rank of lieutenant after 4, and not after 6 years of practical voyages. However, in England there was some kind of mystical belief in the superiority of practical experience over theoretical knowledge. Until 1806, the Royal Naval Academy eked out a miserable existence - most gentry and gentlemen preferred to give their undergrowths directly to the ships. The apotheosis of the current situation was the words of the English King William IV:

"no place is more suitable for raising a real gentleman from a little Brit than the poop of a warship".

Thus, until the middle of the 19th century (that is, before the advent of armored fleets and machines), in England they did not attach much importance to naval education, preferring practice to it.

Let's move on from the cabin crew to the sailors. If they did not come to the ship at a young age, then initially the position was the lowest step "landsman" (landsman, "land man"). A "Landsman" was any sailor with less than a year of service. They were used mainly in unskilled manual labor.

"Landsman", if he did not die or die from diseases, did not fall overboard, etc., could grow to "ordinary sailor" (ordinary Seaman, sailor with 1 to 3 years sailing experience). It was also menial, unskilled work, but more responsible - painting the hull and masts, splicing cables, loading safe cargo, lowering and raising boats, etc.

Royal Navy sailors against the Barbary pirates at

Those who had more than 3 years of sailing experience became sailors (able Seaman). They could already keep watch, stand at the helm, carry out repair work under the guidance of a carpenter or boatswain. These included categories such as carpenter team (carpenter's crew), gunnery (gunsmith), responsible for the upkeep of the four cannons (quarter gunner). Initially, gun crews were divided into "fours". This was very convenient, since in the past different types of guns were served by crews that were multiples of four. A little later, this rule ceased to apply, 32-pound guns were served by a crew of 14 people, 24-pound guns - 12 people, 18-pound guns - 11 people. The 12- and 9-pounders were manned by crews of eight and six, respectively. However, the name quarter gunner remained and meant the head of the gun crew, dealing with the maintenance and operation of guns.

• assistant quartermaster;
• assistant sailing master;
• carpenter's assistant;
• caulker's assistant;
• boatswain's mate;
• assistant gunner;
• gunsmith's assistant;
• corporal;
• watchman(watch captain);
• cooper;
• quartermaster;
• steering;
• foreman(yeoman);
• sailing master;
• chief foreman(master- at- arms, initially a gunsmith responsible for storing and issuing weapons and ammunition, then became simply the head of the foremen);
• caulker;
• cable car(ropemaker);
• gunsmith(just this is the person responsible for storing and issuing weapons).

In principle, if there was diligence for the service, luck and learning ability, our "landsman" could rise to sub-officer positions - this, depending on specialization, a carpenter, boatswain or gunnery. It is these positions at the level of ensign or warrant officer, made up the elite of the "lower deck", being junior non-commissioned officers.

"Gentlemen" in conversation called them "cockpit sub-officer" (cockpit mate), because, unlike the sailors, their living quarters were located in the cockpit - a room located on the lower deck in the stern of the ship. This cockpit should not be confused with the cockpit of modern yachts, boats, etc., which is an open, closed space at the top. By the way, in England, urban areas were also called cockpits, in which the poor, thieves, prostitutes lived, in a word - the dregs of society.

By the way, in the same category of sub-officer positions were also ranked assistant midshipmen (midshipman's mate), assistant navigators (master’ s mate) and surgical assistants (surgeon's mate). Initially, assistant navigators were recruited from sailors, but by the middle of the 18th century this position was occupied by one of the midshipmen, who was preparing to take the exam for a lieutenant. He helped the ship's navigator ( master) steer the ship, keep the course, raise the right sails, report problems with the masts or sails, etc.

The “gentleman” cabin boys most often immediately became midshipmen’s assistants, and then midshipmen, that is, their career went much faster than that of ordinary inhabitants of the lower deck.

In 1753, on ships of III rank and above, the position second navigator, since the management of 74-gun and larger ships was considered quite difficult, and the navigator and assistants could no longer cope with their duties.

Next came "patent officers" (warrant officers). This category of officers of the British Navy of the late 17th - early 19th century included specialists who differed greatly both in position in the naval hierarchy and in the functions performed. What they had in common was that they received a patent ( warrant) to the right to hold a position not from the Admiralty (as royal officers), but from the Naval Council ( Navy Board). Each of them led the corresponding unit, or service.

These officers were already equated with "gentlemen" ( commissioned officers) and ate in the officer's wardroom ( wardroom).

Royal Navy officer, late 18th century

Navigator (master ) to obtain his patent, he passed an exam at Trinity House, a British pilot and pilot corporation. There were several paths to this position. One of them is a promotion from the lower ranks, when a sailor learned the art of navigation as a quartermaster and sub-navigator. Also, those midshipmen who lost hope for a lieutenant's patent or preferred a titmouse in their hands to a crane in the sky became navigators. Finally, captains or assistants of the merchant fleet went to navigators.

The navigator was responsible for navigation and navigational instruments, placement and stowage of ballast, cargo and supplies (i.e. landing of the vessel), supervised - through senior helmsmen (quartermasters) subordinate to him - the state of provisions, sails, anchors, etc.

The position of the navigator in the ship's hierarchy was rather ambiguous. On the one hand, formally in the command ladder, he followed the junior lieutenant. This meant that when the captain failed, the command of the ship was transferred to the first lieutenant, then the second, and so on, and only after the failure of all line officers, the navigator could take command of the ship. On the other hand, the function he performed was very important, which was reflected, for example, in his living conditions (the navigator's cabin was the same as that of the first lieutenant). Also, the allowance he received on most ships was more than that of lieutenants, and only on frigates of the sixth rank - less (data for the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries). Since the Middle Ages, the navigator was the first assistant to the captain, only in the middle of the 17th century he became lower than the lieutenant (then the only one). In the Anglo-Dutch wars, there were cases when the navigator of a distinguished ship received a command post.

surgeons, as a rule, did not have a medical education and learned their craft through apprenticeships. They received a patent after passing an oral exam at the college for the sick and wounded ( The Sick and Hurt Board).

bataler (Purser ) was appointed by the naval college from among those who served as captain's secretary ( clerk) for at least a year or in the flag officer's secretariat for at least one and a half years. But this provision was often violated, and batalers were appointed under patronage.

The bataler was in charge of monetary, clothing and food allowances. Due to the fact that he was entrusted with significant values, he had to pay a solid deposit before obtaining a patent. This was somewhat reminiscent of the system for buying officers' patents in the British Army (a naval officer's patent could not be purchased for money). The salaries of the treasurers were quite low, at the level of the boatswain, but they were entitled to profit from savings in purchases (the difference between the fixed price, based on which the Admiralty allocated funds, and the actual purchase price). In this regard, the battalions were usually suspected of fraud by the crews, often rightly so. Although there were occasional bankruptcies of treasurers, it was mostly a profitable business.

Chaplain was appointed by the relevant church institution with a patent from the Naval College. Until the end of the 18th century, the chaplain received a small salary, at the level of a sailor of the 1st article, and his status as a patent officer was doubtful. There were few among the clergy who wanted to take this position, so few ships (mostly senior ranks) had them on board. But by the 1790s, their allowance was increased, and the position as patent officers was strengthened.

Also received a patent conductors(boatswain, carpenter and chief gunner).

A prerequisite for the conductors (however, as for all specialists) was the presence of a certain level of literacy - the ability to read, write and knowledge of arithmetic.

Boatswain usually came from the lower ranks, and his appointment was not accompanied by passing a special exam, but occurred on the proposal of the captain or flag officer. His duties included caring for rigging, sails, receiving and maintaining cables, sails and other sub-skipper's property, compiling reports on the safety and movement of this property, securing deck and hold property, working with anchors, boats, etc. He obeyed sailing master (sailmaker) and roper (ropemaker). Another duty of the boatswain, better known to the general public, was to maintain discipline among the lower ranks and organize deck work. In this he was assisted by his direct assistants - boatswain mats.

Modern reenactor in the uniform of midshipman Royal Nevi model 1790

A carpenter(or timmerman) unlike the boatswain, he underwent preliminary training on the shore as an apprentice with shipbuilders at royal or private shipyards, and also had to serve on board for at least six months as an assistant to the timmerman. After that, presenting a certificate of apprenticeship and a testimonial from the vessel about "good behavior", he could apply for a patent from the Naval Board. Timmerman's main responsibility was the hull of the ship. Under his command was a rather large team, up to ten people on a large ship, which carried out regular inspection, maintenance and repair of the hull, masts, topmasts and yards, and also did ordinary carpentry work. Like the boatswain, the carpenter was in charge of the property for which he was financially and disciplinaryly responsible.

Chief Commander (gunner) was responsible for the material part of the guns and their accessories, including gun carriages, cannonballs, bombs, powder magazines, etc. To obtain a patent, he had to pass an exam at the Collegium of Artillery and Technical Supply ( Ordnance Board), which is often violated in practice. In the middle of the 17th century, the position of the chief gunner in the ship's hierarchy was quite high, he was a member of the officer's wardroom. But with the Restoration, his position gradually changed to that of a conductor.

Subordinate to the chief gunner was a rather large team, consisting of one or two assistant gunners, a weapons master ( armorer) and the commanders of the "fours" ( quarter gunners).

Teacher(Schoolmaster) passed the Trinity House exam for knowledge of navigation and mathematics. He not only taught these disciplines to midshipmen, but often taught them to read and write. Initially, his salary consisted of deductions from midshipmen, then a sailor's rate was added to them, and at the beginning of the 19th century he became the highest of all the salaries of non-commissioned officers.

junior officers represented midshipmen ( midshipman), chaplain, surgeon, batalers, navigator, and since 1800 and sub-lieutenants. The latter could command small ships without the rank of lieutenant and without defending the exam for a lieutenant position.

It is worth noting that from the lower deck it was possible to break out into junior officers, up to the boatswain or even up to the navigator, inclusive.

Some more beneficent bureaucracy

Those who wanted to become senior midshipmen and sub-officers were waiting for a test - passing an exam. This innovation was introduced in 1677 when Samuel Pepys decided to introduce aptitude tests for any senior rank. Before introducing the tests officially, Pepys tested them on the commander of the fleet, for a moment - the king's brother, the Duke of York, and found out that the king's brother actually knows nothing about maritime affairs.

But Yakov turned out to be a great clever one, did not scold Pips, but approved from May 1677 the mandatory oral testing of lieutenants in two subjects - navigation and mathematics.

Oh what a start!

Until the reign of Charles II, the aristocracy usually went to serve in the army. After the Restoration, James of York and Prince Rupert of the Palatinate introduced the navy into fashion. And here are the exams! But Peeps didn't stop there. We have already mentioned patented officers above, here we will bring this information together.

The ship's surgeons were scheduled for testing before being assigned to the ship. It turned out that many of them are ready to treat "matzo with bat liver and the blood of a Mongolian virgin", but absolutely do not know how to apply a tourniquet or bleed!

Lieutenants of the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars, a frame from the series about Hornblower

In order to somehow reduce dissatisfaction, Pepys did the following thing - experienced captains and (optionally) admirals examined the applicant for the rank of lieutenant.

After the exam, applicants received a patent for the position, this patent served as the basis for receiving salaries and publication in the Marine List.

pinnacle of career

After passing the exam and becoming a lieutenant, the young man got the opportunity sooner or later to become a captain. And here comes the title master and commander. Initially, it was an intermediate position between lieutenant and captain. In fact, it was a lieutenant who commanded an out-of-rank ship (until 1747 - a ship of rank 6 and below) and performed the duties of a navigator in one person ( master) and commander ( commander). It was believed that these ships did not need a navigator, it was too fat, so the commanders and navigators were on them, as they say, “two in one”.

Lieutenants (including Marines) and captains made up the officers on board the ship. The officers dined in the wardroom, the captain - in his cabin, but could be invited by the officers for a joint feast in the wardroom.

As a particular example, let's consider the crew of a battleship HMS « Victory» in 1805. The total number of seafarers on board is 821 people. This is the captain - Thomas Hardy, 9 officers, 21 midshipmen, 77 "cockpit sub-officers", 11 officers of the marines (one captain, two lieutenants and ensigns), 135 marines and 536 sailors. The last number included "ordinary sailors", "landmen", etc., and in addition - 31 "boys" - cabin boys.

If a lieutenant became a captain, then sooner or later, according to the qualification and promotion at the expense of the dead, he could grow up to rear admiral, then to vice admiral, and then to admiral.

Since 1702, only three squadrons officially existed in England - White, Blue and Red. In turn, each of them was divided into the vanguard, rearguard and center. Historically, since the time of the Anglo-Dutch wars, the White Squadron was the vanguard, the Red squadron was the center, the Blue rearguard. In turn, the first division of the White Squadron was considered the vanguard of the White Squadron, the second - the center, the third - the rearguard. In the same way, squadrons and other flags were divided into divisions.

Each of these divisions was commanded by admirals. There were nine in total, so there were nine admirals. Thus, in the fleet there was only nine(!!!) vacancies for admirals - three rear admirals, three admirals and three vice admirals, which differed in the colors of the flag. Accordingly, the "bottleneck" through which a captain could slip through to become an admiral was extremely narrow. An additional complication was introduced by the fact that a person who received the rank of admiral simply could not be fired from the fleet. As a result, decrepit old men who fell into insanity did not allow capable captains to move up the career ladder.

Probably the most famous master and commander we have is Russell Crowe as Jack Aubrey

In 1748, the then head of the Admiralty, George Anson, did not have the heart to take a swing at this tradition. However, he acted quite cunningly - the decrepit admirals, who did not want to quit, received magnificent positions without real influence on the affairs of the fleet, and young capable people came to the high command. It was thanks to Anson that Hawk, Boscowen, Knowles, Townsend received the admiral ranks. As a result, by 1748 in Britain there were already 8 admirals, 10 vice admirals and 9 rear admirals.

The mechanism for increasing the number of admirals was simple. The ranks of "admirals without distinction by squadron" were introduced. (Admiral without distinction of squadron), who in the fleet a little later were ironically called "yellow admirals" ( admiral of the Yellow): the yellow flag was most often raised during quarantine. Such admirals could be budding captains, waiting in line for the admiral's position according to seniority, or just already decrepit admirals transferred to representative positions.

Here is the dynamics of the number of admirals in England in different years:

The system, however, remained completely inflexible. It was impossible to overtake those who were ahead of the list, no matter what talents or merit. However, this circumstance did not prevent the Admiralty, if necessary, from finding a capable captain or admiral at the bottom of the list, so that he would lead the squadron or fleet. The main problem was the programmed promotion of incapable post-captains to admirals according to the principle of priority, without the possibility of somehow slowing down or challenging this promotion.

In addition, in the English fleet there was the position of commodore, that is, a captain who received an admiral's position (but not a rank!) For a campaign or military campaign. At the same time, the commodore commanded both his ship (that is, he retained the position of captain) and the forces attached to him. According to the results of the campaign or operation, the commodore could either return to the post of captain, or, if seniority was still suitable, become a rear admiral.

Naturally, it is clear that neither a burst of poetic metaphor, nor a cumbersome tracing paper is a correct translation.

That this is one of the positions in the British Navy, a translator, even completely unfamiliar with the rank system of the British Navy of the early 19th century, could easily understand from phrases such as "some of his fellows already had a brig or a cutter in charge, or even promoted to master and commander", but for some reason he preferred to trace. Although, in principle, initially Master and Commander and meant "Navigator and Commander", and at least it's good that in the Russian version they didn't call him a skipper, otherwise they really like to stick this word wherever they get.

Beginning in the eleventh century, officers ("captains") appeared on English ships, who commanded the soldiers, while the sailors and the ship were controlled by the navigator ("masters" or "warrant officers"). At that time, the art of naval combat was greatly degraded compared to antiquity, there was no talk of any tactical maneuvering, because the ramming was no longer used. Accordingly, the ships simply converged stupidly, showered each other with arrows (only the Byzantines made the progressive zhgunimagu with Greek fire), and the boarding team, which was led by these captains, entered into action. There were no specifics compared to the battles on land, only limited space.

Since the 15th century, captains and their lieutenants (it is interesting that in the navy lieutenant traditionally pronounced not as on land, but as "leftenant"), in addition to commanding a boarding team in battle, they began to participate in the management of the entire ship. By the middle of the 18th century, these officers began to have full authority to command ships, and in 1747 the official position of captain appeared in the British Navy, and in 1748 captains were divided into three types depending on the class of the ship they commanded. And the boarding team was replaced by the marines back in 1664 (which became a separate branch of the military in 1755 - His Majesty's Marine Forces, since 1802 - Royal Marines, from 1855 - Royal Marines Light Infantry, since 1923 - The Corps of Royal Marines), and was commanded by other officers who were subordinate to the captain.

The lowest kind of captains were called Lieutenant Commander, higher - Post Captain, but between them there was just a position Commander until the beginning of the 19th century. called Master and Commander.

At the same time, the position should not be confused with the title (rank). The lowest rank of a naval officer in the British Navy of the 18th-19th centuries is Midshipman. Then walked Lieutenant. The lieutenants, although they had the same rank, were located in the ranks depending on the time of assignment to the ship, the longer the lieutenant served, the higher he stood among the other lieutenants of this ship (but the 1st lieutenant of ship A could be transferred to ship B and be there again 5 th). Lieutenants were assigned to the two lower captaincies, Post Captain had a real title Captain. Respectively, Lieutenant Commander and Master and Commander could be transferred from command of a ship to another ship as a simple lieutenant in submission Post Captain. They were called "captains" only if they commanded a ship, Post Captain but he was always called the captain, just when he temporarily did not have a ship, the word was omitted Post. So you can see why in Pirates of the Caribbean Jack Sparrow insists so stubbornly on being called "Captain Jack Sparrow" even when he doesn't own a ship (although he probably didn't serve in the British Navy). But Jack "lucky" Aubrey from the books of Patrick O'Brian had a cherished dream - to rise to Post Captain(which he succeeded in the second book of the series). Another of the fictional heroes Master and Commander(often abbreviated to Commander) were occupied by James Bond (yes, the same one) and Horatio Hornblower from Forester's books.

Post Captain necessarily later became an admiral, unless death prevented this. It was only necessary that an admiral's place be vacated at the top, because the number of admirals was limited (intentional reduction in circulation!) - at first, one for each position, therefore a little more. The admiral did not command the ship - he commanded the entire squadron, and therefore there was also a captain on the flagship who commanded it. The system of admiral ranks in the British Navy was very simple and logical. Judge for yourself. The colors of the British flag were arranged in ascending order of precedence blue -> white -> red. Accordingly, the career ladder looked like this:
1.Rear Admiral of the Blue,
2. Rear Admiral of the White,
3. Rear Admiral of the Red.
4. Vice Admiral of the Blue,
5. Vice Admiral of the White,
6. Vice Admiral of the Red.
7. Admiral of the Blue,
8. Admiral of the White,
9. Admiral of the Red (aka Admiral of the Fleet)

Is it really easy to remember?
Reaching the last rank was not easy - even Nelson failed, although he would have received it automatically if he lived to be 90 years old (at the time of his death, this "knight of the bath" was Vice Admiral of the White).

In addition to positions Lieutenant Commander and Master and Commander you can remember the position of commander (Commodore) - that was the name of the commander of several ships, even just two.

But in the end, what is the best way to translate the title of the book? It is possible as a "captain of the 2nd rank", but firstly, this is not an analogue of our captains of the 2nd rank, and, secondly, it is not quite suitable for the title. So, in my opinion, it's best to simply - "Captain". True, then how to translate the title of the second book in the series, "Post-Captain"? Yes, here it is necessary either to translate the first or second book inaccurately so that there are not two "Captains".

P.S. In Chukovsky's translation (I think) John Silver is called the "quartermaster", that is, the person who managed the placement and supply of the team. Accordingly, it is not clear why "Flint himself was afraid of him." But the fact is that the English word quartermaster really most often denotes a quartermaster, but among the pirates it had a different content - they traced it from the French Quartier-maître, the head of the boarding team. For pirates, besides boarding, this man was in charge of a bunch of other things and was second on the ship after the captain, above the first mate. He determined whether it was worth attacking the ship, what to take from the captured ship, divided the booty, resolved disputes, was a second in duels, imposed punishments on the guilty, etc., including being in charge of supplies, though.

I. Specialists (warrantofficers) BritishfleetXVIIIcentury This category of officers of the British Navy of the late 17th - early 19th centuries included specialists who differed very significantly both in position in the naval hierarchy and in the functions performed. What they had in common was that they received a patent (warrant) for the right to hold a position not from the Admiralty (like royal officers), but from the Navy Board (Navy Board). Most of them were in charge of the respective unit or service. According to their position, they can be divided into the following groups: 1. Zauryad - officers ( wardroom warrant officers ): - Navigator (Master); - Surgeon, or doctor (Surgeon); - Treasurer, or Commissioner (Purser); - Chaplain. These officers were equated with "gentlemen" (commissioned officers) and ate in the officer's wardroom. Subsequently, in the second half of the 19th century, they became full officers. Navigator to obtain his patent, he passed the exam at Trinity House, a British pilot and pilot corporation. There were several paths to this position. One of them is promotion from the lower ranks, learning the art of navigation as a quartermaster and sub-navigator. The second is one of those midshipmen who lost hope for a lieutenant's patent or preferred a titmouse in their hands to a crane in the sky. The third way is from the captains or assistants of the merchant fleet. The navigator was responsible for navigation and navigational instruments, placement and stowage of ballast, cargo and supplies (i.e. landing of the vessel), supervised - through senior helmsmen (quartermasters) subordinate to him - the state of provisions, sails, anchors, etc. His position in the ship's hierarchy was rather ambiguous. On the one hand, in the command ladder, he followed the junior lieutenant. This meant that when the captain failed, the command of the ship was transferred to the first lieutenant, then the second, ...., and only after the failure of all line officers, he took command of the ship. On the other hand, the function he performed was very important, which was reflected, for example, in his living conditions (the navigator's cabin was the same as that of the first lieutenant). Also, the allowance he received on most ships was more than that of lieutenants, and only on frigates of the 6th rank was less (data for the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries). The surgeon, treasurer and chaplain belonged to the so-called. "civilian" officers, since their professions were not directly related to the naval service. surgeons, as a rule, did not have a medical education and learned their craft through apprenticeships. They received a patent after passing an oral examination in the college for the sick and wounded (The Sick and Hurt Board). Treasurer appointed by the Naval Board from among those who have served as a captain's clerk for at least a year or in the flag officer's secretariat for at least a year and a half. But this provision was often violated, and treasurers were appointed under patronage. The treasurer was in charge of cash, clothing and food allowances. Due to the fact that he was entrusted with significant values, he had to pay a solid deposit before obtaining a patent. This was somewhat reminiscent of the system for buying officer's patents in the British army (a naval officer's patent could not be purchased for money). Treasurers' salaries were quite low, at the level of a boatswain, but they were entitled to profit from savings in purchases (fixed price allocated by the admiralty vs actual purchase price), and therefore were usually suspected of fraud by crews, often rightly so. Although there were occasional bankruptcies of treasurers, it was mostly a profitable business. Chaplain was appointed by the relevant church institution with a patent from the Naval College. Until the end of the 18th century, the chaplain received a small salary, at the level of a sailor of the 1st article, and his status as an ordinary officer was doubtful. Among the clergy there were few who wanted this position, so only some (mostly ships of senior ranks) ships had them on board. But by the 1790s, their allowance was increased, and their position as ordinary officers was strengthened. 2. Conductors (standing warrant officers) - Bosun (Boatswain); - Timmerman (Carpenter); - Constapel (Gunner). This group most fully corresponds to the concept of "warrant officer" in the modern armed forces of the Anglo-Saxons, the institute of warrant officers-midshipmen of the Russian Armed Forces and the title of "conductor" in the Russian fleet of the 19th - early 20th century. The conductors were on board constantly, including during the period when the ship was laid up, when the entire crew from the captain to the last cabin boy was decommissioned ashore or transferred to another ship. It was they who were most often allowed to take their wives to the sea. A prerequisite for the conductors (however, as for all specialists) was a certain literacy - the ability to read, write and knowledge of arithmetic. Boatswain was the senior of the conductors (as in the Russian fleet). Usually he came from the lower ranks, and his appointment was not accompanied by the passing of a special examination, but took place on the proposal of the captain or flag officer. His duties included caring for rigging, sails, receiving and maintaining cables, sails and other sub-skipper's property, compiling reports on the safety and movement of this property, securing deck and hold property, working with anchors, boats, etc. To perform these works, a sailmaker (sailmaker) and a rope master (ropemaker) were subordinate to him. Another of his duties, better known among the general public, was the maintenance of discipline among the lower ranks and the organization of deck work, in which he was assisted by his immediate assistants, the boatswains. Timmerman, unlike the boatswain, he underwent preliminary training on the shore as an apprentice with shipbuilders at royal or private shipyards, and also had to serve on board for at least six months as an assistant to a timmerman. After that, by presenting a certificate of apprenticeship and a testimonial from the ship on "good behavior", he could apply for a patent from the Naval Board. Timmerman's main responsibility was the hull of the ship. Under his command was a fairly large team, up to ten people on a large ship, which carried out regular inspection, maintenance and repair of the hull, masts, topmasts and yards, and also carried out routine carpentry work. Like the boatswain, he was in charge of the property for which he bore material and disciplinary responsibility. Constapel was responsible for the material part of the guns and their accessories, including carriages, cannonballs, bombs, powder magazines, etc. To obtain a patent, he had to pass an exam at the Artillery and Technical Supply Board (Ordnance Board), which was often violated in practice. In the middle of the 17th century, his position in the ship's hierarchy was quite high, he was a member of the officer's wardroom. But with the Restoration, his position gradually changed to that of a conductor. He had a rather large team under his command, consisting of one or two assistants to the constapel, a gunsmith (Armourer) and plutongues (quarter gunners) - sailors allocated for the daily care of guns (one person for every four guns). During the shooting, they were joined by charge carriers - mostly cabin boys (the so-called "powder monkeys") and landmen (recruit sailors). Unlike the Russian fleet of those times, where both the care of the guns and their combat use were carried out by artillery officers, the constapel did not direct the shooting, but only provided it. The firing itself was directed by naval lieutenants, usually one lieutenant for half the guns of each deck. According to their position in the ship's hierarchy, the conductors were joined by: - ​​navigator (Master "s mates) and - surgeon's assistants (Surgeon" s mates). They, not being patent holders of the naval board, nevertheless were quite qualified specialists in their field and were candidates for ordinary officers, which provided them with a higher position compared to other non-commissioned officers. 3. Unter - officers ( lower grade warrant officers ): - Cook (Cook); - Sailing master (Sailmaker); - Ropemaker; - Profos (Master-at-Arms); - Weapons master (Armourer); - Caulker (Caulker); - Cooper (Cooper); - Teacher (Schoolmaster); The specialists of this group did not have the privilege of having their own, albeit small, cabin, and were placed on the decks along with the lower ranks. The only (but significant) difference between them and other petty officers, such as captains of the top, quartermasters, captains of the guns, coxwains and others, was that they could not be demoted by the captain. Their monetary allowance was also somewhat higher. Cook was appointed by the naval board, as a rule, from among the sailors who, due to injury, were not suitable for their previous service, but whom the captains did not want to throw ashore for any reason (for example, courage shown in the past). He was engaged in cooking for the crew, supervising the assistants and cabin boys assigned to him. The captain and the officer's wardroom had their own cooks (whether they were subordinate to the cook - the holder of the patent, I do not yet know). Kok was subordinate to the first lieutenant. Sailing and rope master obeyed the boatswain and performed work directly corresponding to the title of their position. Depending on the size of the vessel, the number of people subordinate to them varied from one to several people. Profos was a ship's police and fire inspector, in modern terms. One of his duties was to see to it that the candles and the fire in the galley were put out at the proper time. Along with the boatswains, he kept order on the decks. He was subordinate to the ship's corporals - one or two. He also trained the lower ranks in the handling of hand (cold and firearms) weapons. Profos was directly subordinate to the first lieutenant. Gunsmith was responsible for the condition and repair of personal weapons, subordinated to the constapel. Caulker and cooper obeyed the timmerman, had commands under their command, depending on the size of the ship. The caulker was engaged in the watertightness of the hull, and the cooper - in barrels and practical things. Teacher passed the Trinity House exam for knowledge of navigation and mathematics. He not only taught these disciplines to midshipmen, but often taught them to read and write. Initially, his salary consisted of deductions from midshipmen, then the sailor's rate of article 1 was added to them, at the beginning of the 19th century it became the highest of all non-commissioned officers. Literature : Brian Lavery "Nelson's Navy" N.A.M. Rodger "The Command of the Ocean" John Masefield "Sea Life in Nelson's Time"

Shipborne ranks in the navy are used in the Russian Navy and are assigned to sailors as far as they are able to take responsibility for the command of one or another military personnel. They are also assigned to the military of the coast guard of the border troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, underwater and surface units of the Navy and naval units of the troops.

Almost all naval ranks are different from the missile and ground forces, the airborne forces and the armed forces. From 1884 to 1991, they changed due to a number of events:

• the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917;
• the creation of the Soviet Union and its subsequent collapse 1922-1991;
• creation of the Russian Federation in 1991

Modern ranks in the navy divided into 4 categories:

1. Conscripts for urgent and contract service. This includes: a sailor, a senior sailor, a foreman of the second article, a foreman of the first article and a chief ship foreman. The senior midshipman and the senior midshipman are also included in the senior staff.

2. Junior officers of the fleet. These are: junior lieutenant, lieutenant, senior lieutenant and lieutenant commander.

3. Senior officers of the Navy. Ranks are divided: captains of the third, second and first rank.

4. The highest officers. Consists of: Rear Admiral, Vice Admiral, Admiral and Admiral of the Fleet.

Detailed description of ship ranks in ascending order

Sailor- junior rank in the navy, which corresponds to the land private. These are conscripts.

Senior sailor- a parallel to the army rank of corporal, which is assigned to a sailor for observing discipline and exemplary performance of duties. May be an assistant to the foreman and replace the foreman of the second article.

Senior staff

Sergeant major of the second article- junior rank in the senior staff, which was introduced on November 2, 1940. It is located in rank above the senior sailor and below the foreman of the first article. May be a squad leader.

Petty officer of the first article- a sailor of the fleet, who is located in rank above the foreman of the second article, but below the chief foreman. The second, as it grows in the list of senior officers, was introduced on November 2, 1940. This is the squad leader, who showed excellent results in the performance of military and organizational duties.

Chief ship sergeant major- military rank in the Navy of the Russian Federation and the Coast Guard. He occupies a place between the foreman of the first article and the midshipman of the fleet. The naval rank of chief ship foreman corresponds to the army senior sergeant. Can replace the platoon leader.

Midshipman- a word of English origin, which is assigned to a sailor after passing the relevant training programs and courses. On land, this is an ensign. Performs organizational and combat duties as a platoon commander or company foreman.

Senior midshipman- a military rank in the Navy of the Russian Federation, which is higher in rank than midshipman, but lower than junior lieutenant. Similarly, a senior warrant officer in other branches of the military.

junior officers

Rank junior lieutenant comes from French and translates as "deputy". He occupies the first step in the junior officers, both in the ground and naval forces. May be a post or platoon leader.

Lieutenant- the second among ranks in the navy, in rank above junior lieutenant and below senior lieutenant. Assigned upon expiration of service with the rank of junior lieutenant.

Senior Lieutenant- the naval rank of junior officers in Russia, which is higher in rank than lieutenant, and lower than lieutenant commander. With excellent performance in the service, he can be an assistant to the captain of the ship.

Lieutenant Commander- the highest rank of junior officers, which in the Russian Federation and Germany corresponds to the captain of the army of the ground forces. A sailor with this rank is considered the deputy captain of the ship and the commander of a company of hundreds of subordinates.

Senior officers

Captain 3rd rank- Corresponds to an army major. The abbreviated name of the shoulder strap is "captri". Among the duties is command of a ship of the corresponding rank. These are small military vessels: landing, anti-submarine, torpedo and minesweepers.

Captain of the second rank, or "kapdva" - the rank of a sailor in the Navy, which corresponds to a lieutenant colonel in land ranks. This is the commander of a ship of the same rank: large landing, missile and destroyers.

Captain of the first rank, or "kapraz", "kapturang" - a military rank in the Russian Navy, which is higher in rank than a captain of the second rank and lower than a rear admiral. May 7, 1940 exists among ranks in the navy, decided by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. "Kapturang" commands ships with complex control and huge military power: aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and cruisers.

Senior officer corps

rear admiral can command a squadron of ships and replace the commander of a flotilla. Adopted since 1940 and since that time corresponds to the major general of the ground forces and aviation.

Vice Admiral- the rank of sailors in Russia, which allows you to replace the admiral. Corresponds to the lieutenant general of the ground forces. Manages fleet operations.

Admiral from the Dutch language it is translated as "lord of the sea", therefore it is in the highest officer corps. Army employees correspond to the rank of colonel-general. Operates an active fleet.

Fleet Admiral- the highest active rank, as well as in other types of troops, army general. Manages the fleet and is assigned to active admirals with excellent combat, organizational and strategic performance.

What types of troops are assigned naval ranks?

The Navy of the Russian Federation (Russian Navy) also includes the following units:

• marines;
• coast guard;
• naval aviation.

The Marine Corps is a unit that carries out the defense of military installations, sections of the coast and other sea lines. As part of the "marines" there are sabotage and reconnaissance groups. Marine Corps motto: "Where we are, there is victory."

The Coast Guard is a branch of the military that defends the bases of the Russian fleets and special objects of the coastal zone. They have at their disposal anti-aircraft, torpedo, mine weapons, as well as missile systems and other artillery.

Naval aviation - troops whose duties include the detection and destruction of the enemy, the defense of ships and other elements from enemy forces, the destruction of enemy aircraft, helicopters and other air structures. The aviation of the Russian Federation also carries out air transportation and rescue operations on the high seas.

How and for what is the next rank awarded to sailors?

The assignment of the next title is described in the current laws of the Russian Federation:

• for a senior sailor, it is necessary to serve 5 months;
• receiving a foreman of the 2nd article can be expected after a year of service;
• three years for senior sergeant and chief ship foreman;
• three years to receive a midshipman;
• 2 years for junior lieutenant;
• 3 to receive a lieutenant and a senior lieutenant;
• 4 years to get a lieutenant commander and a captain of the 3rd rank.
• 5 years to captain 2nd and 1st rank;
• for senior officers for at least a year at the same rank.

It is also worth knowing that military ranks in the navy can be assigned if the due date has not yet passed, but the military man has shown his organizational, tactical and strategic abilities. The sailor who does not want to become an admiral is bad, all the more so, it is possible. There are many examples of ambitious, ambitious sailors who became admirals.

The reasons for the superiority of England on the seas to the middle XVIII century.

Shipbuilding.

If in the XVI - XVII centuries, all countries (including England) have peaks in military shipbuilding, followed by recessions in times of peace, then by the middle XVII century in England, for the first time in the world, the STATE OF THE FLEET is approved - that is, the number of warships that must be constantly maintained in service. This system was introduced for quite a long time - from 1673 to 1712, but by the end of the War of the Spanish Succession it had taken its final form, about 5-10 ships of different classes were put into operation annually, the same number was withdrawn from the payroll for repair / timekeeping / decommissioning.

Thus, by about 1730, England constantly maintains the number of warships at the level of 100-120 units. More than this was not in any fleet.

In addition, the states of the fleet are determined by the Admiralty, that is, military people, while in France the minister of the sea or the secretary of state for the fleet is mostly civilian.

Industrial espionage.

The British constantly followed the novelties in the enemy fleets. Yes, the French built better ships, but soon the British introduced all their new items at home.

In France, only in the 1770s did a monthly operational summary of the composition of the fleets of other powers and combat readiness appear. It has existed in England since 1712 (since the time of Daniel Defoe, Godolphin and Harley).

Finance.

Money for both England and its opponents is a constant headache. However, the British from the end XVIII centuries introduce fleet budgeting, which is strictly limited and changes after consideration in Parliament according to the requests of the Admiralty and the Government.

In France, sometimes the money is allocated in sufficient volume, sometimes it is not allocated at all. The Naval Ministry has no financial margin of safety at all.

Officer Corps.

The officer corps in England from the middle XVII century obeys the points Articles of war . All training in the fleet is aimed at constant practice, at the observance of general naval tactics and strategy. They have little theory, but a lot of practice. Since 1672, the English fleet has constantly entered the big summer maneuvers in peacetime. At the level of officers, the interaction of ships and linear tactics are worked out, at the level of sailors - work with sails and the rate of fire of cannons.

In France, just the opposite - there are many theoretically savvy, but few naval officers who have been at sea. In addition, quite a lot of officers transferred to ships from the ground forces served in the navy until 1776. In addition - the officer naval corps in France suffers from patronage and "majors" - the path for seedy nobles and commoners to a career above the captain is practically closed (there are very few exceptions - Conflans, La Perouse, Suffren). Only after 1765 did the French abolish the rule that noble people were appointed to the commanders of ships and squadrons.

Teams.

Sailing ships needed numerous teams. 74-gunner mid XVIII centuries, for example, had a team of 600 to 750 people. Three-decker 100-gunners had teams under 1000 people.

In England, the training from land rats to real sailors was set to the highest level. Constant drill, discipline, participation in maneuvers. The British commanders were considered the best in the world. The rate of fire of the Royal Navy (3 rounds in 5 minutes) is the highest.

In addition - the British had a mobilization reserve - up to 100 thousand merchant sailors.

In France, with the need for at least 50 thousand sailors, they barely recruited 30-35 thousand. It was a kind of natural frontier beyond which the French could not go. In addition, the training of sailors in the French fleet did not have such a rigid, well-established system as that of the British. Maneuvers by the French fleet were very rare, most often the tactics were discussed in the naval ministry or in naval magazines.

Therefore, most often the French fleet entered the war unprepared and tried to catch up on training in battle. However, by the middle XVIII centuries, the gap between the British was so great that almost every time the French were simply doomed.