Modern philosophical, cultural, psychological, paleontological and anthropological views are developing in line with the post-classical scientific paradigm.

Since the mid 20s. 20th century the formation of new branches of evolutionary biology began on the basis of the synthesis of Darwinism with genetics, ecology, biocenology and mathematical modeling. This process was based on an experimental study of the factors and causes that together cause the adaptive transformation of populations. Combining these areas with each other and synthesizing them with the previously established branches of evolutionary biology, which study the processes of macrophylogenesis, became the basis of modern Darwinism, or synthetic theory of evolution. Its most characteristic philosophical and methodological features are the following.

• 1. The essence of the synthetic theory of evolution lies in the interpretation of the evolutionary process as a complex contradictory interaction of external and internal factors, realized through natural selection in the adaptive transformations of populations. An integrated approach to the study of the causal foundations of evolution made it possible to study the initial stages and forms of adaptatiogenesis and speciation, i.e., macroevolution.
• 2. In the synthetic theory of evolution, studies of its elementary unit were raised to the level of the methodology of the dialectical method, i.e., overcoming the idea of ​​a separate organism as the basis of the historical development of life. The replacement of the organism-centric approach in understanding the unit of evolution by the population one, according to which the population is the elementary carrier of the evolutionary process, led to the formation of a fundamentally new population-centric style of thinking, which caused other approaches in the methodology of evolutionary biological research. The population approach made it possible to reveal real internal contradictions as the driving forces underlying evolutionary transformations. These contradictions lie not in the "organism - environment" system, as was accepted in all autogenetic and ectogenetic concepts of evolution, but in the "population - biogeocenosis" system, in which biotic relationships play a leading role.
• 3. The recognition of natural selection as the main driving force of evolution finally approved the idea of ​​the transformation of objectively random, i.e., non-directed towards adaptations, hereditary variability into adaptive directed process of evolution, naturally carried out by selection. It was also shown that under the control of selection are not only all the characteristics of the organism and the organization of the species as a whole, but also the factors of evolution themselves, in particular, the nature and rate of mutational variability, which itself turned out to be an adaptive trait of the species.
• 4. The wide application of experimental methods in the study of evolution has made it possible to find facts that lend themselves to an unambiguous interpretation.
• 5. Only within the framework of the synthetic theory of evolution has it become possible to correctly pose the question of the driving forces of macroevolution, including progressive development. The synthetic theory of evolution comprehensively substantiates the position on the unity of the driving forces of micro- and macroevolution and shows that all major changes in living nature (from protobionts to the emergence of higher anthropoids) were adaptive processes. under the control of selection. It has been proved that the main patterns of macroevolution (irreversibility, unevenness, directionality, etc.) are stable consequences of factors and causes acting at the species level.
• 6. The synthetic theory of evolution develops not by the absolute negation of anti-Darwinian concepts, but by using the rational provisions contained in them. So, for example, it included the doctrine of pre-adaptation, convergence and parallelism, the direction of phylogeny. The facts and generalizations of these concepts have consistently received a dialectical materialistic explanation from the standpoint of the principle of natural selection.
• 7. The synthetic theory of evolution is not a frozen system of theoretical propositions. Within its framework, new areas of research continue to form. A characteristic feature of the development of the synthetic theory of evolution in recent years has been the formation of ideas about evolution as a complex conjugated process occurring within the framework of the main levels of organization of living things (molecular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic and biospheric).
• 8. Recently, in the synthetic theory of evolution, the problem of the evolution of the factors themselves and the causes of the historical development of living things has been put forward, and the first attempts to solve it have been outlined. It was shown that in the process of the history of the living, large stages (formations) can be distinguished, each of which is characterized by specific forms of action of general factors and causes of evolution, as well as the presence of some particular factors that act only at this stage. This proves the applicability of the methodology of formational analysis of development processes in the study of the evolution of living things.
• 9. The most important practical task of the synthetic theory of evolution is the development of rational ways to control the evolutionary process under the ever-increasing impact of society on the environment. The task of evolutionary theory is to develop a system of measures to transform nature, taking into account the adaptive capabilities of individual species and the biosphere as a whole.

The process of development of the psyche and consciousness in phylo- and ontogenesis can and should be considered both from the standpoint of structural-logical and cultural-historical analysis. But they are inseparable and united for a common understanding of this problem.

Let's start with a consideration of the general structural-logical scheme of the objective necessity of the emergence and development of the psyche and consciousness.

To begin with, let's ask ourselves a simple question: the psyche, consciousness, the level of their organization, the behavior and activity corresponding to them, why do they arise and develop in the process of evolutionary development with an objective necessity?

Very convincingly and figuratively, the answer to this question was substantiated in his lectures on psychology by L.B. Itelson (2000). Based on these ideas, we offer our vision of this problem.

Let us note once again how a living being differs from an inanimate one. First of all - its exceptional instability. A living system can exist only on the basis of a continuous exchange of matter and energy with the surrounding world. It requires certain very subtle conditions to maintain its integrity (the mechanism that ensures these conditions is homeostasis). Everything destroys it: the surrounding elemental forces, the lack of food, the death of offspring, etc. Any metabolic disorder leads to its death. There is nothing weaker, more unstable and defenseless before the outside world than life. And yet it has existed and developed for millions of years. During this time, the highest mountains collapsed. The continents have changed their places. Oceans come and go. The earth's crust cracked and rose. But this insignificant fragile light of life burned and flared up brighter and brighter. Why is this? Have you watched more than once how plants make their way through concrete slabs or asphalt, how they grow on bare rocks? Where does such an unprecedented amazing force of life come from?

It is clear that this could happen only under one condition: the desire, in spite of everything, to somehow survive. In what way? And such that nature has developed special mechanisms for them fixtures. This is the fundamental difference between the phenomenon that we call life and the inanimate one. Inanimate (substance) is preserved in only one way: passively reflecting and resisting external influences in accordance with the laws of physics, mechanics, chemistry.

Life has a completely different mechanism of self-preservation. Trying to maintain its integrity (having developed the mechanisms of homeostasis), it ensures its existence, not so much resisting as adapting. However, the nature and mechanisms of this adaptation are qualitatively different and have their own characteristics at each level of development of the forms of mental reflection, or, more simply, the levels of organization of living beings.

This means that the basis of the foundations of any life activity is ultimately active fixture to the environment, or adaptation. Everything in a living organism is directed towards this goal - various types of adaptation or active adaptation. To actively adapt means to act in such a way as to realize a certain goal that ensures the preservation and development of an individual, individual or species. Intuitively understanding the expediency in the development of a living organism, soul (psychic) ​​and trying to explain it, Aristotle, the great sage of Antiquity, uses the philosophical term "entelechy", understanding by it the ability of all living things to strive for a goal and realize it.

Thus, any activity and behavior (to a certain extent) is aimed at achieving a specific goal. This means that they are ultimately governed by the goals of the organism, and then by the external environment, since the external environment is only a stimulus for them. All living beings act not so much "why", but "for what". And to strive for the goal, the desired result, means to strive for the future. Consequently, in the end, the behavior of a living organism is governed by the needs of the present, which are to be realized in the future. This is the secret of life.

Why does this mechanism of controlling the future arise with necessity in the living? Yes, very simple.

For example: imagine that deer hear the roar of a lion. This is a signal that the lion is on the hunt. And the deer run away.

What are the animals reacting to here? Is this roar itself a danger to them? Threats their lives? No. They react to what comes next, to the future that threatens them. If animals reacted only to the present, they would wait until the lion grabbed them. But then it would be too late to react. In other words, the animal reacts not to what is, but to what will be; it is already adapting to future changes in the situation.

The factors that govern this filtering are, firstly, time between a neutral stimulus and a subsequent event important to the organism. The shorter it is, the faster the “meaning” of the connection is captured.

For example, if the bell is always rung immediately before food is served, the animal very quickly discovers that it is signaling, i.e., "meaning" the food. But if the bell rings regularly an hour before food is served, it will take many days for the animal to discover the connection between these events. There are too many other events, which means that possible connections will wedge into this hourly interval, and it will be much more difficult to single out the most significant of them (9).

The second factor is body condition at the moment of objective realization of communication. Thus, a well-fed animal does not respond to food-related signals. During the period of sexual arousal, all signals associated with the female acquire special significance for the animal. (Remember how, similarly, for the lover, all things connected with the object of adoration are filled with special meaning: her handkerchief, her gloves, the street she walked along, the book she held, etc.). At other times, the same stimuli lose their significance and completely different ones begin to attract, for example, those associated with food.

Finally, the third factor is the state of the environment. The more variable it is, the more connections are found in it, and the more important the ability to take them into account becomes. But the environment is changed by the actions of the animal itself. Simply moving around in space already changes the situation for him. The more active and mobile the animal, the greater the number of various connections it encounters, and the more important it is for it to discover and take into account these connections. Therefore, the development of the psyche is inextricably linked with the "conquest of space" by living beings and the increase in the diversity of their activity.

Thus, in order to do what it does, the psyche must turn on the signal filtering process, adjusted by time, the state of the body and the state of the environment.

However, the connections observed in reality may be random.

For example, if a student was messing around and then failed an exam, then the connection between the two events is no coincidence. It is necessary and natural. Conversely, if a student fails an exam after encountering a black cat along the way, then the connection between the two events is mere coincidence. It is caused not by the essential properties of the phenomena themselves, but by the accidental intersection of two internally independent chains of events.

Frequent repetition of random coincidences is extremely unlikely. Therefore, the body, which will be guided by it, has every chance of often getting into trouble.

Therefore, in order to develop effective behavior, it is not enough to be able to discover the connections of reality that are relevant to its goals. One must also be able to sift out among them the unimportant, accidental and single out the essential, necessary, naturally arising from the stable properties of things and phenomena.

How does it work out in the psyche? But the fact is that random coincidences are relatively rare (gambling is built on this principle). Regular connections appear always when there are appropriate conditions, i.e., generally speaking, relatively more often.

Therefore, in the first approximation, the regularity, the significance of the connection can be judged by frequency with which the corresponding sequence of events occurs.

For example, the more often in our experience the mass unreasonable anxiety of domestic animals coincided with the subsequent earthquake, the more likely it is that the next time it will be a signal of an imminent earthquake.

This method of distinguishing regular relationships from random ones, based on an estimate of the probability of future repetition of these relationships according to their observed frequency, began to be used in mathematical statistics in the 19th century for the analysis of biological and social processes.

These are mathematical and statistical methods estimates of the level of statistical significance when testing various hypotheses. So, since in psychology there are statistical, i.e., probabilistic, laws that act as laws-trends in relation to the general population, then levels of statistical significance, usually accepted, quite high (p

Science revealed these patterns only in the 19th century, but they always existed in nature! Therefore, the psyche of animals (and humans) uses a similar mechanism.

Developing, nature severely changed its conditions, and, accordingly, only the most adapted individuals of animal species survived, developing and improving this mechanism of statistical filtering (selection from the whole variety of probabilistic relationships that are most significant at a given time).

This mechanism, as noted above, is formed and functions on the basis of the development of conditioned reflex connections under the influence of time factors between a number of connected events. If a large period of time elapses between the signal and the reinforcement, then, as the results of experiments show, the number of required repetitions (attempts) increases.

Another factor is the strength of the reinforcement (punishment), or the value for the animal of the individual (individual) of the event that is preceded by the signal. In the occurrence of some events, we are completely sure, in others - not completely or partially, in the third - with a very high degree of risk or not at all sure. And the psyche constantly weighs the chances and measure of risk associated with the choice and reliability of these connections for choosing a strategy for the behavior of an individual or an individual in a particular situation.

Therefore, in order to reveal really significant and meaningful connections, the psyche must have the ability, in the most complex set of properties inherent in each thing, in the diverse interweaving of circumstances that characterize each situation, to single out only significant connections, to take into account only essential circumstances and relationships.

To do this, the psyche has the ability to distinguish the properties of things or analyze the situation, to distinguish individual properties, aspects and characteristics of objects, processes, phenomena. And this ability is already evolutionarily incorporated in sensations, their differentiation, in the nervous system itself. However, in their life activity, animals and humans do not deal with individual properties of objects and things, but with combinations of signs or a set of signs their defining ones.

The process by which such an association is carried out, a combination of features, aspects, properties and characteristics into a single structural feature set displayed thing, phenomenon, process, is called synthesis.

Thus, the operations of analysis and synthesis undoubtedly underlie what P.Ya. Galperin called orientation activity.

Analytic-synthetic principle work provides the psyche with a very economical mechanism for reflecting the surrounding reality. It allows the psyche to form schematic images of many classes things and phenomena of reality.

And this, in turn, is connected with the ability to form such mental operations as generalization and classification. The commonality for the organism of various objects and situations, according to some common feature, finds its objective the expression is that the animal responds to them with an unambiguous reaction. This reaction is the result of the fact that the common feature acts as sign the significance it has for the organism in a given situation.

The fact that these processes and mechanisms are indeed inherent in the psyche is evidenced by the facts of the transfer of innate or acquired forms of behavior and reactions to all situations and objects that have a certain common sign that is significant for them.

The things themselves, objects, phenomena, processes for a living organism do not matter if they are not included in the structure of its life activity and needs. It is this meaning of a thing and meaning (for a person) that becomes the basis for classifying and combining, generalizing the objects of reality, controls the behavior and activities in relation to all of them. In accordance with this, the psyche reflects the surrounding reality, depending on the level of the animal's mental organization.

Thus, the stage of “elementary sensory psyche” (according to A.N. Leontiev) or “ethological (entomological)” level (according to K.K. Platonov) is characterized by the reflection of individual signs, properties items.

The stage of the “perceptual psyche” (according to A.N. Leontiev) or the actual mental level (according to K.K. Platonov) is characterized by reflection in the form subjective image items and some relations.

The stage of "intellectual behavior" of animals and conscious human activity is characterized by reflection in the form images, concepts things, objects, them relations and functions.

Moreover, this reflection of the surrounding reality should be a leading reflection (P.K. Anokhin), and therefore, undoubtedly, it is associated with memory (short-term, operational and long-term) and mnemonic processes (memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting), as well as with mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, concretization, for a person - abstract-logical).

Thus, analyzing the processes and mechanisms of the psyche that ensure its optimal adaptation in the environment, we find that the following elements are necessarily included in the structure of mental activity:

• ability to analyze, i.e. discrimination individual properties, aspects and characteristics of objects, processes, phenomena;
• the ability to synthesize, i.e., to combine features, aspects, properties and characteristics into a single structural set of features, which underlies the subjective image of the displayed thing, phenomenon, process;
• analytical-synthetic principle of work, which underlies the orientation activity;
• signal filtering mechanism, tuned by time, the state of the body and the state of the environment, according to their meaning and significance for the body;
• statistical filtering mechanism, i.e. selection from the whole variety probabilistic connections, the most significant at a given time for the life of the organism;
• the ability to generalize and classify objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality;
• anticipation, i.e., the ability to anticipate the surrounding reality.

Thus, already at the level of an individual animal, all the prerequisites are created for the emergence of the highest form of mental reflection, inherent only to man - consciousness.

So, we have considered the complication of forms of mental reflection, their features and mechanisms in individual representatives of the animal world. But the animal world consists of hundreds of thousands and millions of such similar organisms, specimens, individuals. Therefore, its behavior can only be truly understood if we consider it as included in the social, joint behavior of living organisms.

Social behavior is absolutely necessary for any sufficiently highly organized animal. In this joint behavior in animals, new features and mechanisms of behavior are found that are absent in one single organism, which arise only when several individuals interact.

The purpose of social behavior is the same as any behavior - survival. Survive, adapt to the outside world, ensure the preservation and continuation of the species by combining, combining the efforts of several or many representatives of this species, that is, through joint activity - this is the main goal (or GOOD, according to Plato, to which all living things aspire).

Such a combination of actions of many animals of the same species is called cooperation (joint activity). Cooperation solves a number of problems and can be directed:

• for the breeding and preservation of offspring (marriage pairs in animals, the union of a male and a female to raise cubs or chicks);
• to defend and fight enemies. When herds of herbivorous artiodactyls, when a predator appears, form a circle and create a solid hedge of deadly horns or hooves, which encloses the life of females and cubs with an insurmountable ring;
• for getting food. Defensive cooperation is usually observed in herbivores, and "offensive" cooperation in carnivores;
• on domestic cooperation aimed at creating and maintaining the conditions necessary for the coexistence of animals. For example, the construction of a hive and honeycombs by bees, maintaining the temperature in it, ventilation - all this is possible only through the joint actions of the entire bee family.

Another characteristic feature of the social behavior of animals is specialization. In order for joint activity to be successful, a certain distribution of functions between its participants is necessary.

So, as it grows up, each bee performs the functions of a hive cleaner, comb builder, forager, fan, honey and pollen collector, etc. In ants, specialization becomes anatomical. The worker ant and the warrior ant are so different in structure that they look like representatives of different insect species.

Cooperation and specialization in animal communities are well known facts. But these mechanisms alone are not enough to ensure the successful functioning of such communities. There must be some other center that manages joint activities.

In order for the result of the interaction to be non-random, it is necessary management and organization. This is achieved by dominance and subordination, i.e. domination and subordination. And there is a whole hierarchy. The simplest form is the presence of a leader. An animal that is the leader dominates all others in a given community. It eats food first. He primarily owns females. At the same time, the leader performs certain management functions. He gives a signal of danger, distress and attack signals, puts things in order in the herd, etc. .

A more complex case is the hierarchical organization of the animal community. In this case, there are several levels of dominance. In this case, dominance is understood as such a position of an individual when it is more aggressive than others in the group and enjoys advantages in reproduction, nutrition and movement. The position that an animal occupies from this point of view in its community is called rank.

So, for example, a strict hierarchy takes place in herds of baboon monkeys. It manifests itself, for example, in the order in which food is eaten. Until individuals of a higher rank are satisfied, monkeys of lower ranks not only do not approach food, but do not even dare to cast a glance in its direction.

When a new individual is placed in a closed group with an established hierarchy, the period of its fights with the rest begins again. In the process of these fights, the ranks are redistributed, and the “newcomer” takes a place on the stage of dominance he has conquered.

Management and organization manifest themselves in different ways depending on the form of interconnection in animal communities. From the point of view of the specifics of the manifestation of social ties in the animal world, the following main social groups can be distinguished.

Individuals- animals leading an isolated lifestyle, which do not form married couples, do not care for offspring. Such an animal lives by itself, and no elements of social behavior are observed in it (the cuckoo is one of the famous examples, as well as many fish).

Next group - temporary families- association of two animals for breeding and rearing offspring, as well as temporary group associations, flocks(associations of birds for flight, wolves for hunting, etc. In such groups, specialization is still very weak, but it already has a leader).

herds- permanent associations with small specialization.

Colonies- permanent association with the division of certain functions, for example, protection, food production, raising cubs, etc. (colonies of penguins, beavers, etc.).

Communities- associations with strict specialization and complex coordination (bees, ants). Living beings living in a community cannot exist separately at all. From this point of view, an ant's nest or a swarm of bees is an intermediate link between the organism and the individual animal. In essence, this is a kind of organism in which each individual can only live together with all the others, otherwise it dies.

In any joint association, a group of individuals, another most interesting feature necessarily arises and manifests itself - this communication or communicative behaviour. In order to coordinate actions, so that a group of animals act in a coordinated manner, so that each individual performs its functions, they need communication, they need to transmit signals to each other, for example, that food has been found, that danger is approaching, etc.

There are two types of signaling in this communication process: sound and motor.

So, sound communication, or sound language, is quite widespread among animals. In some birds, for example, in magpies, up to 20 different signals were found, in crows too. One cry denotes danger. The other is a call to the chicks that food has been found. The third signal is a call to the female. The fourth signal means a threat, an intention to fight, etc.

Monkeys have a rather developed sound language - about 40 different signals in total: tenderness, call, danger, etc. Moreover, in monkeys, these signals are already more differentiated. For example, danger, predator, snake - one signal. Unknown danger is another signal. The call is one signal, the persistent call is another signal, and so on.

Motor signaling is also highly developed in many mammals. Expressive movements observed in almost all animals include, in particular, clearly distinguishable postures of threat, submission, alertness, courtship, etc.

So, for example, the posture of submission among wolves - exposing the throat to the jaws of the enemy - instantly stops the attack in the most violent fight.

But in addition to sound and motor signals, animals also have those that humans do not widely use. This is odor alarm, when an animal emits a substance with a certain smell, and it serves as a signal to others.

And one more type of signaling, which already has nothing at all similar in human practice. This is chemical alarm. So, some types of insects secrete certain substances: pheromones, which carry a signal for other insects.

For example, an ant that has found food releases a special substance with which it marks the path along which it walked. Any ant that gets on these paths immediately begins to follow the same path. Another substance calls only the male to the female. The third, on the contrary, serves as an alarm signal, and the ant, having bumped into it, hastily runs away.

Public organization, interaction and communication lead to the emergence of a fundamentally new way of shaping behavior, and hence the psyche of animals - assimilation of the experience of the older generation.

Such a mechanism for the formation of species behavior significantly increases the chances of each individual for survival. Therefore, the proportion of social learning and regulation is continuously increasing in the animal world, reaching its highest expression in man.

Another essentially new thing that the general behavior brings with it is the emergence of a new type of reactions that are not aimed at interacting with nature, the surrounding reality, but at changing the behavior of other individuals of their species. This refers to the use of various communication signals discussed earlier. All these signals represent behavior that is fundamentally different from other types of animal reactions.

So, for example, when a crow lets out a cry of danger and the whole flock takes off and flies away, then outwardly we see immediately inappropriate behavior on both sides. Indeed, the crow that saw the danger should fly away quickly. It will be directly biologically expedient. Instead she screams. In turn, the cry of a crow is not dangerous in itself. And the whole flock reacts to him as a danger, and flies away.

What's the matter? And the fact is that on both sides we have here symbolic behaviour. The crow will react its "experience" (emotion) of danger in a cry and in flight. The escape here is immediate practical response. It saves the crow. And the cry? Scream here symbolic response. He does not save the crow, but only expresses her state (emotion), which is accompanied by a flight reaction. This reaction, in turn, becomes a danger signal for the rest of the crows (through imitation), causing them to practical reaction (flight) and symbolic(screams).

The essential thing here is that a certain situation of reality, significant for the animal, is indicated by a certain symbolic reaction. This is a new class of reactions. Their purpose is not in the self-preservation of the animal (species), but in the designation of a certain aspect of reality.

The biological expediency of such symbolization is clear. Thanks to her, important information (about danger, about food, etc.), obtained by one animal, becomes the property of the whole group. This increases the chances of survival, reduces searches and victims, and creates a fundamentally new relationship between the real object and the signal that designates it. In animals, it is the relationship of cause and effect. An animal's communicative signal arises because an object appears that has a corresponding biological meaning. Accordingly, conveying meaningful information about reality through symbolic signals is extremely common in the animal kingdom. It finds its highest expression in human language.

Thus, the general principle of the activity of the psyche is the same in man and animals. The psyche reflects reality and processes information about its significant connections contained in this reflection. But at the level of language, concept, word, a new reality enters the sphere of what is reflected. These are not the things themselves and their relations, but the symbolic actions of a person or their products, representing (replacing) the corresponding things and relations of reality.

For a person, it becomes characteristic that, along with the sensual, rational knowledge arises (by the power of thought), a person acquires the ability to penetrate deeper into the essence of things than his sense organs allow him.

The word can be used instead of real object or phenomenon. His relation to the real object is therefore no longer only causal. This attitude substitution or representations. Therefore, the word is no longer just a signal. It is also a sign of some reality. As such, it can be used apart from things themselves, as a substitute for an encounter with things themselves, to represent an experience about those things.

This determines the fundamental difference between the social learning of animals and the social learning of man. Animals assimilate only the experience of the older individuals directly surrounding them, that is, only the experience of their parents or the environment, or the pack.

Therefore, the consciousness, thinking of a person is fundamentally different from the animal intellect. The human psyche can operate with images of objects that are currently absent in his field of vision. His behavior can be controlled by the relation of things around him to things that are not in front of him now, the images of which he has drawn from his experience. Moreover, this ability is closely connected in humans with the concept, word, speech.

Thanks to this “small” difference, a decisive step forward takes place. Man is freed from the captivity of the present situation. It goes beyond the present moment, moves freely in the mind into the past and future, in time and space. Thus, he is freed from slavery before a situation given from outside, which determines the entire behavior of the animal.

Replacing immediate reality with mental images representing it opens up possibilities for discovering complex and distant connections of things in time and space - the relationship of causes and effects, structure and functions, goals and means. On this basis, the internal, hidden from direct perception structural and functional properties of things, their essence and purpose, meanings and meaning are revealed.

Considered a qualitatively new ability of the human psyche did not fall to him from the sky, like a kind of "spark of God." It was acquired and developed thanks to labor. It was labor that from the very beginning of the development of mankind was the main feature that distinguished its way of life from all other animals and brought it out of the animal world.

Any labor is fundamentally different from the simple appropriation of the products of nature, since it is associated with the use and manufacture of tools of labor, i.e., the impact of one thing on another is used. Therefore, in the process of labor, the objective properties of things are revealed in relation to each other, and all labor represents an activity that is guided by these objective properties of things, and not by their biological significance. To make a stone ax, one must consider the relative hardness of the stones, not their edibility. And the actions for making a stone ax are governed by this objective property, and not by a biological need.

On the other hand, the considered ability is a necessary condition of labor. Labor creates a new product, and does not appropriate ready-made from nature. While this new is not embodied in stone, metal, wood, paints, it exists only in the head of the creator as an image. Therefore, labor requires the ability to be guided in activity by a mental representation of a product that reflects its objective properties, functions, causal relationships with other things and with actions on them, etc.

So the animal has only one world. This is the environment directly perceived by him, in which he lives and acts only in relation to this world. A person creates, as it were, a second world in his mind, thinking through speech. Firstly, it is the real world of the things themselves and their relations, and secondly, it is also the real world of its own symbolic actions and their products, representing these things and relations.

The first world exists independently of man. The second, created by humanity itself and therefore, to a certain extent, is in its power. It is thanks to him that a person can perceive and process information about things that are not directly in his experience, can use this information to control his behavior and the actions of other people.

This world is much wider than the one in which man lives. This second "spiritual" world includes countries where a person has not been, eras in which he did not live, knowledge and experience of people who died long before him. This is a fundamental qualitative difference that characterizes the human intellect and makes a person from a slave of the world around him a master over him, allows you to transform this world and strive for distant goals, turns a person’s actions from reflex behavior into planned activity, and his stay on earth from an adaptive existence into an active one. life with meaning and high purpose.

• See: Philosophical problems of natural science: textbook, allowance / ed.S.T. Melyukhin. M.: Higher. school, 1985. S. 313-315.
• However, this provision refers to the laws of classical physics and mechanics. Beyond them, other laws apply. In the field of the mega-world (the Universe) and the micro-world (the world of elementary particles), the laws of relativity (Enstein, mathematics Lobachevsky and Riemann) operate, the paths of probabilistic development developed by quantum physics and synergetics (there is a special literature on this problem. Those who wish should familiarize themselves with the philosophical problems of natural science ).

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• Introduction
• 1. Development of consciousness
• 2. Development of the human psyche
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

Each child has their own individual development path. Children develop not only at different rates, but also go through individually unique stages of development. However, at the same time, of course, there are general patterns, the knowledge of which is necessary for understanding the individual development of the child.

The development of the psyche is a regular change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations. The modern psychologist I. Tulving studied and presented the theoretical foundations of consciousness:

· Anoetic consciousness (procedural memory) is a state when we are not aware of anything, but we register environmental signals and react to them.

· Noetic consciousness (semantic memory) is a state when we are aware of something that is not included in the existing environment, as if symbolic consciousness.

· Autonoetic consciousness (episodic memory) - this is what we know about ourselves, the memory of the events of personal life.

The consciousness of modern man is a product of the history of all mankind, the result of the development of an endless succession of generations of people. Before understanding its essence, it is necessary to find out how it originated. Consciousness has evolved along with the evolution of the psyche of animals. Over the course of millions of years, conditions were created for the emergence of a rational person; without this, the emergence of human consciousness would hardly have been possible.

1. Development of consciousness

Consciousness is the highest level of human mental activity as a social and spiritual being. Consciousness is an attitude to the world with knowledge of its objective laws. Consciousness is one of the basic concepts not only of psychology, but also of philosophical science. In philosophy, the concept of consciousness is revealed by comparing it with another important philosophical concept of matter. Therefore, the understanding of the essence of consciousness turns out to depend on the method of solving the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness, on understanding consciousness in a broad or narrow sense. When understanding consciousness in a broad sense, it is interpreted as an independent entity, a substance capable of creating the world. Such a substantial, broad understanding of consciousness is characteristic of idealistic philosophy. This approach was first most consistently expressed in the period of antiquity by the philosophy of Plato. The same approach developed in the Christian philosophy of the Middle Ages, which recognized Bora as the bearer of higher consciousness, and later in German classical philosophy, in the idealistic system of Hegel, in which the absolute idea played the role of the origin of the world. The absolute idea (world mind), according to Hegel, is the primary substance that creates all other forms of being; it permeates both nature and man, which are interpreted by Hegel only as forms of other being of the same absolute idea.

The consciousness of a newborn and an adult individual is different. A qualitative evolution is clearly visible here. Moreover, the dependence of the formation of the individual's consciousness on his individual characteristics and the specifics of his social environment has been revealed. Nevertheless, there are different points of view on the processes of development of consciousness and in ontogeny. Of interest are the results of the work of L. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev.

The process of forming the meanings of the categories of objects and phenomena of the world around this particular child occurs due to two mechanisms - generalization and communication, which serves as an incentive basis for the classification of perceived phenomena. Such motivating forces in the process of communication are motivation, warning, encouragement and punishment from the adults and older children surrounding the child. Under the influence of these mechanisms of communication, the meaning of the categories of phenomena is formed in the child during his direct interaction with them. For example, the significance of the cross as a sacred thing is comprehended by the child due to the fact that in relation to this object, those around him approve of some forms of the child's behavior, while others, on the contrary, are severely suppressed. Since the categories into which the world is divided depend on the picture of the world determined by the culture of the community, the meanings of the phenomena assimilated by the child also depend on the culture of the group. Thus, on the basis of sensory impressions, a new content of the child's consciousness is formed in comparison with the pre-speech content.

Already in the pre-speech phase of development, the speech of an adult affects not only the process of forming meanings, but also the behavior of the child. Thanks to speech, certain connections are established between individual words and individual objects and actions. The word spoken at the moment when the child perceives a certain object or performs some action becomes the same part of this object or action, as well as their other properties - shape, brilliance, usual location, surface texture, strength and direction of the actions performed etc. Over time, the word spoken by an adult becomes a stimulus pointing to an object or prompting action, the names of specific objects and actions merge with the objects and actions themselves. From this moment, a specific relationship is established between the child and the adult. Remaining joint, the action with the object, thanks to the word, begins to be divided between the adult and the child. Command words “give me” or “put”, “take”, etc. they divide the action into a verbal instruction from the adult and the action performed by the child.

With the assimilation of the active vocabulary of speech, the child gets the opportunity to name objects for himself and give commands to himself. Thus the word, which was the motive force of an action shared between two people, becomes the motive power of an action in which the subject is both the source of the command and its executor at the same time. It is in this way that behavior acquires the character of arbitrariness. Later, in the process of internalization of speech and its transformation into internal folded speech, command words cease to be noticed and the source of the arbitrariness of human actions becomes hidden for the subject himself. With the development of speech and the complication of forms of interaction with the outside world, a person, thanks to the word, acquires the ability not only to give himself individual commands, but also to compose complex programs of behavior.

From the moment of birth, a person finds himself in the objective world, a huge part of which, especially the immediate environment of the child, was created by man, and the world itself is inhabited by people. Thus, from birth, the child is immersed in a world that is divided and organized in accordance with the culture of society and the culture of the family. This organization of the surrounding world already at first influences the formation, in particular, of the richness of the child's experiences in the sensory sphere.

Here we can talk about the mutual influence of the culture of the group on the richness of the sensory experiences of the child and, conversely, the influence of the formed sensory sphere on the richness of the categories of consciousness that the child can form on this basis. The more toys surround him, the more he is allowed to move, the more they talk to him in early childhood, the richer his sensory impressions will be in the child, the more “material” he will have for categorization. In turn, the more they communicate with the child and the richer the vocabulary of others, the more categories he is given to classify his sensory impressions, the more knowledge he can “share” with others, the more impressions he can share with himself and the richer hence becomes his consciousness.

Thus, the content of consciousness in different periods of individual development turns out to be different. It develops and goes through several stages - at the first stages of its formation, a direct emotional impression plays a leading role in the construction of consciousness, at subsequent stages this decisive place is first occupied by complex objective perception and action, and at the final stages - by a system of abstract codes built on the basis of distracting and generalizing functions of the language (Luriya A.R., 1970). First, perception, actions and emotions are determined by sensory experiences, then the sensory experiences themselves begin to be determined by those categories that are formed with the help of language. Perception mediated by language arises, the logical structure of memory is formed, which, moreover, acquires the character of arbitrariness, attention becomes arbitrary, and new forms of emotional experiences arise.

It can be seen from the above that the basis for the formation of consciousness is dialogue. Dialogue is therefore also a form of its existence. In the process of dialogue, people agree on their meanings, thus giving them a social character. The meanings of categories of objects and specific objects generated in the process of dialogue thus have a socio-historical nature, but they can exist only in the form of individual consciousness (V.F. Petrenko). But the dialogue between two people was not originally an end in itself. It was a means of division of labor and coordination of actions in joint activities. In this regard, it is the category of activity that becomes central in theoretical psychology, which adheres to the principles listed at the very beginning - development, systemicity and determinism.

2. Development of the human psyche

To explain the possibility of the development of the human psyche on the basis of social experience, I.P. Pavlov introduced the concepts of the first and second signal systems. The first signal system is a type of signal system, as the orientation of animals to direct stimuli, which can be visual, auditory, tactile signals associated with adaptive conditioned reflex reactions. The second signaling system is a type of signaling system that is focused on sign, primarily verbal, signals, on the basis of which the formation of temporary neural connections is possible. Since a person is characterized by the joint action of the first and second signal systems, then I.P. Pavlov proposed to distinguish specifically human types of higher nervous activity according to the predominance of one or another system. In accordance with this, the artistic type was defined as having the predominance of the first signal system, the mental type as having the predominance of the second signal system, and the average type as balanced on this basis.

The development of the psyche in ontogenesis is the process of evolution of the ways in which an individual interacts with the environment. At present, we can say that the opposites in orientation either to the innate or to the learned (monada - tabula rasa) are removed in such a concept of development, in which it is considered as a process:

leading to changes in all psychological structures of the individual;

passing certain, qualitatively specific, stages, including in the form of crises;

having both sensitive to external influences and relatively autonomous periods;

built with purpose.

The development of the human psyche is based on the individual's mastery of historically formed social tools that serve as a means of satisfying human needs. There are many periodizations of human mental development in ontogeny. In different models, different stages are involved, and the criteria used to distinguish them are also different. In the teaching of St. Hall, the ontogeny of the psyche is considered as a process that generally repeats the process of historical development, here the stages are distinguished: infancy, childhood, pre-adolescence and youth, which correspond to the evolution of society: the animal stage, savagery, the beginning of civilization, the era of romanticism. Based on the evolutionary approach, Art. Holla A.L. Gesell (1880-1961), American psychologist, one of the founders of child psychology, developed and standardized a method for observing children's behavior, in particular using a camera and a translucent mirror. He developed a scale for measuring the mental development of young children, which soon became very popular. Using this scale, he described the age norms of a child's development. In the teachings of J. Piaget (1896-1980), the criterion of periodization is the development of the intellect. In the teachings of Z. Freud - the orientation of libidinal energy. psychic consciousness anoetic

S. Buhler identified four main trends in human life: satisfaction of vital needs, adaptive self-restraint, creative expansion, the establishment of inner harmony of the self. At the same time, in the periodization of the life path of a person, the main motive is the need for self-fulfillment. It is on the basis of the realization of the need for self-determination that the phases of life are distinguished: the first phase, when there is still no self-determination, is characterized by a low level of self-consciousness; when the specification of self-determination for specific life goals occurs, a vocation or permanent work is found, the fourth phase, when self-determination ceases, is characterized by biological decline, only the life of memories remains in the fifth phase.

E. Erikson's individual development is determined by the dynamics of solving the central problems of age. The process of personality development takes place from birth to death and goes through eight typical stages. At each stage, its own task of development is solved, the specifics of which depend both on the situation and on age. Depending on its decision (or non-solution), corresponding personality neoplasms arise. This is:

1. Basic trust (distrust).

2. Autonomy (feeling dependent).

3. Initiative (feeling of guilt).

4. Productive objective activity.

5. Identity (diffusion of identity).

6. Intimacy and solidarity (isolation).

7. Creativity (stagnation).

8. Ego-integration (disappointment in life).

L.S. Vygotsky, within the framework of his cultural-historical psychology, introduced the concept of “zone of proximal development”. This is a theoretical construct that explains the possibilities of human learning by pulling up mental development after learning. The zone of proximal development is determined by the content of such tasks that the child can solve only with the help of an adult, but after acquiring experience in joint activities, he becomes capable of independently solving similar problems.

Sensitive periods of development (lat. sensus - feeling, feeling) - age intervals of individual development, during the passage of which the internal structures are most sensitive to the specific influences of the surrounding world. In cultural-historical psychology, an adult acts not only as a model for a child, but also as a stimulus for his activity, which is fixed in the concept of “age crises”.

Age crises are a normal transition in age development to a new qualitatively specific stage. Age crises are caused, first of all, by the destruction of the usual social situation of development and the emergence of another, which is more consistent with a new level of psychological development of the child. In external behavior, age-related crises are revealed as disobedience, stubbornness, and negativism. In time, they are localized at the boundaries of stable ages and manifest as a neonatal crisis (up to 1 month), a crisis of one year, a crisis of 3 years, a crisis of 7 years, an adolescent crisis (11-12 years old) and a youth crisis. Cultural-historical psychology found further development in the works of D.B. Elkonin, who developed the concept of periodization of mental development in ontogenesis, based on the concept of “leading activity”. A change in the types of leading activity determines the acquisition of one or another personal position.

A child in the period from 1 to 3 years old masters the basics of object-manipulative activity using the simplest objects, due to which the ability to universal hand movements, to solve simple motor tasks and the ability to take one's own position within relationships with adults and peers is formed. At the age of 3 to 6-7 years, in the process of playing activity, the ability to imagine and use various symbols is formed. At school age, the child in the process of learning activities appropriates the elements of science and art, which leads to the formation of the foundations of logical thinking. Each age in human life has standards by which it is possible to assess the adequacy of an individual's development and which relate to psychophysical, intellectual, emotional and personal development. The transition to the next stage occurs in the form of crises of age development. It is customary to distinguish the following ages:

prenatal period,

Infancy (birth to 1 year old)

Early age (1-3),

Preschool age (from 3 to 6-7),

Junior school age (from 6-7 to 11-12),

Adolescence (boyhood) (from 11-12 to 15-17),

Youth age (from 15-17 to 19-21),

Youth (from 19-21 to 25-30),

Maturity (from 25-30 to 55-60),

Old age (from 55-60 and older).

The prenatal period is the stage of intrauterine development of the fetus, which also affects mental development. Consistently develop pain sensitivity, temperature, sensory sensitivity, in particular, to sound stimuli, as well as motor skills. In the last months of pregnancy, reception and motor skills are at a sufficient level of physiological and functional maturity to ensure adequate reception of exteroceptive information and motor response after birth. In childhood, the following periods are usually distinguished:

infancy,

Early age,

preschool age,

Junior school age.

Infancy is a stage of individual mental development, which continues from the birth of a child until he reaches one year of age. The completion of infancy is associated with the “crisis of the first year”, which testifies to the formation of the personality of the child.

Newborn is the age period from birth to four to six weeks of age. During this period, the primary adaptation of the child to the outside world takes place. At the time of birth, the child's sense of smell, tactile, pain, temperature, vestibular and kinesthetic sensitivity are sufficiently developed. In the very first days of life, the ability to hear and distinguish sounds in height, timbre and loudness, to see and distinguish visual stimuli in shape, size, and configuration is fixed. During this period, the child is adjusted to communicate with adults. At the end of the first month, a "social" smile appears in response to the adult's appeal.

The stage of the first six months is the stage of infancy, which is the period of a child's life between newborn and reaching six months of age. At this stage, the child masters expressive-mimic means of communication, which manifest themselves as a complex of revival. At this time, a system of affective-personal relationships with close adults is formed, which are necessary for normal further development. The revitalization complex described by N.M. Shchelovanov as an indicator of the ontogenetic development of an individual, which is different motor reactions of an infant in the first months of life to various influences, by which one can judge about the experience of positive emotions. Such reactions include: fading and visual concentration on the object of perception, a smile, sounds made, motor animation. In addition to expressing emotions, the revitalization complex acts as a function of the infant's communication with adults, as evidenced by the fact that, depending on the situation, the infant can enhance or inhibit one or another component.

Genesis. The formation of the revival complex occurs from the third week of life: first, fading and concentration appear during visual fixation of an object or at sounds, then a smile, vocalization and motor revival. At the age of three or four months, the animation complex changes into more complex forms of behavior. Violation of the sequence of formation of the revitalization complex can serve as an indicator of mental retardation. Cognitive activity also develops, within which the child masters visual, oral and manual cognitive actions.

The stage of the second half of the year is the stage of infancy, which is the period of a child's life between reaching six months of age and the crisis of the first year. At this time, the leading activity is object-manipulative activity, mainly for the needs of which communication with an adult is carried out, which becomes situational-business. As part of this situational-business communication with an adult, the child masters culturally fixed actions with objects. If the development of an infant occurs in inadequate conditions, then this leads to irreversible personal consequences. This effect was reflected in the studies of R.A. Spitz on the problem of hospitalism.

Hospitalism is a disorder of mental development caused by a "deficit" of communication with an adult in the first year of a child's life. Separate signs of hospitalism are: a delay in motor development, a sharp lag in speech development, emotional impoverishment, a tendency to obsessive movements. Represents the consequences for the psychological maturation and development of young children that arise from early separation from the mother and the absence or limitation of relationships with other people. The normal need for contact appears in a child at 6 months. If at this time there is a separation of the child from a close adult, then he first cries, demands a mother or someone who can replace her. After a month, he has a flight reaction if someone approaches him. A month later, he begins to avoid all contact with the outside world, and then his reactions in response to external influences are reduced to a minimum, he no longer screams, all facial expressions disappear. At the same time, such changes occur in the psyche that are irreversible, causing the emergence of "dependency depression".

Early age -- the stage of individual mental development, which lasts from 1 year to 3 years. It is characterized by qualitative changes in the development of the functions of the cerebral cortex. In this time interval, the following events of individual development occur:

Movements in space are formed, in particular walking, fine motor skills, due to which the possibilities of knowing the world around us are significantly expanded;

Develops situational business communication with adults and communication with peers;

Cognitive processes are formed;

There is a mastery of passive and active speech;

The affective and volitional spheres become more defined, self-consciousness is formed.

The psyche of a child of this age is characterized by: high dependence on a visual situation; mental reflection functions in close connection with practical actions; pronounced affective nature of orientation to the outside world. The leading activity at this age is object-manipulative activity, within which culturally fixed ways of using objects are mastered. At the same time, the formation of the child's objective actions is inseparable from his communication with an adult, which is situational and business-like. During this period, a particularly intensive development of the child's speech takes place: in the second year, the child already understands the names of some objects with which he interacts, and in the third year, understanding extends to objects that are outside the child's direct experience. In the future, the following are formed: educational activities, labor activities, in which skills that are complex in their structure are worked out; productive activity, which is an essential factor in the development of cognitive processes; and visual activity, in which there is a correlation of intellectual and affective processes.

Preschool age is the stage of individual mental development, which lasts from 3 to 6-7 years. There are three periods:

Junior preschool age (3-4 years),

Middle preschool age (4-5 years),

Senior preschool age (5-7 years).

Preschool age is characterized by the fact that the leading activity is the game, it is in connection with its development that the most important changes are made in the child's psyche and preparations are made for the transition to a new stage of development. The game is a form of activity of the animal organism, which is based on the conditional modeling of one or another extended activity. For the first time, the German scientist K. Groos noted that the game of both animals and children has an exercising function: the game is typical for those animals whose behavior is not limited to the automatic implementation of instinctive acts and which require variable adaptation to changing conditions of existence. The game in this case serves to preliminary adapt the instincts to the conditions of the future life. To the same extent, children's play, which arises in the process of the historical development of society, consists in the reproduction by children of the actions and relationships of adults. In the game, it is customary to single out such elements as: an imaginary situation, role, game actions.

If in the early preschool age the game primarily reproduces the objective actions of people, and the focus on the partner or on the development of the plot is minimal, then in the middle preschool age, relationships between people begin to move to the center of the game. A role-playing game is formed, which reaches its maximum flowering at 4-5 years. At the senior preschool age, the process of control over the implementation of those rules that are determined by the role taken on comes into play.

A role-playing game is the predominant form of play for preschool children, in which children play the actions and relationships of adults. The role of an adult, which is taken on by the child, involves following certain, often implicit rules, which regulate both the performance of actions with objects and relationships with other children that are included in the group game. Due to the emergence of strong emotional experiences associated with the content of the role itself, with the quality of its performance by all participants in the game, with the implementation of the general plot, the experience of the game has a very significant impact on the development of the child's personality. In its context, the formation of the most important new formations of this period of childhood takes place: the mastery of the sign-symbolic function, the development of the imagination, the formation of elements of arbitrary control over behavior.

Preschool age is extremely important for the formation of a child's personality, since within the framework of play activity, the basic methods of tool activity and the norms of social behavior are mastered. Along with play activities, other forms of activity are formed at this age: designing, drawing. It becomes essential in the formation of personality that the motives and desires of the child begin to agree with each other, more and less significant ones are distinguished, due to which there is a transition from impulsive, situational behavior to mediated by some kind of rule or model.

Primary school age is the stage of individual mental development, which lasts from 6-7 to 10 years, when the child is trained in the primary grades (grades I-IV) of a modern school. It is typical for this age that the child develops educational activity as the leading activity, in which the assimilation of human experience, presented in the form of scientific knowledge, takes place. Within the framework of educational activity, two main psychological neoplasms of this age arise - the possibility of arbitrary regulation of mental processes and the construction of an internal plan of action.

Adolescence is a stage of individual mental development, which continues from the end of the childhood stage to the onset of adolescence. It is characterized by qualitative changes associated with puberty and entry into adulthood. During this period, the individual has increased excitability, impulsiveness, which is superimposed, often unconscious, sexual desire. The main leitmotif of mental development in adolescence is the formation of a new, still rather unstable, self-awareness, a change in the self-concept, attempts to understand oneself and one's capabilities. This age is characterized by the so-called "teenage egocentrism", analyzed in the works of D. Elkind. It manifests itself in the inability to distinguish between the temporary and the permanent, the subjective and the objective, the unique and the universal. Of great importance is the adolescent's sense of belonging to a special "adolescent" community, the values ​​of which are the basis for their own moral assessments. At this age, the formation of complex forms of analytical and synthetic activity, the formation of abstract, theoretical thinking takes place.

Adolescence is the stage of individual mental development, which lasts from the end of adolescence to adulthood. For boys, this time interval covers 17-21 years, for girls - 16-20. At this age, the physical, including sexual, maturation of the body is completed. In psychological terms, the main feature of this age is the entry into an independent life, when there is a choice of profession, the social position changes dramatically. At this age, specific tasks are solved: establishing friendly and intimate relationships with others, playing gender roles and forming attitudes towards the family, achieving independence, forming the foundations of worldview and self-knowledge, and professional choice.

Conclusion

In accordance with the cultural-historical concept, a three-stage scheme operates in the ontogeny of consciousness. An adult, using signs-words (words-inducements), stimulates the child to take action (take something or bring something, etc.). Having learned the meaning and content of these words, the child organizes feedback, transforming the word-motivation addressed to himself into the word-impact addressed to an adult. Finally, there comes a level of communication when words-influences successfully address themselves, regulating their behavior. Thus, in ontogenesis, the development of the human psyche and consciousness is also conditioned by the social environment. According to the views of A. N. Leontiev, the development of the child's psyche is characterized by seven qualitatively different periods.

1. The period of the newborn (up to 2 months)

2. Early infancy (2-6 months)

3. Late infancy (6-12 months)

4. Early Preschool (1~3 years)

5. Preschool (3~7 years old)

6. The period of primary school age (7-12 years)

7. Adolescence and early youth (13-18 years).

The psyche as a reflection of reality in the human brain is characterized by different levels.

The highest level of the psyche, characteristic of a person, forms consciousness. Consciousness is the highest, integrating form of the psyche, the result of the socio-historical conditions of the formation of a person in labor activity, with constant communication (using language) with other people. In this sense, consciousness, as the classics of Marxism emphasized, is a “social product”, consciousness is nothing but conscious being.

Bibliography

1. Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology / St. Petersburg, publishing house "Piter" 2006

2. Clinical psychology: Textbook for universities. 3rd ed. Ed. B. D. Karvasarsky. 3rd Edition, Publisher: PITER, PUBLISHING HOUSE, 2007

3. Psychophysiology / ed. Aleksandrova Yu.I. St. Petersburg, publishing house "Piter" 2006

4. Solso R. Cognitive psychology / St. Petersburg, publishing house "Piter" 2006

5. Shcherbatykh Yu. V. "General psychology". -- St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

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The origin of the psyche. The problem of the initial generation of the psyche and its development in phylogenesis. Mental criterion. Subjective image of objective reality. The evolution of the psyche of animals. Activities in the early stages of evolution. The development of consciousness.

Development is a movement from simple forms and structures to higher, more complex ones.

The development of life, for example, is not a cycle of events, but a sequential process, a movement from simple to more complex forms of life. This development is associated with the complication of connections, forms of the movement of matter, the structure of material systems.

The process of development of nature cannot be imagined as a straight line. In its development, as A.I. Herzen, that "throws in different directions and never goes the right march forward." It also caused all variety of forms of existence of material bodies and the phenomena. So, for example, the development of organic matter went in thousands of directions and gave an immeasurable wealth of plant and animal species. Human evolution is only one of the lines of development of the organic world.

Scientists of the materialistic direction consider the human psyche as a property of highly organized matter, which is the product of a long (millions of years) development. The emergence and development of the psyche are associated with the emergence and development of organic nature. The development of living nature, the development of the psyche goes from elementary, simplest forms to the highest manifestations of human logical thinking, consciousness.

The history of the development of the human psyche had a prehistory associated with the biological evolution of living organisms.

To understand the prehistory of the development of consciousness, the teachings of Ch. Darwin (evolutionary theory), who revealed the main ways of the development of nature, its laws, played an important role. However, when analyzing the problem of the emergence of man, Charles Darwin could not find out the driving factors of development, under the influence of which the animal ancestor of man turned into a living being. He assumed that man arose according to the biological laws of natural selection, but could not rise to an understanding of the leading role of social production, creates new, different from biological, socio-historical laws of development.

To understand how the human psyche, his consciousness, originated, it is necessary to consider how it originated in the process of evolution of living forms, how it developed over many millions of years from simple, elementary forms to higher ones.

Investigating the nature of matter, material scientists study various forms of motion of matter, since motion is a way of existence of matter, its internal property. Immovable matter does not exist at all. Everything in the Universe, all organic and inorganic nature, is in a state of motion, change and development.

All types of matter, ranging from inanimate, inorganic and ending with the highest complex matter - the human brain, inherent image quality, that is, the ability to respond to influences. Forms of reflection depend on the forms of existence of matter: reflection is manifested in the ability to respond to external influences in accordance with the nature of the impact and the form of existence of matter. The highest form of reflection is mental reflection, and the highest form of mental reflection is svidomist.

This point of view did not emerge immediately.

There are several approaches to solving the problem of the emergence of the psyche:

1) "anthropopsychism", which is based on the idea, which comes from Descartes and is supported by some scientists today, that the psyche is inherent only in man;

2) "panpsychism" J.B. Robin, G. Fechner and others, who considered the psyche to be a property of any matter;

3) "biopsychism" - the recognition of the psyche as a property of only living matter (T. Hobbes, W. Wundt, E. Haeckel, etc.);

4) the concept of "neuropsychism", put forward by C. Darwin and G. Spencer, which is most widely used both in modern physiology and psychology. Behind it, the psyche is inherent not in any matter at all, and not only living, but only in organisms that have a nervous system.

In inanimate nature, reflection can manifest itself as a mechanical, physical or chemical interaction of bodies or substances (a wave and a stone, a sunbeam and a water surface, ozone after a thunderstorm, etc.).

With the advent of life on Earth, living matter acquires special properties. A common property of all living organisms is irritation - the ability of a living organism to respond to external environmental influences by certain biological processes. Irritability is a necessary condition for the exchange of substances between the organism and the environment. This is a biological form of display.

Let's see how it manifests itself.

The animal responds with activity (external and internal) to direct influences, which in themselves have a positive or negative effect on the organism. So, for example, nutrients dissolved in water cause the process of assimilation in ciliates, that is, their assimilation. The touch of a foreign body to the shell of the amoeba causes the capture process (regardless of the properties of this body).

Thus, with the emergence of life, reflection becomes qualitatively different. In inanimate nature, an object remains passive with regard to influences, and in living nature beings are active, they selectively respond to influences due to the ability to self-regulate.

It should be noted that recently there have been publications that plants are characterized by complex forms of response to external influences. The elementary movements carried out by plants are called tropisms (the sunflower returns for the sun; the mimosa curls up when touched; the sundew, having captured an insect, closes the petals of a flower, etc.).

Complex manifestations of plant response are also described. It is known that with the help of electrodes attached to plants, it is possible to determine their bioelectrical activity. If a near with the plant to which the electrodes are attached, break another, then an increase in the bioelectric potential is recorded. Moreover, the return to the table with plants of the one who broke this flower again causes the same reaction that the plant "recognizes" him. A similar reaction was observed in plants when a shrimp was dipped into boiling water. Of course, such phenomena require experimental mass confirmation, but they indicate the complexity of the manifestation of reflection forms.

Irritability is the basis for the emergence of a higher level of reflection - mental.

Psychic reflection arises at a certain stage in the development of the animal world in the form of the ability to feel.

The ability to feel sensitivity - manifested in response to such environmental influences, on which the life of the organism does not directly depend, but which signal biologically significant environmental influences. For example, the vibration of the web caused by insects getting into it is not directly related to the needs of the spider, but it is for him a signal that food is nearby. A slight rustling for a frog does not by itself support its life and is not harmful to it, but it is a signal for it about the presence of food or danger. The role of a signal can be performed by sounds, smells, colors and other qualities of objects and their combinations.

The emergence in an animal of the ability to distinguish between individual stimuli, which play a signal role in adapting it to the external environment, is the beginning of the development of the psyche.

Thanks to the ability to reflect at least elementary connections between stimuli, a mechanism for predicting the expected event is produced. This provides an opportunity to prepare for the reflection of the impact that is to take place. (leading reflection). For example, insects by smell, sound find food, individuals of the opposite sex; sounds and smells are for them a signal of danger and the like.

So, the psyche performs a signal function in the adaptation of animals to the external environment.

Appearance and development sensitivity - a new level of display activity - are inextricably linked with the complication of the way of life of animals and the development of their nervous system, sensory organs and organs of movement.

The improvement of the bodily organization of animals under the influence of their way of life took place in two opposite directions: firstly, towards an increasing specialization of the sense organs (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, etc.) and organs of movement (legs, wings) second, towards the centralization of the nervous system: from the reticular (jellyfish), nodal (worms, insects) to the nervous system of vertebrates.

In vertebrates, the brain and its higher department, the cerebral cortex, are developing more and more actively. An increase in the volume and role of the cerebral cortex is called corticalization. The greater the development of the nervous system and brain of an animal, the higher the level of its psyche.

The whole lengthy process of mental development consists of two qualitatively different periods:

o the development of the psyche in animals, which is subject to the laws of heredity, variability and natural selection;

o the development of the psyche - consciousness in a person, which is determined by socio-historical patterns.

A.N. Leontiev in his book "Problems of the Development of the Psyche" proposed a hypothesis about the stage and level of development of mental reflection from the simplest animals to humans. Later, it was refined on the basis of the latest zoopsychological data and developed in the works of the Soviet psychologist K.E. Fabry. According to the views of Leontiev-Fabry on the development of mental reflection and behavior from animals to humans, a table "Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals" was formed (see Table 4.1).

Table 4 .one. Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals

(According to A.N. Leontiev and K.E. Fabry)

Stages and levels mental reflection, its characteristics		Features of behavior corresponding to a given stage and level		Types of living beings on this level
I. The stage of the elementary sensory psyche.
A. The lowest level Primitive elements of sensitivity. Developed irritability		A. Clear reactions to biologically significant properties of the environment through a change in the speed of the direction of movement. Elementary forms of movements. Weak behavior flexibility. The ability to respond to biologically neutral, lifeless properties of the environment has been formed. Weak, non-purposeful motor activity		A. The simplest. Many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment
B. Top level The presence of feelings. The appearance of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to form elementary reflexes		B. Clear reactions to biologically neutral stimuli. Developed motor activity is associated with the exit from the water to land. The ability to avoid adverse environmental conditions, move away from them, actively search for positive stimuli. Individual experience and training play a minor role. Rigid innate programs are of primary importance in behavior.		B. Higher (annelid) worms, gastropods (snails), some other invertebrates
II. Stage of perceptual psyche
A. low level Display of external reality in the form of images of objects, integration, unification of properties that affect the holistic image. The main organ of manipulation is the jaw		A. Formation of motor skills. The predominance of rigid, genetically programmed components. The movements are quite varied and complex (diving, crawling, walking, running, jumping, climbing, flying, etc.). Active search for positive stimuli, avoidance of negative ones, developed protective behavior		A. Fishes and other lower vertebrates, and in part some higher invertebrates, arthropods and cephalopods. Insects
B. Higher level Elementary forms of thinking (problem solving). Development of a certain "picture of the world"	B. Highly developed instinctive forms of behavior. Ability to learn		B. Higher vertebrates (birds, some mammals)
B. high level. Allocation in practical activity of a special, tentative-research, preparatory phase. The ability to solve the same problem in different ways. Transferring the found principle of solving the problem to new conditions. Creation and use of primitive tools. The ability to cognize the environment, regardless of the existing biological needs. Vision and accounting of causal relationships between phenomena.	B. Isolation of special organs of manipulation: paws and hands. Development of exploratory forms of behavior with a wide use of previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities		V. Monkeys

In the process of biological evolution of animals, three qualitatively different stages in the development of the psyche are distinguished (A. N. Leontiev):

o stage of elementary sensitivity - sensory;

o stage of objective perception - perceptual;

o simple stage intellectual behaviour.

At the stage of elementary sensory psyche, the animal reacts only to individual influences on it of the properties of objects of the external world that have a certain biological significance for it, that is, they are associated with those actions on which the realization of the basic biological functions of animals depends. Reflections of reality at this stage are presented in the form of elementary sensations. Sensory reflection is observed in animals with reticulate and nodal nervous systems. They distinguish individual properties from the environment: vibration, sounds, smells, colors, which have an analytical signal value for animals and orient animals in the outside world (the caterpillar curls up in response to touch; the bee flies to flowers by smell). Touch and smell signal other vital influences.

All mammals with a sufficiently developed brain are at the perceptual stage of mental reflection. Its reflective function is richer, and its regulatory function is more perfect. This stage is characterized by the ability to synthetically display various properties of one object, often complex (the dog recognizes the owner by a number of signs: voice, clothes, smell). Representation is formed, memory is improved. But some of the properties of the object are more significant for animals (as a signal), while others play a lesser role.

For the development of the psyche, the way of life of animals is of great importance. Birds and fish that live in a monotonous environment have a less developed psyche than many land animals.

Leading for these animals is, as in the previous stage, instinctive activity, but the opposite reaction occurs to things, images. There are organs of perception that work on the basis of the interaction of a group of analyzers. There is a reaction to distant stimuli: the dog develops a reflex to the call and food. the food was shown in another room and only then they gave a call - the dog opened the door and found the food himself. This example indicates that at this stage animals have an image, representation, memory, as well as the ability to respond to properties that determine the mode of action, operation, gives rise to the development of a new form of consolidation of animal experience - skills.

The most organized animals rise to one more stage of development - the stage intellect, which is characterized by complex forms of reflection of reality.

Essential for this stage of development of the psyche is the ability to solve the so-called "two-phase" tasks. In the preparation phase, the animal's actions are guided not by the object to which they are directed, not by the ultimate goal, but by what is only a means to achieve this goal. The second phase of "activity" is already directed directly at the object that is its immediate factor. The same task can be solved in different ways using different operations.

The intellectual behavior of animals is characterized by the following main features:

o in difficult conditions, animals after repeated "trial and error" find solutions;

o if you put the animal in similar conditions - they immediately find a solution;

o if the conditions are somewhat modified, they find solutions, which means that they tend to carrying;

o solve "two-phase tasks" (some psychologists say that monkeys can also solve "three-phase tasks", which is already an indicative basis of activity).

At the same time, in non-standard situations, the limitations of the intellectual behavior of animals are clearly manifested. So, in a well-known experiment with a monkey that extinguished a fire with water from a tank, when conditions changed (the fire was on a raft in the middle of the river, and the water tank was on another flesh, which was difficult to get to), she tried to solve the problem by the old method - she got to the tank with water instead of using water from the river.

The main distinguishing feature of the human psyche is the presence of consciousness, and conscious reflection is such a reflection of objective reality, in which its objective stable properties are distinguished, regardless of the subject’s relationship to it.

The criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity, that is, the ability to respond to vital environmental stimuli (sound, smell, etc.), which are signals of vital stimuli (food, danger) due to their objectively stable connection. The criterion of sensitivity is the ability to form conditioned reflexes. Reflex - a natural connection of an external or internal stimulus through the nervous system with a particular activity. The psyche arises and develops in animals precisely because otherwise they could not orient themselves in the environment and exist.

The human psyche is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals. Consciousness, the human mind developed in the process of labor activity, which arises due to the need to carry out joint actions to obtain food during a sharp change in the living conditions of primitive man. And although the specific morphological features of a person have been stable for thousands of years, the development of the human psyche took place in the process of labor activity. Labor activity has a productive character: labor, carrying out the production process, is imprinted in its product (that is, there is a process of embodiment, objectification in the products of people's activities of their spiritual forces and abilities). Thus, the material, spiritual culture of mankind is an objective form of embodiment of the achievements of the mental development of mankind.

In the process of the historical development of society, a person changes the ways and methods of his behavior, transforms natural inclinations and functions into "higher mental functions" - specific and human, socially historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception (logical memory, abstract logical thinking), mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms the consciousness of man.

Consciousness is the highest form of a generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, the formation of an internal model of the external world in a person, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.

The functions of consciousness consist in the formation of the goals of activity, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and the prediction of their results, which ensures a reasonable regulation of human behavior and activity.

Consciousness develops in a person only in social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness develops and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, labor activity. Consciousness is possible only under the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.

1. The main stages in the development of the psyche in phylogenesis.

Stages of development in phylogeny and their brief description are presented in the table.

2. The main features of the ontogeny of the human psyche.

1) In the development of living beings, the following is observed

blowing pattern: the higher the place that a given living organism occupies on a scale

phylogenetic development, the more complex his nervous system, but the more time he needs to achieve full psychological and behavioral maturity.

The human individual is born into the world the least adapted for independent life of all creatures living on Earth, but this is compensated by the extreme plasticity of his brain, the ability to form in vivo

functional systems.

If in animals species experience is fixed mainly in genetic programs that are automatically deployed with individual development, then in humans, most of the species experience is fixed not in genetic, but in external form - in the form of cultural and historical experience, which is acquired by the child in the process of interaction with adults.

The difference between the processes of ontogenetic development of the psyche in animals and humans can be explained by the following scheme.

(See Table 12)

2) The mental development of a child depends on the combined influence of two factors:

(1) biological maturation of the organism,

(2) from interaction with the environment.

Each psychological property of an individual has its own optimal period of formation, when the influence of the environment is most effective. It is called the sensitive period for this property. So, for example, the sensitive period of the optimal development of speech covers the age from 1 to 3 years.

3) The mental development of a person goes simultaneously along several lines: cognitive (intellectual) development; social development; personal development; moral development, etc. The development of different spheres of the psyche is uneven: along some lines, development can go more intensively, along others more slowly. Uneven mental development leads to the emergence of so-called developmental crises. An example is the crisis of one year, the crisis of three years or the crisis of adolescence, which arise as a result of a discrepancy in the development of the intellectual and motivational-need areas.

The positive significance of such crises lies in the fact that they stimulate the development of “lagging behind” areas, thus being the driving force behind the self-development of the individual as a whole.

3. Characteristics of human consciousness.

Consciousness, as the highest form of mental reflection, has a number of distinctive features.

1) The structure of consciousness includes a body of knowledge about the world. Thanks to language, this knowledge is obtained by a person not only from individual experience (as in animals), but also from cultural experience, from past generations. A person can gain knowledge about objects and phenomena with which he personally has never met.

2) A distinctive feature of consciousness is the separation of the subject and the object, i.e., the distinction between "I" and "not-I", the ability to separate the object from one's relationship to it.

In animals and small children, subject and object are merged. That is, the feelings, emotions that a certain object (or person) causes are perceived as properties of the object (or person) itself. As consciousness develops, a person learns to distinguish one from the other. (Although adults are often inclined to confuse the objective characteristics of a situation with their attitude towards it).

3) A conscious individual has the ability for goal-setting activity, thanks to which arbitrary regulation of behavior becomes possible.

In the animal, activity is directed and regulated by a biological need or an external situation. A person can perform actions in the absence of an actual need (for example, cook food without being hungry). A person is able to focus in his activity not only on the current situation, but also on the situation that may take place in the future. Thus, a person with consciousness has the ability not to be led by a situation or a need. The function of regulating his behavior is assumed by a consciously set goal.

It happens that a person’s activity is determined not by a goal, but by an immediate need or situation (Freud’s “erroneous actions”, various types of impulsive or reflex behavior, etc.). This is explained by the genetic diversity of the human psyche, i.e., by the fact that pre-conscious (genetically earlier) forms of the psyche coexist with consciousness.

SELF-PREPARATION FOR LESSON.

The goals of self-training to know: 1. The value of methodology for understanding psychological facts, patterns, mechanisms, theories.

2. Basic methodological principles of modern psychology.

3. The main stages of the phylogenetic development of the psyche.

4. Features of the ontogeny of the human psyche;

5. Main characteristics of consciousness.

Self-study plan: 1) Listen to and outline the lectures "The subject of psychology", "The structure of the psyche." Recall the contents of these lectures as you prepare for class.

2) Read the sections: “Methodological principles of modern psychology”, “Formation of the psyche in phylogenesis”, “Development of the psyche in ontogenesis”, “Consciousness” according to any psychology textbook you have.

3) Read the informational material on the topic from this workshop.

4) Answer the control questions to check your readiness for the lesson.

Main literature:

1. Gamezo N. V., Domashenko I. A. Atlas of Psychology. M., Education, 1986.

2. Luria A. R. Evolutionary introduction to psychology. Moscow State University, 1975.

3. Nemov R. S. Psychology. Book 1. M., Enlightenment, 1994.

4. General psychology. Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. M., Education, 1986.

5. Tvorogova N. D. Psychology. M., 1996.

Control questions for self-examination of preparedness for the lesson.

1. What is a methodology?

2. What is the methodology for? Why is knowledge of methodological principles necessary?

3. What are the main methodological principles of modern psychology? What are they?

4. What are the main stages of the phylogenetic development of the psyche?

5. What is consciousness? What are its distinctive features in comparison with other forms of mental reflection?

6. What are the conditions for the formation of consciousness in ontogeny?

7. What are the main features of the ontogeny of the human psyche?

Sample answers to these questions can be found in the information material and in the recommended literature.

WORK IN THE CLASS.

Lesson plan: 1. Organizational issues.

2. Identification of the initial level with the help of test tasks.

3. Independent work in class (individual, in micro-groups, general group discussion).

TESTS TO REVEAL THE INITIAL LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE.

Fill in the gaps in the following paragraphs

1) In humans, most of the species experience is fixed in the form of ....

2) In beings at the intellectual stage of mental reflection, a decisive influence on the characteristics of behavior is exerted by ....

3) In the process of evolution of mental reflection, instincts are increasingly replaced by the ability to ....

4) The ability to form the simplest conditioned reflexes appears in living beings at the stage ... of the psyche.

5) A person with consciousness has the ability to receive information about the world around him; own inner world and...

6) The higher the place a living creature occupies on the scale of phylogenetic development, the ... time it takes for it to achieve full mental and behavioral maturity.

7) The period when the formation of some psychological property of an individual occurs most effectively is called ....

8) Developmental crises are a consequence of ... mental development.

In the following paragraphs, select one or more correct answers:

9. The cause of mental phenomena lies:

a) in physiological processes in the nervous system

b) in the factors of external reality

c) in the activity of the individual

d) everything is correct.

10. The activity of mental reflection is manifested in:

a) selectivity of response to environmental factors

b) the ability of the individual to find the most suitable conditions for himself

c) the ability to form conditioned reflexes

d) everything is correct.

11. The difference in norms of behavior and values ​​among representatives of Western European and Eastern cultures is explained by:

a) features of the microgenesis of the psyche

b) features of the sociogenesis of the psyche

c) difference in living conditions

d) difference in style of thinking.

12. The peculiarity of human knowledge about the world is that:

a) this knowledge is generalized

b) they are fixed in the language

c) SOURCES t vzhuzhit ZHUSHMKTSTIYANY experience, but also the experience of others

d) everything is correct.

The following statements are true or false:

13. The unity, connection of mental phenomena and facts of behavior is peculiar only to a person who has consciousness.

14. Human behavior in a situation is determined by the objective characteristics of this situation.

15. Any change in the external environment causes a change in the content of consciousness.

16. When studying an individual mental property, it is necessary to separate this property from others, to isolate it.

17. The unevenness of mental development means that separate groups of mental properties develop independently of each other.

18. Human thinking is subject to the same laws as the thinking of higher mammals in general.

19. Genetically early forms of the psyche completely disappear at the highest stages of phylogenesis.

20. Human behavior is always arbitrary and purposeful.

21. The presence of genetically early forms of the psyche is a necessary condition for the development of higher forms of the psyche.

TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK IN THE LESSON.

Students work independently on assignments, then it is useful to discuss them (assignments) in microgroups of 3-4 people, and then in the entire study group (each microgroup offers its own answers).

Task 1. The chimpanzee Raphael (in the experiments of Pavlov and Orbeli) learned to put out a fire that prevented him from getting a treat from a box by filling a mug with water from a tank. In one of the next experiments, a box with an orange and a fire burning in front of the box opening was placed on a raft on a lake. On another raft, connected to the first bamboo raft, there was a tank of water known to Raphael. The chimpanzee, in order to fill the fire, climbed over the crossbar to another raft to the tank, not guessing to scoop up water from the lake.

What feature of the mental reflection of a monkey (in comparison with the mental reflection of a person) is manifested in this example?

Task 2. In 1920, two girls (who later received the names Amala and Kamala) were found in the den of wolves near the Indian village of Godamuri. The youngest (Amale) was about 18 months old; the eldest (Kamale) is about 7 years old. The girls were sent to an orphanage in Midnapore, where an attempt was made to re-educate them. Amala lived in the shelter for about a year. During this time, her upbringing made quite rapid progress. At the same time, Kamala's reeducation proceeded with great difficulties. After 4 years, she learned only 6 words. At the age of 16-18, she behaved like a four-year-old child.

What explains the delay in the development of Kamala? Why was Amala's upbringing much more successful?

Task 3. N. N. Ladygina-Kots compared the imitative construction of a chimpanzee and a child of three and a half years. The following facts were found:

a) One of them could make a figure out of two-three parts only if there was a model figure in front of him, the other could perform the task even in the absence of an image, from memory.

b) One of the reasons for the designer's mistakes was that when he saw a model figure, he refused to make it, but made a figure similar to the one he saw in the previous experiment. It took some effort to get him to do the job right.

c) Both the chimpanzee and the child, when choosing the elements proposed for construction, were tempted by their novelty, unusualness. But if one, taking an unnecessary element, did not include it in the design, the other often tried to do this, and only the experimenter's instructions helped him avoid the error.

Determine which of the following facts applies to the behavior of a chimpanzee and which to the behavior of a child. What features of the regulation of the child's behavior in comparison with the behavior of a chimpanzee are manifested in this example?

Task 4. German scientists V. and L. Kellogg did the experiment of pulling the hair of a chimpanzee and a child. It turned out that while one of the subjects immediately began to whimper, the other, even with stronger jerking, did not make sounds, but only pushed the researcher's hand away with his hand.

Which manifestation relates to the behavior of a chimpanzee and which to a child? Why?

Task 5. Do the concepts described below contradict any methodological principles of modern psychology? Which one exactly?

A. According to the American psychologist of the early 20th century J. Watson, by manipulating external stimuli, environmental features, it is possible to control a person’s emotional reactions according to a given program

and, moreover, it is possible to "make" a person of any warehouse, with any characteristics of behavior.

B. W. Wundt argued that consciousness is fundamentally different from everything external and material. Therefore, psychology has a unique subject - the direct experience of the subject, comprehended exclusively through self-observation. All other sciences study the results of processing this experience.

B. According to 3. Freud, the unconscious factor is decisive for the laws of both personal and social life. In the unconscious needs and inclinations of a person lies the reason for his interests, tastes, affections, the choice of one or another type of professional activity, his superstitions and beliefs, and so on.