Seme (component) analysis- the simplest type of lexical analysis, the task of which is to characterize the conceptual component of the word, i.e. its significat, in semantic and structural aspects. The unit of seme analysis is sema(semantic factor), the minimum further non-segmentable value component.
Concept definition
Seme (component) analysis is “a procedure for splitting a meaning into its component parts, the isolation of which is due both to the ratio of elements within a separate meaning (the presence of more general and more particular elements, i.e. the hierarchy of the organization), and the ratio of this meaning with the meanings of other linguistic units".
The term "component analysis" was first used by W. Goodnough in the article "Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics" (1957). With the introduced concept, he designated the method of linguistic analysis, which makes it possible to reveal the hierarchy of semes that form the lexical meaning of a word. The method of component analysis was developed by N. S. Trubetskoy in relation to phonemes. Based on the material of grammatical meanings, the method of component analysis was first used by R. O. Yakobson to describe the category of case of Russian nouns.
As part of the meaning, the seme can be represented by a word form or a phrase, free or stable. Yes, the meaning of the word seedling includes the following semes:
1. ‘young’ 2. ‘plants’ 3. ‘cultivated’ 4. ‘in greenhouses’ (or) 5-6. 'on the special beds’ 7-8. 'for subsequent transplantation’ 9. ‘in open ground’.
In cases 5-6 and 7-8, the preposition is part of the word form of the noun, and segment 9 is not divided into semes, since it is expressed by a stable combination.
Since the words for seme analysis are taken from explanatory dictionaries, the result of the procedure depends on the completeness of the definition, which does not always coincide in different sources. So, the interpretation of the meaning of the word paragraph, which was cited above, is presented in the TSU somewhat differently than in the BPS, cf.:
PARAGRAPH paragraph m.(German: Absatz) (special). 1. Indent right at the beginning of the line to separate one part of the text from another; Red line. When typing, make a paragraph. 2. Text between two such indents. Read two paragraphs(TSU).
The more complete the dictionary definition, the easier it is to perform seme analysis, since there is no need to identify the missing semes yourself. If necessary, one should refer to illustrative material - examples that will allow you to restore the components of the LSV value.
Seme typology lexical meaning is a hierarchy that needs to be reflected in analysis procedure.
- 1. The most common seme characterizing the belonging of a word to a certain part of speech is grammatical seme - grammeme. Otherwise it is called classmeme, since it denotes a grammatical class and expresses the general semantics of that part of speech, the word of which is to be analyzed. Nouns have the gramme 'objectivity', verbs - 'action', adjectives - 'attribute', numerals - 'quantitative attribute', adverbs - 'sign of action'. Yes, nouns paragraph, joy, sand, kids have the gramme ‘objectivity’, adjectives tall, solar, fox- gramme ‘sign’, verbs read, comb your hair, think, run away- gramme ‘action’.
- 2. More specific is lexico-grammatical seme, combining the lexical and grammatical features of the word. It is established depending on the lexical and grammatical categories: for nouns it is 'concreteness', 'abstractness', 'substantiality' or 'collectiveness', for adjectives - 'quality', 'relativity' or 'possessiveness', for verbs - ' ways of verbal action', 'returnability/irrevocability', 'personality/impersonality'.
Thus, nouns have the following lexical and grammatical semes: paragraph -‘specificity’, joy -'abstract', sand -'substantiality', kids -‘gathering’. Adjective tall contains the lexico-grammatical seme ‘quality’, sunny -'relativity', fox -‘possessiveness’. Verb read possesses the semes ‘ultimacy’, ‘irrevocability’, ‘personality’; comb your hair- semes ‘infinity’, ‘recurrence’, ‘personality’; think- semes ‘extremity’, ‘finality’, ‘irrevocability’, ‘personality’; run away- semes ‘ultimacy’, ‘irrevocability’, ‘personality’.
- 3. The most common among lexical semes is archiseme (hyper-seme, generic seme) that names the name lexico-semantic field(LSP), which, along with other elements, includes the lexeme in question. Yes, noun bread included in the LSP "Product", adjective tall- in LSP "Size", verb run - in LSP "Movement". The criterion for the correctness of the definition of the archiseme is the possibility of including in the LSP a significant number of words of different parts of speech, for example, the LSP "Movement": run away, run out, run, go/walk, walking, move, movement, mobile (compound), moveable (person) etc.
- 4. Hyposeme (species seme) is a feature that characterizes hyponymic lexemes that form paradigms like lexical-thematic and lexico-semantic groups(LTG, LSG). As a rule, there are several such signs. Among them stand out integral and differential semes. Integral semes are more specific than archisemes and serve as the basis for combining words into LTG and LSG. So, the second LSV of the noun paragraph is included in the thematic group, which stands out from the composition of the LSP "Text", and contains the integral seme ‘part’. The LTG "Part of text" includes such components as 'part', 'chapter', 'section', 'paragraph'. The seme that makes it possible to differentiate their semantics within the LTG is ‘the presence of a title’. Wed:
Chapter 2 well. 1) Section of artistic, scientific, journalistic, etc. essays, numbered or titled ;
Paragraph i. 1) a) Fine division of the text inside a chapter, section, usually denoted by a special sign (TSE).
5. Potential seme is characterized by the fact that, unlike the above-mentioned semes, it is not reflected in the dictionary definition, although it is clearly recognized by native speakers. The role of potential semes in the semantic structure of LSVs is extremely important, since they often serve as the basis for transfer in the formation of LSV derivatives. A tool for identifying potential semes is a comparison of non-derivative and derived values. So, in a polysemantic word bear the following LSVs are distinguished:
Bear - me m. 1. A large predatory mammal with long hair and thick legs, as well as its fur. White m. Brown m. Two bears cannot get along in one lair(ate). Sharing the skin of an unkilled bear(yogis, about those who share incomes, benefits among themselves, to-rykh are not yet and, perhaps, will not be at all; colloquial iron.). M. stepped on someone's ear.(about someone who is completely devoid of an ear for music; colloquial joke.). 2. trans. About a clumsy, clumsy person (colloquial)(TSO).
Not a single seme of the first LSV explains how the metaphorical transfer occurred, which led to the appearance of the second meaning, but Russian speakers know that clumsiness is attributed to the bear. It is the seme that names this feature that formed the basis of the transference.
The identification of a potential seme is facilitated by the analysis of illustrative examples presented in the dictionary. Yes, token bread, which has the primary meaning ‘a food product baked from flour’, is accompanied in explanatory dictionaries by phrases White bread, black bread - this allows us to conclude that bread can be of different colors, and linguistic flair suggests that bread can be of different shapes ( bun, long loaf, loaf).
Thus, seme analysis provides objective ideas about the features of the semantics of LSW. More complex information about the structure of the LZ can be obtained by analyzing the lexical meaning.
- Seliverstova O. N. Proceedings on semantics. M., 2004. S. 81.
Let's look at some words: Birch, oak, spruce, aspen, poplar, fir, pine. All of them represent tree species. Word wood- a common name (hyperonym) in relation to the words of this series, and each of the words of the series is a hyponym in relation to the word wood.
How are such hyper-hyponymic relationships established? How, by what semantic components do the words that make up the given series differ from each other?
Analyzing the meanings of words naming tree species, we find in these meanings common semantic components (semes) for all these words and specific, inherent in the meaning of only this word. A common semantic component for the meanings of words Birch, oak, spruce, aspen, fir, pine, poplar is the semantic component (seme) ʻtreeʼ: the interpretation of each of these words is impossible without indicating that the given natural object belongs to the class of trees.
The semantic component (seme) ʻtreeʼ, inherent in the meanings of all the words under consideration, is called integral semantic component, or integral seme. The same semantic components (semes), by which the meanings of words - the names of trees differ from each other, are called differential semantic components, or differential semes.
In our example, two groups of trees are explicitly distinguished - deciduous ( Birch, oak, aspen, poplar) and conifers ( spruce, fir, pine). The semantic component ʻdeciduous treeʼ, present in the interpretations of the words of the first group, is common, integral for the meanings of these words. At the same time, it serves as a distinguishing feature, opposed to the semantic component ʻconiferous treeʼ, common to the meanings of the words of the second group.
Thus, each of the ʻdeciduous treeʼ and ʻconiferous treeʼ semes is, on the one hand, integral for the words of its “own” group and, on the other hand, differential, which distinguishes the meanings of the words of this group from the meanings of words that name trees of a different species.
A higher, general seme, characteristic of the entire class of words and distinguishing this class from others, reflecting the general content of the entire class in abstraction from differential semes, is called archiseme. Archiseme, as a rule, is also the name of a semantic field.
The seme that is important for the formation of a figurative meaning, reflecting the phenomena of associative links with the designated object, is called potential (contextual, connotative) seme.
According to L.P. Krysin
Questions
1. What are differential semes?
2. What are integral semes?
3. What is an archiseme?
4. What is a potential (contextual, connotative) seme?
Exercise 3. Using explanatory dictionaries, in the meanings of the given words below, highlight the integral and differential semes, and also name the archiseme.
Chair, rack, sofa, chest of drawers, sideboard, armchair, bed, couch, stool, wardrobe.
Topic 18.
Procedure for component analysis of lexical meaning
The initial object of analysis are words taken out of context, taken in their specific usual meaning. The component representation of the meaning of a word has the form of a product of semantic components, the order of which is not specified in any way. This kind of component analysis is called vertical-horizontal analysis values. Its procedure involves comparing the meanings of words in two dimensions:
- in vertical when values are compared at different levels of the hierarchy of genus-species relations, i.e. meanings of hypernyms with meanings of hyponyms;
- in horizontal when values of the same hierarchy level are compared, regardless of whether they are in relation to incompatibility, complementarity or antonymy.
The vertical-horizontal analysis procedure is illustrated by the example of the word magazine magazine. The procedure is divided into 5 stages.
Stage 1: determine the unit of meaning that includes the meaning of the word magazine, i.e. in other words, find the closest hypernym for that word. Its meaning will be the desired component of meaning. For native English speakers, this would be the meaning of the word periodical periodical.
Stage 2: find those units that can be considered included in the meaning of the word, i.e. see what the meaning of its hyponyms is. For native speakers, these will be hyponyms slics, pulps, comics etc.
Stage 3: the study of units of the same hierarchical level that are with the value of interest to us in relation to incompatibility or intersection. First of all, the words book book, pamphlet pamphlet, newspaper newspaper, journalʻjournal (mainly scientific)ʼ. The meaning of the word magazine is opposed to the meanings of the words book, pamphlet, brochure on the basis of periodicity. For word meanings magazine, journal, newspaper this feature is integral. Magazine opposed newspaper as a bound or bound edition. Contrasting magazine – journal, we determine that the edition called journal, is usually more specialized in its content (for example, scientific journals).
Stage 4: compiling a list of those minimal diagnostic components (semes) that, firstly, distinguish the meaning of the word magazine from other meanings of the same level, secondly, allow it to be adequately included in the framework of the nearest higher meaning and, thirdly, cover the meanings of its hyponyms in a satisfactory way. In our case, these will be three components: ʻperiodicalʼ, ʻbound or stitchedʼ and ʻof a fairly popular character in content and designʼ.
Stage 5: final, consists in formulating a definition of a word based on its diagnostic components. Such a definition usually includes an indication of the class to which the value belongs (in fact, an indication of the meaning of the nearest hypernym), and significant oppositions with the meanings of adjacent, intersecting and complementary.
The variant of component analysis that we have just considered is typical for a certain stage in the development of this method. What are the characteristics of this stage?
1. separate, isolated words are analyzed, taking into account the paradigmatic relations between them, but without taking into account their syntagmatic connections.
2. The representation has the form of an unorganized set of semantic components or, at best, an ordered sequence of components.
3. As a consequence of the previous sentence, all components, or semes, are recognized as the same in their logical nature.
Such an elementary version of component analysis was developed on the basis of specific vocabulary, in this area it gives acceptable results.
For abstract vocabulary, the vertical-horizontal analysis procedure is not applicable and a procedure is needed analysis of intersecting values, the essence of which is to refer to the consideration of words not in themselves, but phrases with the given word. Let's illustrate them with the example of the word beautiful.
Stage 1: find words close to the given meaning, i.e. words from the same semantic field that can be used in relation to the same objects or events: beautiful beautiful, pretty attractive, lovelyʻcharmingʼ etc.
Stage 2: identification of a range of objects that can be described using selected words. At the same time, an effective method is not to list hundreds of acceptable attributive phrases with given words, but to find contexts in which this or that unit is either completely unacceptable or looks unusual, strange. This is called the analysis of negative language material.
| man (man) | ||
 | woman (woman) | |
| handsome |   | building (building) |
| *lake (lake) | ||
| *scene | ||
| *jewel (decoration) |
 | cottage (cottage) | |
| pretty | *skyscraper (skyscraper) | |
| jewel (decoration) |
Stage 3: the goal is to identify those aspects of close meanings on which their opposition is based. The most effective technique is the setting of quasi-synonyms in the same context. So, comparing beautiful womanʻbeautiful womanʼ with pretty womanʻpretty womanʼ we discover that beautiful expresses a greater degree of quality intensity than pretty. Comparing beautiful old lady with lovely old lady, we see that physical (external) attractiveness is necessarily included in the value beautiful, but not necessarily for lovely, which emphasizes some pleasing quality, not necessarily associated with special merits of appearance. Comparing beautiful woman and handsome woman, we will see that in the meaning handsome the central place is occupied by a component of majestic appearance and ideal proportions. In the same word beautiful the central component is the general impression of the subject, and the second of the named components of the word handsome in meaning beautiful only implied.
Stage 4: enumeration of the essential features of the word, according to which it is opposed to its quasi-synonyms:
1) attractiveness;
2) general view;
3) to a fairly high degree.
So, in the considered example, we see that in order to identify the semantic structure of abstract vocabulary, we willy-nilly turn to analysis of the word in context(phrase, sentence) and use our ability to evaluate language expressions, firstly, as correct or incorrect, and secondly, as meaning the same or unequal.
It is equally important to present the identified semes not as kit, albeit ordered, semantic components, but how structure, i.e. education, which has a well-defined organization. Those. the meaning of the word should be presented in the form a structure consisting of elements of meaning and syntactic relations linking them.
According to I.M. Kobozeva
Questions
1. What are the steps involved in the vertical-horizontal analysis procedure?
2. What are the disadvantages of vertical-horizontal analysis?
3. What are the steps involved in the cross-sectional analysis procedure?
4. What is the advantage of cross-sectional analysis?
Topic 19.
Seme and semantic field.
As folk definitions show, already at an intuitive level, a connection is found between the component structure of meaning and the semantic field in which this meaning is realized. For example, if we take the definitions of domestic animals ("horse" = ʻfour-legged animalʼ + ʻneighsʼ, "cow" = ʻfour-legged animalʼ + ʻmooingʼ), the field name is in the definition itself. The analogy between the structure of the semantic field and the component structure of the sememe is emphasized by the term "seme field" by O. Duhacek, which is used to designate the relationship of the seme in the sememe.
Such an analogy, however, must be treated with caution, for there is as much difference as there is similarity. The similarity is manifested mainly in the representative function of seme and sememe: the integral seme represents the seme, just as the units of the semantic field represent the semantic category (field identifier) that unites them. However, if in the first case a more primitive substance (seme) represents a more complex substance (sememe), then in the semantic field, on the contrary, a more primitive substance (identifying seme) is represented by more complex sememes. In addition, differential semes in a sememe are not opposed in structural oppositions, as elements of a semantic field, i.e. do not enter into paradigmatic, syntagmatic, derivational and other relations. Finally. semes, understood as elements of lexical meaning, do not have a clear and constant form of expression, in contrast to semes, which are necessarily represented in terms of expression by lexemes.
At the same time, the semantic field and the component representation of meaning are based on a single theoretical position on the structural organization of the lexicon, the semantic units of which are interconnected and interdependent.
The integration of the component and field approaches in linguistic semantics necessarily leads to the clarification of the basic initial ideas of each direction, and the field approach benefits to the greatest extent from this integration. Thus, the use of the component approach helped to establish that semantic fields are not separated by rigid barriers and reveal spheres of attraction and repulsion due to the presence of common and differential features; in the semantic fields, central and peripheral spheres are distinguished, while the center is more consolidated, representing the entire semantic complex; on the contrary, in the peripheral areas, semantic connections are more weakened, forming zones of semantic perturbation, the elements of which signal connections with other semantic fields.
Consequently, the organization of units of the semantic field can serve as the basis for separating semantic components. The reverse procedure can also be assumed. Most of the semantic relations within the semantic field, as already mentioned above, are derived from and determined by component analysis. The reverse transition is carried out, for example, when comparing taxonomy levels, i.e. branches of the semantic tree.
According to S.G. Shafikov
Questions
1. What are the similarities and differences between the component structure of the sememe and the semantic field?
2. How does component analysis help in revealing the structure of the semantic field?
3. What properties of the semantic field did the method of component analysis make it possible to clarify?
In the component analysis of words, it is customary to distinguish the following types of semes:
- 1) general categorical (usually includes "subject", "process", "attribute", etc.);
- 2) lexico-grammatical (characterized by features such as "concreteness", "substantiality", "collectivity", etc.);
- 3) hyperseme (generic seme or archiseme), denoting a class of objects ("plant", "color", "vessel", etc.);
- 4) hyposemes (species semes), which denote the differential features of an object, process, feature and distinguish objects of the same class (for example, with the hyperseme "vessel" in the word glass, the hyposemes "glass", "cylindrical", "without a handle "; in the word mug - "cylindrical", "with a handle"; in the word glass - "cylindrical", "with a leg");
- 5) connotative semes expressing additional meanings (emotional, evaluative and expressive);
- 6) potential semes that appear in a particular text
When considering the component analysis of words, one cannot fail to mention such a large component as the categorical seme. It plays the role of objectivity for nouns, signs for adjectives. Many linguists subdivide the categorical seme into distinguishers and markers. The main difference between markers and distingvisers is that the task of markers is that they indicate features that are common to a certain class of lexical units, while distingvisers individualize these units.
seme component analysis word
Examples in this case are the word sprinter (unmarried), where distingwisher is a seme (woman), and seme (noun) is a categorical seme. For categorical semes, their further division and hierarchy are characteristic. So, for example, in the verb of the word bring, the seme of verbality is more generalized than the movement and causation inherent in this verb, which are not characteristic of every verb. From this fact, it follows that within the general class of verbs there are subspecies that are characterized by these semes. Based on the change in the meaning of words and word formation, changes within this hierarchy are distinguished by the type of conversion.
When considering the component analysis of words and the semes included in it, it is also worth mentioning the presence of so-called "potential semes". An example in this case is the word "pleasantness", which in its essence is included in the main content and meaning of the word honey only potentially, in other words, this seme is of little importance. At the same time, in the course of the secondary nomination of this word, when using a metaphor, this seme is actualized, for example: honey speeches. As a rule, linguistic metaphors have become common in textbook speech, for example, the fox metaphor implies a cunning person who has planned something. The given word "fox" includes a certain set of semes: a categorical archiseme (living being, animate) as well as a generic seme (animal), + a specific differentiating seme (an animal that has certain characteristics) + a potential seme (a trick that we attribute to this animal). So, we can say that the metaphorical nomination of words is characterized by a regrouping of macrocomponents, where emotive stylistic components come to the fore, which are layered on the rest.
The seme is the smallest unit of meaning.
Lexical meaning is a collection of seven.
lexeme is the plane of expression.
Sememe is the content plan.
The union of a lexeme and a sememe represents the word as a whole.
A sememe is broken down into its constituent semes:
Classeme - expresses the relation of the word to any class, category.
A lexogramme is a seme that expresses the grammatical meanings of a word.
Hyperseme - the relation of a word to a genus.
Hyposeme - expresses the relation of the word to a particular species (the main thing in the definition of hyposeme will be the presence of differentiating features that distinguish one species from another).
Connotative seme - expresses the presence of additional meanings in a word.
Potential seme - expresses the presence of certain possibilities in a word: explicit (obvious) and implicit (hidden).
Probabilistic seme - shows the presence of associative links in the word, potential and occasional possibilities.
EXAMPLE: Lily
1. noun.
2. feminine, singular, 1st declension, nominative.
3. flower.
4. white color, with a pronounced smell, a garden flower.
5. royal sign.
6. female name.
monosemy and polysemy. Direct and figurative meanings of words. Name transfer methods. Free and non-free combinations. Submission of LSV in explanatory dictionaries.
In the modern Russian language, there are many words that have one lexical meaning, firmly fixed to a certain sound complex, such words are characterized by a clearly expressed subject correlation, their semantic boundaries are well defined. In lexicology, such words are called unambiguous or monosemantic, and the property of words to have one meaning is called unambiguity or monosemy. (Bronchitis, mammal) These words are opposed to another group of words, no less extensive in modern vocabulary - polysemantic or polysemantic words, and the very property of layers to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy.
DIRECT - this is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality: it does not depend on the context and on the nature of the properties with another word. PORTABLE - this is the meaning that arises as a result of the transfer of the name from one subject to another. Direct and figurative meanings are defined within one word. Different meanings of the same word are called lexico-semantic variants (LSV).
In the process of the historical development of a language, words can become ambiguous as a result of the transfer of meanings.
3 Ways to Transfer Values:
1. metaphor - a figurative meaning based on the similarity of objects in color, shape, feature, action.
2. metonymy - a figurative name based on adjacency.
3. synecdoche - transferring the meaning of a part to a whole or vice versa.
FREE - based on only subject-logical connections of words, but cannot be combined with such words as a stone. Lexical compatibility is called valence in the scientific literature. There are monovalent words (limited combinations). Words with monovalent compatibility are called collocations. Collocations gravitate toward stability, but into the category of stable combinations, i.e. Phraseological units are not yet included. NON-FREE words are characterized by limited possibilities, lexical compatibility, which in this case are also determined by subject matter.
Polysemy. Radial, chain, radial-chain. Metaphor. types of metaphors. Metonymy. Synecdoche.
Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to be used in more than one sense is called polysemy or polysemy.
Radial polysemy, in which all particular meanings depend on the direct meaning, and are motivated by it.
chain polysemy, when each subsequent meaning is motivated by the previous one.
Radially-chain polysemy - it combines both types of communication.
Metaphor is the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of their similarity.
1. In form (nominal substantive) * bow of the boat *
2. By sign (nominal attribute), by color, about the impression made * light character, golden hair, amber eyes *
3. By function (verb) * rain drumming, wind howling *
Metaphor can be linguistic and speech (individual-author's, occasional).
Classification:
1. single (simple)
2. common
3. deployed (stringing metaphors and deploying the whole image).
Metonymy is a figurative name based on adjacency.
Synecdoche is the transfer of the meaning of a part to a whole or vice versa.
Connotation. Connotative components in a word.
Connotation- this is an additional meaning to the main lexical one. (Brother is the son of parents, in relation to other children of these parents; Brother - with tenderness, affection; Bro - ...). The connotation includes 4 aspects:
- emotional;
- expressive;
- stylistic;
- estimated.
In a word, all 4 aspects can be realized, and maybe one.
On this sign, for example, the combination of words with a touch of solemnity or with a playful, familiarly reduced coloring, etc. is based.
The equivalence of individual words in the original and in translation implies the maximum possible closeness of not only the subject-logical, but also the connotative meaning of the related words, reflecting the nature of the speaker's perception of the information contained in the word. The greatest role in conveying the connotative aspect of the semantics of the original word is played by its emotional, stylistic and figurative components.
Emotional characteristic The meaning of a word can be positive or negative. In any language, there are words that coincide in subject-logical meaning, but differ in the presence or nature of the emotional component in the semantics of the word.
The transfer of an emotional characteristic, as well as other components of the connotative meaning of a word, is facilitated by the fact that the realization of this meaning in an utterance extends the corresponding characteristic to the entire utterance: it makes the utterance emotional, stylistically colored or figurative.
Homonymy. Reasons for the appearance of homonyms. Homonym types. Homonymous phenomena: homophones, homoforms, homographs. The problem of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy of a word. Submission of homonyms in explanatory dictionaries. Dictionaries of homonyms.
Lexical homonyms are two or more words of different meanings that have the same spelling, pronunciation and grammatical design. For example: a bloc as a union, an agreement of states, and as a simple machine for lifting weights.
In lexicology, two types of homonyms are distinguished - complete and incomplete (partial).
Full lexical homonyms include such words of the same part of speech, in which the entire system of forms coincides (block and block are full homonyms).
Incomplete (partial) lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which do not have the same system of forms. For example, a factory is an industrial enterprise and a factory is a device for driving a mechanism (the second word does not have a plural).
Reasons for the appearance of homonyms:
1) The coincidence of a borrowed word and native Russian (club and club);
2) As a result of the fact that two or more words borrowed from different languages, due to certain phonetic reasons, turned out to be consonant in Russian;
3) The coincidence of words borrowed from the same language (mine (projectile) and mine (face));
4) Coincidence of words as a result of phonetic processes
5) The coincidence of words in word formation.
Homonymous phenomena:
homographs- words that coincide in spelling, but differ in pronunciation (castle, castle).
Homophones- words that sound the same but are spelled differently (meadow-bow).
homoforms- words that coincide in their sound only in separate forms (furnace - verb and furnace - noun).
The distinction between different homonymous words and one word with many meanings causes many difficulties and cannot always be carried out unambiguously. What are the ways to distinguish homonymy from polysemy? One of them is the substitution of synonyms for each homonym or for all meanings of the polysemantic, and then comparing the selected synonyms with each other. If they turn out to be semantically close to each other, we have a polysemantic word, if not - homonyms.
Homonymy is quite fully represented in modern explanatory dictionaries. In 1974, the first in Russian lexicographic practice, the Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language, compiled by O.S. Akhmanova. The dictionary includes over 2000 entries containing pairs (or groups) of homonyms. Each article contains:
One of the three main types of education and its types;
· Grammar information about words;
· Stylistic characteristics;
Etymological information;
· Translation of each of the homonymous words into three languages: English, French and German;
Examples of the use of homonyms in phrases or sentences.
Differential value analysis carried out within the framework of semasiology.
The differential model of meaning obtained on the basis of this approach assumes that the meaning of a word consists of a small number of semantic components that have emerged in systemic paradigmatic oppositions. At the same time, components are distinguished that are common to members of one paradigm and distinguish them from another. That is, in the structure of the LZ, we can distinguish:
Differential semantic features (SP);
Integral joint ventures;
Differential SPs:
- semantic components
OBJECTS are inanimate objects and animate beings (including supernatural beings), such as stone, tree, dog, human, ghost, devil. ACTIONS are actions and processes, for example: run, think, die, turn black. ABSTRACTIONS include qualities and quantities, for example: soft, red, round, much, fast, unexpected. RELATIONS represent certain relationships between any two OBJECTS, ACTIONS or ABSTRACTIONS: coordination, simultaneity, attribution, part-whole, cause-result.;
Semantic factors (Comparing the meanings of words, you can divide these values into semantic factors that act as semantic features that combine a given value into one group with other words or distinguish the meaning of one word from another. These are the so-called integrating or differentiating features. For example, in verbs movement is a common (integrating) feature - the seme of movement, differentiating features - environment and means of transportation)
Semantic primitives: the basic components of linguistic statements that express elementary meanings (elementary units that correspond to elementary meanings: “I”, “you”, “world”, “something”, “someone (creature)”, “become”, “say” ). Vezhbitskaya.
Semes (minimal, limiting, further indivisible component of the lexical meaning (sememe). For example: the words good - bad are distinguished by the seme of negation. They are distinguished in oppositions: stallion = ‘horse + male’, mare = ‘horse + female’.
Sema- a term denoting the minimum unit of the language plan of content (elementary lexical or grammatical meaning), correlated with the morpheme (the minimum meaningful unit of the plan of expression) and representing a component of its content. For example, in the word form “book”, the morpheme “-y” contains three S.: “singular”, “feminine” and “accusative”.
the constructive components of meaning are not identical in nature and hierarchical status, since the objective properties of objects and phenomena reflected by them have different significance for the systematization and distinction of extralinguistic objects.
The central and hierarchically main in the structure of the sememe is the archiseme - a generic integrating seme, characteristic of all units of a certain class and reflecting their common categorical properties and features. In the lexical meaning of the word “father” (‘a man in relation to his children’), as in all other terms of kinship, the archiseme ⟨relative⟩ stands out. With the help of differential semes, the differences between the units of the semantic field are described. These are species species. So, all five semes that form the main lexical meaning of the word "father", namely: ⟨male sex⟩, ⟨parent⟩, ⟨direct relationship⟩, ⟨blood relationship⟩, ⟨first generation⟩, - act as specific specifiers of the generic concept " relative” - “male (relative)”, “(relative) parent”, etc. Thanks to the indicated differential semes, the word “father” as a term of kinship opposes in aggregate to these other members of the semantic field: “father” - “mother” ( ⟨male⟩ - ⟨female⟩), "father" - "son" (⟨parent⟩ - ⟨born⟩), "father" - "uncle" (⟨direct relationship⟩ - ⟨indirect relationship⟩), "father" - “stepfather” (⟨blood relationship⟩ - ⟨non-blood relationship⟩), “father” - “grandfather” (⟨first generation⟩ - ⟨second generation⟩ [parent]), etc.
Integrated joint ventures - these are such semantic components by which one meaning is not opposed to any other meanings within the class of words. They form an individual, singular in the meanings of words (incomparable semantic residues): loop - 'tiedring rope'.
Categorical joint ventures - common semantic feature for the words of this group: ocean, lake, sea - ‘reservoir’. The concept was introduced by Shmelev. Contained in general meanings that cannot be decomposed into components due to the predominance of the word's significative function ( substance, exist, move). According to categorical features, all words are divided into certain classes.
Yu.D. Apresyan: the interpreted meaning should be defined through simpler meanings and thus ultimately be reduced to a small set of elementary (undefined) meanings - words of the semantic language.
semantic language (language of semantic factors): point, part, whole, time, set, action, subject, thing, cause, have, know, rearrange, begin, not ....
From this is produced language of semantic primitives. A. Wierzbicka: semantic primitives are concepts that serve as building blocks for everything else. These are words which cannot be satisfactorily interpreted by themselves, but through which all other expressions can be interpreted. Linguo-mentalism, universal for all languages.
Integral concept of meaning (bringing the word to the concept)
The LZ includes not only the conceptual content, but also the entire stock of extralinguistic information, associations and all "additional meanings" - connotations.
L.A. Gruzberg:
Evening -
natural features: ‘sunset’, ‘darkness’, ‘appearance of stars’…;
anthropocentric features: ‘rest time’, ‘you can read a book’, ‘dating time’….
From the point of view of the integral approach, the semantics of the word has a significant redundancy, i.e. covers a wide range of more or less essential features that appear in an object in different situations. These features are not important for contrasting meanings, they are not structurally significant, but they are largely relevant for communication, since it is they that in many cases regulate the correct use of the word. As G. N. Sklyarevskaya writes: LZ is a complex structure that includes "not only conceptual content, but also the entire supply of linguistic and extralinguistic information, associations, vague, as if a priori ideas and all" additional meanings "called connotations" .
Sternin: it is impossible to clearly define the meaning of a word, its boundaries and list all its semantic components. Since: the fuzzy differentiation of many objects of the external world, the constant change of reality itself reflected in the meaning, the deepening of the concept of objects and the identification of new aspects, new relationships of concepts, the approximate reflection of reality in the human mind, differences in the knowledge of the same object by different people ( if we singled out, for example, in the word man the semes 'man', 'adult', 'male', we have no right to consider that we have described its meaning. We singled out only the semantic core, but it is surrounded by many other semantic features: 'courage' , 'efficiency', 'strength', etc., no less essential for a native speaker).
the lexical meaning is wider than the naive concept, since almost every word is surrounded by a multitude of associations, stable, national and random, individual. And hence the concept!
Concept
Yu.S. Stepanov: concept- it is like a clot of culture in the mind of a person; that in the form of which culture enters the mental world of man. And, on the other hand, the concept is something through which a person himself enters the culture.
The concept has a complex structure. On the one hand, everything that belongs to the structure of the concept belongs to it; on the other hand, the structure of the concept includes everything that makes it a fact of culture - the original form (etymology); a history compressed to the main features of the content; contemporary associations; ratings, etc.
The concept of a concept within the framework of the integral concept of meaning is redundant (in the form in which Stepanov gives it).
E.S. Kubryakova: concept- operational meaningful unit of memory, mental lexicon.
I.A. Sternin: concept corresponds to certain meanings that a person operates in the processes of thinking and which reflect the content of experience and meaning in the form of "quanta" of knowledge. Not working definition.
A. Wierzbicka: concept - an object of the ideal world, having a name, defined by a set of semantic primitives, reflecting the specific culturally conditioned ideas of a person about reality.
Concept- a multidimensional culturally significant sociopsychological formation, objectified in one form or another.
