Basen by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov

In the linguistic aspect

The purpose of our study is to identify the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre. To do this, we conduct a comparative analysis of the texts of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov.

The title of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov in linguistic analysis, one should pay attention to the titles of literary texts, since one of the most important components of the text is its title. Being outside the main body of the text, it occupies an absolutely strong position in it. This is the first sign of the work, from which acquaintance with the text begins. The title activates the reader's perception and directs his attention to what will be presented next.

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work. It in a condensed form expresses the main theme of the text, defines its most important storyline or indicates its main conflict. The titles of fables by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov are structurally diverse. They are expressed:

in a word, predominantly a noun in the nominative case or other case forms: “Bulat”, “Merchant”, “Lamb” by I.A. Krylov (32% in total), “About the Fool”, “Watermelon”, “Hands” by S. V. Mikhalkov (only 20%). Less common are the words of other parts of speech: “Unmentioned”, “Ku-ka-re-ku” by S.V. Mikhalkov, “Stingy”, “Curious” by I.A. Krylov;

a compositional combination of words: “Eagle and Mole”, “Gardener and Philosopher”, “Master and Mice” by I.A. Krylov (52% in total), “King and Jester”, “Fly and Elephant”, “Caterpillar and Butterfly” C .V. Mikhalkov (total 30%)

subordinating phrase: “Wild Goats”, “Pig under an oak tree”, Shy player” by I.A. Krylova (total 16%), “Presumptuous Rooster”, “Mad Dog”, “Two girlfriends” by S.V. Mikhalkov (total 50 %). [See Appendix 3]

Thus, if we talk about the percentage of the above types of titles of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, we can draw the following conclusion:

In I.A. Krylov, titles expressed by a composing combination of words predominate (104 titles - that is, 52%). The author connects two opposites with a creative union, which will be discussed in the fable, that is, the conflict is already indicated in the title.

S.V. Mikhalkov's titles are dominated by subordinating phrases (88 titles - that is, 50%). The author gives a qualitative description of the subject.

It should be noted that I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, with the help of the title, establish contact with the reader, arouse his interest, while using the expressive possibilities of language means of different levels.

For example, S.V. Mikhalkov uses antonymic connections of the words: “Thick and Thin”, “Form and Content”, “Head and Legs”. I.A. Krylov uses the phenomenon of an oxymoron: "Poor rich man."

S.V. Mikhalkov transforms the titles of already known works: “Crime without Punishment”, uses idioms as the title: “Chickens laugh”, “Side bake”

Consider the suffixes of subjective assessment in the fables of I. Krylov and S. Mikhalkov. Word formation in Russian is a bright source of speech expression and style formation due to the richness and variety of evaluative affixes. Suffixes of subjective evaluation serve to change the functional-stylistic and emotional-expressive coloring of words, as they have a stylistic purpose proper. Formations with subjective assessment suffixes acquire a colloquial or colloquial coloration and can be complemented by various shades: familiar, playfully ironic, grossly derogatory.

Suffixes of subjective evaluation are the most vivid means of speech expression and conveying emotions, they are used mainly in colloquial speech. Therefore, we can say that words with subjective evaluation suffixes are involved in the linguistic design of the fable genre.

Let us turn to I.A. Krylov’s fable “Demyan’s Ear”. What an inexhaustible abundance of petting and diminutive suffixes is in it, giving the speech of the characters such a unique national flavor!

« Neighbor, my light!

Please eat."

« Neighbor, I'm fed up". - There is no need

More plate y; Listen:

Ushitsa, she-same-her, well cooked!

"I ate three plates." - “And, full, what an expense.

If only it would become a hunt ... "

[“Demyan’s Ear” Krylov 1985: 111]

Krylov has fables in which diminutive suffixes determine their stylistic tone, giving them a special lyricism. So, in the fable "The Good Fox" (Krylov 1985: 106), diminutive words - orphans, grains, poor things, nest, bed, babies, song, crumbs - give a sensitive character to this fable.

S.V. Mikhalkov also appreciated the stylistic possibilities of affixation, using it to express irony and mockery. For example:

You live beautifully

Dear sister!»

"Oh, if darling you knew -

With a sigh, the rat answered.

Here is a hair from a Turkish sofa!

Here patchwork to the Persian carpet!

We know there is more family,

Where our hayut and scold.

["Two friends" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 21]

Once in a quiet barrel, under berezhkom, a little light,

small fish peaceful gathered for advice.

["Fish affairs" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 31]

Gnawed some, tore the sides of others

And wounded to death shepherd girl.

["Mad Dog" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 32]

In these examples, expressive word formation acts, first of all, as a means of creating an ironic, satirical coloring of speech (see Appendix 7).

Speaking about the style-forming functions of suffixes, we must also mention the individual author's style. Emotionally colored words in the texts of the studied fables stand out due to the fact that their nominative meanings are complicated by evaluative-characteristic semantic shades. These words not only retain their semantic and expressive qualities, but also enhance them. The popularity of these speech means in fables is explained by the proximity of language and syllable, the proximity of the latter both to live colloquial everyday speech and to works of oral folk art.

Further, in order to identify the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre, one should pay attention to the vocabulary of literary texts by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, because Vocabulary is the most mobile, changeable part of the language. It sensitively responds to this change in external, non-linguistic reality: in the material and cultural life of society, in the social structure, in relations between people.

I.A. Krylov wrote fables at the beginning of the 19th century, and S.V. Mikhalkov - in the middle of the 20th century. What has changed over the past century and a half?

From a historical point of view, we note that there have been significant upheavals in the social structure, in the way of life, in the life of the Russian people. From a linguistic point of view, we will find that in the Russian language of the middle of the 20th century and the beginning of the 19th century there are more similarities than differences. The fact is that language is conservative by nature: it lags far behind in its development from the development of the outside world. And yet there are changes in vocabulary. For specific examples, let's turn to the texts of S.V. Mikhalkov's fables. For example:

1) Because in communism we're on our way now

We should from now on for centuries

uproot the villages

We are talking about the political regime that dominated at the time of writing the fable. The ill-considered decisions taken by the executive power are condemned. That is, in the fable Mikhalkov S.V. touches on current issues of the day.

Behind astronaut did you marry your daughter?

Became son-in-law Deputy Minister

[“Poor Finches” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 152]

The twentieth century was marked not only by social events that influenced the fate of Russia, but also by great scientific discoveries and technical inventions, which S.V. Mikhalkov does not forget to mention in his fable.

3) He does not need to go to the forest for brushwood -

Gives warmth and light in abundance hydroelectric power station

[“The donkey problem” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 144]

Thus, in the course of the study, we found 53 language units (see Appendix 4), denoting new objects and concepts characteristic of the 20th century. This suggests that the fables of S. Mikhalkov were written "on the topic of the day." A large number of new words appeared in connection with the need to name the social and economic relations of people, various phenomena of social life, as well as science, culture, art and everyday life.

In paragraph 1.2. we have already said that I.A. Krylov made living folk speech the basis of his fable creativity. I.A. Krylov was able to show, albeit within the same literary genre, that the common language has enormous pictorial and expressive possibilities. Let us turn to the texts of the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov, who continued the traditions of I.A. Krylov, we will give quotes in which vernacular plays an indispensable role as a means of representation and expression:

1. Not suitable. Poems - mura,

Today is the same as yesterday!

["Pantry of the poet" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 78]

2. ate what should have been saved!

And such cats that do not catch mice,

From the pantries it's time to drive your!

["Cats and Mice" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 89]

3. I recognize him:

eyewash- is he!

[“This obligation” S. Mikhalkov 1985:127]

Vernaculars stand out from the mass of other words. In the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov, we have identified 35 cases of the use of vernacular, this is explained by the very style of narration (see Appendix 5). The common thing that these vernaculars have in common is a sign of reduced speech, characterized by ease, familiarity and sometimes rudeness of expressions. Colloquial vocabulary is used for stylization purposes.

Comparing the texts of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, we see that they are saturated with various phraseological units. In paragraph 1.2. It was said that from the works of I.A. Krylov, many phrases and expressions have entered the modern Russian language, which have become aphorisms and proverbs (see Appendix 2). S.V. Mikhalkov, on the other hand, uses in the texts of fables a layer of phraseological units already existing in the language.

The features of the actualization of phraseological semantics in the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov are different: most of them are phraseological units in the usual form. Despite the fact that the writer has his own handwriting, his own word, an excellent command of the elements of the living Russian language, he refers to the normative use of phraseological units, although he masterfully emphasizes, enhances their meaning with the context of existence. Such functioning of ordinary phraseological units emphasizes the author's ability to creatively comprehend a static nominative unit and, without changing its form and content, betray it with a high emotional charge.

For example:

Ate the dog he is on the tailor's part.

["The tailor on his laurels" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 67]

Another, like that Rooster, calls from the podium,

Shimit, screaming, giving orders,

Requires work. And you baclush beats

[“Rooster Chatterbox” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 87]

Yes I seven skins from him let down.

And I'll let you go naked to Africa!

["Hare in the hop" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 25]

So, the nature of the phraseological units used by S. Mikhalkov has a vivid imagery, stylistic coloring, and expression. This is explained by the canons of the fable as a genre. S. Mikhalkov expands the possibilities of using phraseological resources. Under his pen, the phraseological riches of the Russian language come to life, which he treats as raw materials to be processed creatively. His creative processing gives phraseological units a new expressive coloring, enhancing their expressiveness. In total, we recorded 37 cases of the use of phraseological units in the texts of S.V. Mikhalkov's fables (see Appendix 6).

Conclusion:

Summarizing the above, we note that S.V. Mikhalkov follows I.A. Krylov and creatively continues his traditions, observing the canons of the fable genre.

The fable verse of S.V. Mikhalkov is close to living, colloquial speech, he selects the simplest, but rich in semantic shades and words and expressions of the national language. In the course of the study, we have identified the following features of the linguistic design of his fables:

Use of words with subjective evaluation suffixes;

Use of colloquial words;

The use of phraseological units.

All this makes the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov and I.A. Krylov related. But the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre is still evident.

Each of the fabulists touches on the problems of his time. I.A. Krylov wrote fables at the beginning of the 19th century. Peasants, shepherds, millers, cab drivers, merchants, the rich, clerks, bares, nobles - in a word, Russian people of various ranks, classes, estates and positions in kind or in an animal masquerade - are the heroes of his fables. S.V. Mikhalkov writes fables in the middle of the 20th century, when the social system is changing, production, science and culture are developing. These changes give rise to new words. In the course of the study, we found 53 language units denoting new objects and concepts characteristic of the 20th century.

In the 20th century, businessmen, government officials, bureaucrats, swindlers, parasites become the object of satire. Thus, the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov have novelty and relevance for their time.

Conclusion:

The fable is short and always has a moralizing character, which makes it related to the parable. At the beginning or at the end of the work, a conclusion is formulated, the main instructive thought is morality. At the heart of the plot structure and more broadly - the structure of the fable is based on antithesis, comparison. Through the "real", plot structure, an allegorical - moralistic or satirical plan shines through.

The fable is the most traditional genre that has retained its foundation to our time, from Aesop to Mikhalkov.

However, this does not mean that the fable genre itself remained unchanged. Throughout its centuries-old history, the fable has changed, acquired new features and properties, and the dynamics of its linguistic design has taken place.

The genre is constantly evolving in its own way in every country and in every era. I.A. Krylov made living folk speech the basis of his work. He was able to show within the same genre that the common language has enormous pictorial and expressive possibilities.

The founder of the modern fable can be considered S.V. Mikhalkov, who creatively continues the traditions of I.A. Krylov. The dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre is explained, first of all, by extralinguistic factors. Each fabulist touches, first of all, on the problems of his time. Reality determines the selection of speech means for the linguistic design of the text of the fable.

List of used literature.

Aristotle. On the art of poetry. - M .: "Pravda", 1957 - 240 p.

Arutyunova N.D. Types of language values: Evaluation. Event. Fact. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1988 - 380 p.

Arutyunova N.D. Language and the human world. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1998 - 659 p.

Babenko L.G., Vasiliev I.E., Kazarin Yu.V. Linguistic analysis of a literary text. - Yekaterinburg, 2000 - 390 p.

Vezhbitskaya A.B. speech genres. genres of speech. - Saratov: College, 1997 - 354 p.

Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1981 - 320 p.

Gasparov M.L. Literary epochs and types of artistic consciousness. - M .: "Nauka", 1993 - 208 p.

Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language. - M .: "Iris-press", 1997 - 448 p.

Kovalenko S.A. Winged lines of Russian poetry. - M .: "Contemporary", 1989 - 480 p.

Korovin V.I. Poet and sage. Book about Ivan Krylov. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1994 - 297 p.

Kuzmichev I.A. literary crossroads. Typology of genres, their historical fate. - Gorky: Volga-Vyatka book publishing house, 1993 - 208 p.

Leiderman N.L. The movement of time and the laws of the genre. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1982 - 215 p.

Nadezhdin N.I. Literary criticism. Aesthetics. - M .: "Pravda", 1972 - 409 p.

Pronin V.A. The theory of literary genres. - M.: MGUP Publishing House, 1999 - 196 p.

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Shcherba L.V. Language system and speech activity. - M .: "Pravda", 1974 - 297 p.

Chernets L.V. Literary genre: problems of typology and poetics. - M .: "Nauka", 1992 - 380 p.

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. - M., 1966.

Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. V.N.Yartseva. M.: Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia". – 2000.

Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary / Under the general. ed. V.N. Kozhevnikova, P.N. Nikolaev. - M .: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1987.

Russian language: Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. Yu.N.Karaulov.-2nd ed. - M., 1997.

Appendix 1

Examples of vernacular in the fables of I.A. Krylov:

1) puffed and puffed,

And my entertainer ended on that

What, not equal to the Ox,

It burst with an effort - and died.

[“The Frog and the Ox” I.A. Krylov, 1985: 9]

2) Well done sang: who is in the forest, who is for firewood,

And who has that power.

In the ears of the guest crackled

And the head was spinning.

[“Musicians” I.A. Krylov, 1985: 7]

3) How dare you , insolent, with an unclean snout

Here is a clean muddy drink

With sand and silt?

[“The Wolf and the Lamb” by I.A. Krylov, 1985: 17]

4) Veshunin's head was spinning with praise,

From joy to goiter breath stole –

And to Lisitsy's friendly words

Crow croaked in all the crow's throat:

The cheese fell out - there was such a cheat with it.

[“The Crow and the Fox” by I.A. Krylov, 1985: 5]

5) A pig under an ancient oak

I ate my fill of acorns, to waste,

Having eaten, she slept under it;

Then the eyes fucked up, got up

And snout to undermine the roots of the oak

["Pig under the oak" I.A. Krylov, 1985: 173]

6) Once a Swan, Cancer and Pike

Carried with luggage, they took it,

And together the three all harnessed themselves to it;

Out of the skin climb out, but the cart still does not move.

["Swan, Cancer and Pike" I.A. Krylov, 1985: 92]

At present, the education system is designed to provide training for highly educated people and qualified specialists capable of professional growth and professional mobility. Communicative competence is the main component of professionalism. The development of communicative competence is an important element in the development of a future specialist. Today the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is the largest region of the Russian Federation. One of the features of our republic is that we have two state languages ​​that coexist equally in one society. Hence the problem of bilingualism arises when teaching a foreign language to bilingual students.

Bilingualism implies the same perfect command of two languages ​​used in different communication conditions, and it can be very difficult to determine the native language: speakers learn two languages ​​from childhood, use one in everyday life, and the other in official communication. So, bilingualism is the possession of two languages ​​and regular switching from one language to another. As practice shows, students speak two languages ​​to varying degrees, and one of the languages ​​is the dominant language for perception. For example, in the Pharm-31 group, in the 2nd brigade, 14 students study at the Yakutsk Medical College (Appendix No. 1). Of these, 4 students live in the city (Russian dominates), 10 students came from the uluses and for them the dominant language is the Yakut language. Among students from rural areas, 4 students are fluent in Russian, natives of Abyi, Anabar, Suntar and Nyurbinsky uluses. Based on this, it can be said that 57% of students are bilingual, while 43% also speak two languages, but the dominant language is their native language, the Yakut language.

A modern teacher has to face a number of difficulties in the classroom. Often it is necessary to conduct a lesson in the so-called "unfavorable conditions", which include the fact that students are poorly and unevenly prepared for further learning a foreign language. In some schools, the study of a foreign language according to the program begins with the primary grades, naturally these students have a large vocabulary, reading and verbal communication skills. Other students began to study a foreign language from the middle level and it should be noted that they do not have the practice of oral speech communication, the main activity in the classroom is the implementation of written grammar exercises. 13 students of the Pharm-31 group studied English at school, and only 1 student studied French. This "unfavorable" situation requires the teacher to have free and complete possession of the material, the ability to find an individual approach to each student. After all, learning a language is the acquisition of skills, which depends on what the students themselves do. You can only learn a language by practicing it.

In the activities of a foreign language teacher, the following methods are often used: the dialogical method, the monologue method, the research method, the method of problem presentation, the design method, and others. The research method we use is one of the most effective methods of working with bilingual students. It allows you to form creative thinking, acquire new knowledge and methods of action, stimulate the emergence of motivation for learning. The relevance of the application of this method lies in the fact that the methods of teaching a foreign language that exist in the education system do not take into account the features and specifics of bilingualism. In particular, in the RS (Y) a foreign language is taught as a philological science, and not as a way of self-education, perception of the world.

During the lesson on the study of medical terms, the teacher organizes partially research independent work of students, jointly solving tasks of a problematic nature. At the same time, the work is aimed at a comparative analysis of special terms and borrowed words (Table Appendix No. 2). In the lessons in educational institutions of the medical profile, the teacher, at each lesson, carries out interdisciplinary communication with such subjects as: "Nursing", "General Medicine", "Therapy" and others. This helps to systematize the knowledge gained in other classes, apply them and gain new knowledge through the implementation of these connections. They also contribute to interest in the subject, are a stimulus for the cognitive and communicative activity of students.

Students of the Medical College Pharm-31 are invited to fill in the table of terms using dictionaries and using knowledge of their native language. Since the level of knowledge of bilingual students is uneven, the teacher regulates the actions of students and helps them solve the problem. As a result, the end result is the assimilation of the material in a complex that includes six languages ​​(Russian, Yakut, English, Latin, Greek, French). During the task, there is an open dialogue between the teacher and the student, where the guys ask questions that interest them: “What connects Latin and English?”, “Why is there no spoken Latin?”, “Why are there more words of Greek origin in the clinic?”, “Why us, future medical workers, to study a foreign language for three whole years? Students are often surprised by the fact that all medical terms are derived from Latin words.

When filling out a comparative table, students from rural areas first of all fill in the column with the Yakut language. Then these words are translated into Russian, and since not everyone knows the Russian translation of terms, it is difficult for them to find the English and Latin translations in dictionaries. Students with a dominant Russian language find foreign equivalents of words faster. After all, all terms in dictionaries should be searched in Russian. The whole process of semi-research work requires from students increased attention and active translation work.

Thus, comparative analysis as a method of research and development of communicative competence in the context of bilingualism contributes to better assimilation of the material, positive dynamics in the motivation to learn a language, and satisfaction with the result of one's research activities. Students show great interest, activity and sociability in the classroom. After all, communicative competence is an integral part of their future professional activity.

The term "communicative competence" is not new in the psychological and pedagogical literature, but it remains one of the most significant subsystems in the structure of professional competence, since knowledge and proficiency in two languages ​​has become one of the main requirements of a modern employer.

Application No. 1

№	Full name	arrived	Dominant language	Foreign language
	Osipova Ludmila	suntarsky	Russian language	French
	Profitable Alice	Anabar	Russian language	English language
	Rozhina Lilia		Russian language	English language
	Romanova Alena		Russian language	English language
	Svinoboeva Lydia	Megino-Kangalassky	Yakut language	English language
	Selyassinov Ivan	Verkhnevilyuisk	Yakut language	English language
	Semenov Vasily	Vilyuysky	Yakut language	English language
	Stepanova Alexandra	Verkhnevilyuisk	Yakut language	English language
	Timofeeva Sardaana	Vilyuysky	Yakut language	English language
	Nikolaeva Julia	Nyurbinsky	Russian language	English language
	Yakovleva Uliana	Abyi	Russian language	English language
	Shafikova Anna		Russian language	English language
	Govorova Aita		Russian language	English language
	Egorov Fedot	Vilyuysky	Yakut language	English language

Application No. 2

Latin	Greek	Russian	English	French	Yakut
articulation				articulation joint
digitus
muscle
pulmo
ventriculus
vesica fellea		gallbladder		vesicule biliaire
sanguis

Literature:

1. Gorodkova Yu.I. Latin language. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2011. - 352 p.
2. Martselli A.A. Latin language and the basics of medical terminology - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2009. - 380s. - (Secondary vocational education)
3. Increasing the role of moral and patriotic education of youth in the context of the modernization of vocational education in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia): editor-in-chief Yu.S. Kupriyanov, PhD in Economics - Yakutsk: Bichik, 2010. - 200p.

Sometimes, for an in-depth assessment of historical figures, processes, phenomena, it is advisable to use the method of comparative analysis. For example, compare the political system of two countries with a similar mentality of people and the level of economic development. The classical structure of comparative analysis includes the comparison of several objects, evaluating the object from different angles, identifying features and shortcomings. The author's goal is to discover the common features and characteristic differences of the compared objects.

At the moment, there are many ways to conduct a comparative analysis. Let us pay attention to the main points on which a comparative analysis of the object under study is built. Here are some of them.

1. Context.

it is necessary to find the context, the main idea, around which the subsequent work will be carried out. Simply put, the context can be: a certain problem, theory, main idea that is related to the main object of study. Here is an example, if the purpose of the study is to compare two legal norms that are outwardly similar to one another, it would be correct to fully study the problems of the question asked, based on those areas of legal relations in which legal norms are implemented. In order to add firmness to the work, finally convincing readers of their conclusions, it is necessary to conduct a deep analysis of the processes under study, to scroll through various judgments and approaches to this issue in the head. then highlight the main conclusions that will become the basis for presenting the context in a comparative analysis. When working, it is desirable to use authoritative sources by placing a link to them. A comparative analysis cannot be compiled without a verified context, because this will deprive you of the foundation necessary to build an evidence base when comparing two objects.

2. real grounds for comparison.

In the process of research, it is imperative to justify the reason according to which comparisons of two similar objects will be carried out. For example, we need to compare which is more beneficial for health: cabbage or beets. The reader will be looking for the logic that guided the researcher when choosing objects for comparison. what should the researcher do in this case, give the reader iron arguments, why is it necessary to pay attention to these objects of research? Having assessed the correctness of your choice and realizing the logical chain of your arguments, the reader will understand that this topic did not arise “from the ceiling”, which means that it should be paid attention to. So, it is necessary to indicate the reasons for choosing the research topic.

3. Arguments.

You are busy with comparative analysis, which means you need to be guided by facts when comparing two objects objectively. It is worth showing the strength of your statements by highlighting those features in which objects interact with each other. What points should be paid attention to? Determine how the selected objects complement, enrich, contradict, dispute, exclude each other? What is the purpose of well-formed arguments? Evaluate the interaction of two objects. Facts are determined according to the accepted context of ideas (problems, theories), in which compared objects are taken out of brackets (see paragraph 1). In order to focus on the interaction of objects, such words should be used: “while”, “whereas”, “opposite”, “besides”, “complementing”, “excluding”, etc.

4. Methods of comparative analysis.

After editing the introductory part of the assignment: context, real reasons for comparison, facts and arguments, define one more thing, the method of comparison. The following methods are used for comparative analysis:
A) describe all the advantages and disadvantages of object X, and then object Y.
B) One by one, in turn, parse similar elements of the compared objects.
C) comparing X and Y, you need to clearly put emphasis on one of the objects. This method is used in the only case when X and Y cannot be fully compared with each other. So, object X acts as a tool used to test the arguments of object Y, which were discussed in Point 3.

5. Determine the relationship between the compared objects and the given arguments of Item 3.

The work should be felt as a single organism, for this it is necessary to show the relationship between objects, making up a logical chain of facts characterizing the interaction of two objects. Without such a construction of the work, it will be difficult for the reader to see the connections by which the compared objects interact with each other's arguments.

The comparative method is one of the most common in different sciences. In many areas of human activity, there is a need for optimal choice. This takes into account all the characteristics of the objects under study, as well as their comparison according to the required criteria.

Comparison as a way of knowing

Comparison is one of the main methods of cognition of the surrounding reality. The basis of this method is quite simple: the definition and comparison of individual phenomena of a social, economic, political or other nature in order to detect distinctive similarities and differences.

On the basis of comparison, a reasonable or hypothetical conclusion is drawn about the homogeneity of phenomena, the similarity of their content, general direction, etc. This allows using data on one object when studying another. If, in the course of the study, some discrepancies were found, then this allows us to indicate the peculiarity, specificity and uniqueness of one phenomenon or object in relation to another.

The concept and categories of the method of comparative analysis

The method of comparative analysis originates from such a general scientific method as analogy. However, unlike the latter, comparison involves the use of elements of other methods, including analysis, methods of thinking, modeling, synthesis, induction, deduction, etc. The main purpose of comparison is to obtain new facts not only from the various properties of the compared objects or phenomena, but also analysis their various relationships. Based on this, it is possible to draw up a general trend of their subsequent functioning and development.

Methods of a comparative approach lead to the fact that already established views on certain phenomena and facts can be revised. Comparison can also reveal features that are specific to a particular object or phenomenon, but were not previously known to researchers. Thus, comparison contributes to a deeper study and knowledge of objects and phenomena, as well as the search for their distinctive features and differences at different levels of research.

Benchmarking mechanism

The comparative research method has its own mechanism, which includes the following components:

• General scientific methods. These include: analogy, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc.
• Logic device. An extensive category system that is used in comparison and analysis operations. Each object or phenomenon has its own system of categories.

Particular attention is also deserved by such a variation of the comparison method as segmentation. Its essence lies in the fact that information about an object or phenomenon is divided into separate parts - segments, which are subsequently subjected to research. At the same time, the comparison can be carried out according to different criteria, in particular, the historical-comparative method is often used, where the object is studied not only in comparison with other objects, but also in comparison with itself at different time stages.

Segmentation as one of the methods of comparative analysis involves the study of not only the characteristics of individual elements of a particular object or phenomenon, but also the nature and trends of its functioning and development within the whole.

Stages of comparative analysis and forecasting

The comparative method of assessing objects and phenomena provides for the implementation of research at several levels:

• Collection and processing of all received information. At the same time, all data must be objective, accurate and provable.
• Systematization of information. All data must be divided into different categories and the collected material should be given a structural form.
• Interpretation of the received data. Based on the analysis and comparison of information, specific conclusions are drawn.

With the correct implementation of these steps, the researcher can formulate justifications for the forecast. The simplest method of forecasting is a direct comparison of information about an object or phenomenon at different levels, for example, in different regions, countries, etc. The second method of forecasting involves the formulation of specific hypotheses supported by real facts.

Benchmarking Rules

The comparative research method will be effective only if all the rules for its implementation are observed:

• Implementation of comparison at different levels using analogy, system-historical analysis and logic.
• The correct choice of objects for the implementation of the comparison process.
• Specific goal setting.
• The comparative analysis method should be carried out using specific criteria.
• A clear definition of the features of the compared objects and phenomena.
• Processing of comparison results and analysis of the possibility of their application in practice.

All data obtained during the research process must be clear, unambiguous and provable.

Types of comparative studies

The comparative method has its own typology. In science, the following types of research are distinguished:

• According to the scope of the study: macro- and micro-comparison.
• According to the goals, practical (or functional) and theoretical (or scientific) research is distinguished.
• According to the level, research can be intersystem, intrasystem, intranational, historical, intersectoral, etc.

In addition, there are also synchronous and asynchronous comparison. In the first case, we are talking about parallel and simultaneous comparison, and in the second case, the comparative method can be applied to objects that are in different time periods.

Pros and cons of the comparative method

The comparative approach has a number of pluses and minuses that the researcher should take into account in his work. As for the positives, they are as follows:

• The method allows you to reflect the current and real situation in relation to the object or phenomenon under study.
• All data are statistically justified.
• In the process of research, you can make adjustments to the compared phenomena or objects.
• In the presence of a large amount of information, the method is very easy to implement and gives reliable and reliable results.

The method also has its drawbacks:

• At the time of interpretation of the results of the study, the data may be out of date.
• The accuracy of the obtained data depends on the stability of the object under study.
• For reliable and accurate data, a large amount of information is needed.

The ratio of the positive and negative aspects of the method determines the effectiveness of its application in each specific case.

Benchmarking Examples

Features of the comparison method allow it to be used in a variety of areas, such as:

• Biology and anatomy.
• Linguistics, in particular comparative linguistics.
• Literary criticism and mythology.
• Comparative Politics.
• Economic sciences.
• Jurisprudence and jurisprudence.
• Psychology.
• Sociological sciences.
• Religious studies.
• Philosophy, etc.

The comparative method has a number of features that allow it to be effectively used in a variety of sciences. The method has its own classification, typology, as well as the rules and features of the study at different stages. The choice of this method is determined by the availability of the required amount of information and the selection of optimal criteria.

It is difficult to find two significant regions or two social groups that would not differ in the composition of onomastic units functioning in them. Usually, one does not have to talk about the existence and subsequent disintegration of an “onomastic proto-language” and, consequently, engage in its reconstruction (as is done when processing a neo-onomastic array of genetically related languages). For example, the toponymy of our north and south, west and east does not coincide, although, of course, it has a lot in common. Therefore, onomatologists (toponymists, anthroponyms, etc.) compare both related (twin related, distantly related) and unrelated onomastic systems. The method of their work is comparison (in the presence of genetically common features) and comparison (in the presence of typologically similar, although unrelated phenomena). It is possible to compare both the entire onomastic space and its individual zones - anthroponymy, cosmonymy, toponymy, as well as their smaller “sections”, for example: hydronymy, oikonymy, microtoponymy. Various phenomena of the content plan (pre-onomastic and onomastic semantics, in particular, types of nomination of onomastic objects, semantic models of onyms, motifs for naming people, the circle of stems, roots, words used as personal names) and the expression plan (the structure of onyms, their word-formation) are subject to comparison. structure, grammatical, phonetic, accentological indicators). The comparison results can be expressed in qualitative and quantitative (statistical) characteristics.

As an example of a comparison of the same type and closely related onomastic systems, one can take the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian personal names (the composition of personal names and the patterns of their functioning).

Having a primordially unified pan-Slavic, then East Slavic, and with the adoption of Christianity (988) Byzantine fund of personal names, Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians, despite common anthroponymic traditions and trends, developed their own characteristics that allow us to talk about Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian names as independent systems.

Each of the historical periods in the life of the East Slavic peoples is characterized by its own set of similar and distinctive features, largely coinciding with the previous period, but also noticeably different from it, since onomastic vocabulary as a whole is extremely sensitive to socio-political, social and cultural transformations, setting up its system and its individual components for the optimal fulfillment of the social order.

East Slavic anthroponymic systems can be studied in synchronic-comparative and comparative diachronic aspects. Each of them has its own specifics, as well as scientific and practical value. It seems that we should start with a synchronous description of personal names, that is, with a consideration of the composition of personal names and the nature of their functioning in a specific historical period, and then move on to tracing their dynamics.

In order to work out the methodology for the comparative analysis of genetically identical name names, it is advisable to focus on the comparison of Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian name names of our time, in particular on the composition and usage of modern official personal names, leaving aside their abbreviated and other derivative forms.

A frontal comparison of the names of the names of the East Slavic peoples should include a comparison of: 1) the entire composition of the names that exist in a given period among the studied peoples, showing similarities and differences in the set of names and their “material” design; 2) specific repertoires of names: a) all residents of a particular locality or region, b) newborns of a selected chronological slice (annual, five-year, ten-year, etc.), c) certain social groups and strata of society; 3) the statistical structure of names, i.e. the proportion and degree of use of various groups of names.

To compare the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian personal names, you can use the methodology tested on Russian material.

Comparison of personal names of residents of Russian villages in the Penza region (the village of Lermontovo and the village of Veselovka, 100 km apart from each other) shows that in them men's names are similar by 74%, and women's by 71% (and, accordingly, differ by 26% and 29%).

Two district centers (the village of Ternovka and the village of Poim of the same region), located 50 km from each other, differ by 23% in the composition and frequency of names.

However, it should be emphasized that the "distance" between names is not entirely due to the degree of remoteness of the respective settlements. It happens that the names of neighboring villages are “further” from each other than the names of remote regions. For example, "distance" in the names of the female population c. Ears and s. Bolshoi Izhmora Zemetchinsky district of the Penza region is equal to 32%. Names are frequent in Ushinka: Evdokia, Lyubov, Martha, Raisa, in Bolshaya Izhmora - Alexandra, Antonina, Valentina, Ekaterina, Maria, etc.

No less revealing is the comparison of newborn names (as a rule, we take five-year slices - for 1971-1975). Thus, the city of Serdobsk, Penza Region, and the city of Rzhev, Kalinin Region, differ in the men's name list by 18%, and in the women's one, by 21%. Approximately the same "distance" in the names of newborns in the cities of Serdobsk and the city of Polevsky, Sverdlovsk region (18% in males and 20% in females).

Comparison of the names of Russian children in 1971-1975. births in the city of Serdobsk and the Belarusian city of Smorgon in the Grodno region of the BSSR reveals a higher level of discrepancies - 35% for boys and 27% for girls. In Serdobsk, the following names are more popular than in Smorgon: Alexey (by 5.7%), Valentin (by 5%), Evgeny (by 2.7%), Roman (by 5%), Yuri (by 3.8% ); Irina (by 4.3%), Lyubov (by 5.8%), Marina (by 2.2%), Tatyana (by 3.6%); in Smorgon, on the contrary, the popularity of names is higher: Alexander (by 8.8%), Viktor (by 4.8%), Ivan (by 2%), Nikolai (by 1.3%), Sergey (by 3.5% ); Alla (by 3.6%), Zhanna (by 2.5%), Inna (by 2.4%), Natalya (by 3.6%), Olga (by 2.3%), etc. In Serdobsk in the named years are used for naming names (some of them quite widely): Artem, German, Grigory, Denis, Konstantin, Marat, Milan, Felix, Yuri, Yakov, Yaroslav; Alena, Albina, Anastasia, Veronica, Diana, Lada, Margarita, Olesya, Snezhana, Elmira, Yulia, but there are no such people in Smorgon. But here we see names that Serdobsky parents did not use: Arnold, Gennady, Georgy, Ivan, Joseph, Kirill, Leonid, Renat, Stanislav; Alexandra, Alla, Victoria, Zina, Inessa, Inna, Leopolda, Maya, Eleanor, Yanina.

The indicators close to the Belarusian-Russian ones are given by a comparison of the Russian and Ukrainian personal names (the cities of Chernigov, Sevastopol and Artemov in the Donetsk region).

When comparing unrelated languages ​​that have a materially non-coinciding set of names, the subject of comparison is the general structure of the name list (its volume, statistical organization, usage patterns, etc.). A comparison of the names of the Russian and Tatar population showed that in Russian villages (the region of the Middle Volga region was surveyed), the repertoire of used names and the statistical organization of names remain largely similar. On the contrary, the repertoire of Tatar names gives a much wider range of fluctuations from village to village. As for the statistical structure of the Tatar name list, then, like the Russians, it is basically the same in all surveyed Tatar villages.

Comparison of the statistical organization of the Tatar name list with the Russian name list revealed, firstly, the similarity in the share of the group of frequent names (for Tatars it averages 75%, for Russians - 80%), and secondly, significant differences in the share of the first five, as well as the first ten common names: among Russians, the first five most frequent male names cover about 50%, among Tatars - 25% (two times less), among Russians, the first ten male names cover up to 70-75% of all speakers, among Tatars - only 40% (almost half as much); among Russians, the most popular five female names account for an average of 35% of women, for Tatars - for 20%, and the first ten frequent names for Russian women cover 55%, for Tatars - only 35%. Consequently, in the Tatar name book, the load on frequent names is distributed more evenly than in the Russian name book.

Comparative study of names of different peoples makes visual and "measurable" the specifics of each of the national anthroponymic systems.

Comparative studies of anthroponymy prepare the basis for typological classifications on a wide scale. One of these attempts is the allocation (for example, by I. V. Bestuzhev-Lada) on our planet of nine anthroponymic zones. The Russian anthroponymic system (with a three-term designation of a person - by last name, first name, patronymic) is assigned to the third (“northern”) zone. Here is its description “according to the most general categories”: “3) Northern zone (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus). The influence of the Orthodox Church was undermined in 1917. The choice of names is formally unlimited, but in practice, customs, traditions and fashion have extremely narrowed it. In contrast to the first two zones (“northwestern”, covering North America, northwestern German-speaking Europe, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and “southwestern”, including Latin America and southwestern Romance-speaking Europe.— In B.), only one personal name is given. But the patronymic is preserved.

Comparative works in the synchronic and diachronic aspects, both in the proper linguistic and in the linguo-sociological, psychological and other aspects, will have to confirm or refute the universal nature of the phenomena presumably attributed to onomastic universals.

Bondaletov V. L. Russian onomastics - M., 1983