Holy Roman Empire. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation

of the Holy Roman Empire, for each new monarch, at least a double procedure has become traditional: the election in Germany and coronation in Rome(sometimes between them there was a coronation in Milan as King of Italy). Journey of the king from Germany to Rome in Middle Ages, as a rule, turned into a military campaign. In addition, it was necessary to enlist the support pope, or wait for death or organize the overthrow of a hostile pope. From election to coronation in Rome, the pretender to the imperial throne was called the Roman king.

This title had another function. To ensure the transfer of power from father to son, almost every emperor tried to organize the election of a Roman king during his lifetime. Thus, the title of king of Rome often meant crown prince.

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An excerpt characterizing the Roman king

Anna Pavlovna's presentiment was indeed justified. The next day, during a prayer service in the palace on the occasion of the sovereign's birthday, Prince Volkonsky was summoned from the church and received an envelope from Prince Kutuzov. It was Kutuzov's report, written on the day of the battle from Tatarinova. Kutuzov wrote that the Russians had not retreated a single step, that the French had lost much more than ours, that he was reporting in a hurry from the battlefield, without having had time to collect the latest information. So it was a victory. And immediately, without leaving the temple, gratitude was rendered to the creator for his help and for the victory.
Anna Pavlovna's premonition was justified, and a joyfully festive mood reigned in the city all morning. Everyone recognized the victory as complete, and some have already spoken of the capture of Napoleon himself, of his deposition and the election of a new head for France.
Away from business and amid the conditions of court life, it is very difficult for events to be reflected in all their fullness and strength. Involuntarily, general events are grouped around one particular case. So now the main joy of the courtiers was as much in the fact that we had won, as in the fact that the news of this victory fell on the sovereign’s birthday. It was like a successful surprise. In Kutuzov's news, it was also said about the losses of the Russians, and Tuchkov, Bagration, Kutaisov were named among them. Also, the sad side of the event involuntarily in the local, Petersburg world was grouped around one event - the death of Kutaisov. Everyone knew him, the sovereign loved him, he was young and interesting. On this day, everyone met with the words:
How amazing it happened. In the very prayer. And what a loss for the Kutays! Ah, what a pity!
- What did I tell you about Kutuzov? Prince Vasily was now speaking with the pride of a prophet. “I have always said that he alone is capable of defeating Napoleon.
But the next day there was no news from the army, and the general voice became anxious. The courtiers suffered for the suffering of the uncertainty in which the sovereign was.
- What is the position of the sovereign! - the courtiers said and no longer extolled, as on the third day, and now they condemned Kutuzov, who was the cause of the sovereign's anxiety. Prince Vasily on this day no longer boasted of his protege Kutuzov, but remained silent when it came to the commander in chief. In addition, by the evening of that day, everything seemed to have come together in order to plunge the residents of St. Petersburg into alarm and anxiety: another terrible news had joined. Countess Elena Bezukhova died suddenly from this terrible disease, which was so pleasant to pronounce. Officially, in large societies, everyone said that Countess Bezukhova died from a terrible attack of angine pectorale [chest sore throat], but in intimate circles they told details about how le medecin intime de la Reine d "Espagne [medical physician of the Queen of Spain] prescribed Helene small doses some medicine to perform a certain action; but how Helen, tormented by the fact that the old count suspected her, and by the fact that the husband to whom she wrote (that unfortunate depraved Pierre) did not answer her, suddenly took a huge dose of the medicine prescribed for her and died in torment before they could help.It was said that Prince Vasily and the old count took up the Italian, but the Italian showed such notes from the unfortunate deceased that he was immediately released.
The general conversation focused on three sad events: the unknown of the sovereign, the death of Kutaisov and the death of Helen.
On the third day after Kutuzov's report, a landowner from Moscow arrived in St. Petersburg, and the news spread throughout the city that Moscow had been surrendered to the French. It was terrible! What was the position of the sovereign! Kutuzov was a traitor, and Prince Vasily, during the visites de condoleance [condolence visits] on the occasion of the death of his daughter, which they made to him, spoke of Kutuzov, whom he had previously praised (it was forgivable for him to forget in sadness what he had said before), he said, that nothing else could be expected from a blind and depraved old man.
- I am only surprised how it was possible to entrust the fate of Russia to such a person.
While this news was still unofficial, one could still doubt it, but the next day the following report came from Count Rostopchin:
“The adjutant of Prince Kutuzov brought me a letter in which he demands police officers from me to escort the army to the Ryazan road. He says that he leaves Moscow with regret. Sovereign! Kutuzov's act decides the fate of the capital and your empire. Russia will shudder when it learns of the surrender of the city, where the greatness of Russia is concentrated, where are the ashes of your ancestors. I will follow the army. I took everything out, it remains for me to cry about the fate of my fatherland.
Having received this report, the sovereign sent the following rescript to Kutuzov with Prince Volkonsky:
“Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich! Since August 29, I have not had any reports from you. In the meantime, on September 1, through Yaroslavl, from the Moscow commander-in-chief, I received the sad news that you had decided to leave Moscow with the army. You yourself can imagine the effect this news had on me, and your silence deepens my surprise. I am sending with this Adjutant General Prince Volkonsky in order to learn from you about the state of the army and about the reasons that prompted you to such a sad determination.

Nine days after leaving Moscow, a messenger from Kutuzov arrived in Petersburg with official news of the abandonment of Moscow. This one was sent by the Frenchman Michaud, who did not know Russian, but quoique etranger, Busse de c?ur et d "ame, [however, although a foreigner, but Russian at heart,] as he himself said to himself.

The Holy Roman Empire is a state that existed from 962 to 1806. Its history is very curious. The Holy Roman Empire was founded in 962. It was carried out by King Otto I. It was he who was the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The state lasted until 1806 and was a feudal-theocratic country with a complex hierarchy. The image below shows the state square around the beginning of the 17th century.

According to the idea of ​​its founder, the German king, the empire created by Charlemagne was to be revived. However, the idea of ​​Christian unity, which had been present in the Roman state from the very beginning of its Christianization, that is, since the reign of Constantine the Great, who died in 337, was largely forgotten by the 7th century. However, the church, which was heavily influenced by Roman institutions and laws, did not forget the idea.

Idea of ​​St. Augustine

St. Augustine at one time undertook a critical development in his treatise entitled "On the City of God" pagan ideas about the eternal and universal monarchy. This doctrine was interpreted by medieval thinkers in a political aspect, more positively than its author himself. They were prompted to do so by comments on the Book of Daniel of the Church Fathers. According to them, the Roman Empire will be the last of the great powers, which will perish only with the coming of the Antichrist to the earth. Thus, the formation of the Holy Roman Empire came to symbolize the unity of Christians.

The history of the title

The term itself, denoting this state, appeared rather late. Immediately after Charles was crowned, he took advantage of the clumsy and lengthy title, which was soon abandoned. It contained the words "emperor, ruler of the Roman Empire."

All his successors called themselves Emperor Augustus (without territorial specification). Over time, as expected, the former Roman Empire will enter the power, and then the whole world. Therefore, Otto II is sometimes referred to as Emperor Augustus of the Romans. And then, from the time of Otto III, this title is already indispensable.

History of the name of the state

The very phrase "Roman Empire" began to be used as the name of the state from the middle of the 10th century, and was finally fixed in 1034. It should not be forgotten that the Byzantine emperors also considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so the appropriation of this name by the German kings led to some diplomatic complications.

There is a definition of "Sacred" in the documents of Frederick I Barbarossa from 1157. In sources from 1254, the full designation ("Holy Roman Empire") takes root. We find the same name in German in the documents of Charles IV, the words "German nation" are added to it from 1442, at first in order to distinguish the German lands from the Roman Empire.

In the decree of Frederick III, issued in 1486, this mention is found of "universal peace", and since 1512 the final form is approved - "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". It lasted until 1806, until its collapse. The approval of this form occurred when Maximilian, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, reigned (reigned from 1508 to 1519).

Carolingian emperors

From the Carolingian, earlier period, the medieval theory of the so-called Divine State originated. In the second half of the 8th century, the Frankish kingdom, created by Pepin and his son Charlemagne, included most of the territory of Western Europe. This made this state suitable for the role of spokesman for the interests of the Holy See. In this role, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman) was replaced by him.

Having crowned Charlemagne with the imperial crown in the year 800, on December 25, Pope Leo III decided to break ties with Constantinople. He created the Western Empire. The political interpretation of the power of the Church as a continuation of the (ancient) Empire thus received its form of expression. It was based on the idea that one political ruler should rise above the world, who acts in harmony with the Church, which is also common to all. Moreover, both sides had their own spheres of influence, which God established.

Such a holistic view of the so-called Divine State was carried out in his reign almost in full by Charlemagne. Although it collapsed under his grandchildren, the tradition of the forefather continued to be preserved in the minds, which led to the establishment of a special education by Otto I in 962. It later became known as the Holy Roman Empire. It is this state that is discussed in this article.

German emperors

Otto, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, had power over the most powerful state in Europe.

He was able to revive the empire by doing what Charlemagne did in his time. But the possessions of this emperor were, however, significantly smaller than those belonging to Charles. They included mainly German lands, as well as the territory of central and northern Italy. Limited sovereignty was extended to some frontier uncivilized areas.

Nevertheless, he did not give the kings of Germany the imperial title of great powers, although they theoretically stood above the royal houses in Europe. Emperors ruled in Germany, using administrative mechanisms that already existed for this. Their interference in the affairs of the vassals in Italy was very insignificant. Here the main support of the feudal vassals were the bishops of various Lombard cities.

Emperor Henry III, beginning in 1046, received the right to appoint popes of his choice, just as he did with respect to bishops belonging to the German church. He used his power to introduce the ideas of church government in Rome in accordance with the principles of the so-called canon law (the Cluniac reform). These principles were developed in the territory located on the border between Germany and France. The papacy, after the death of Henry, turned against the imperial power the idea of ​​the freedom of the Divine State. Gregory VII, the pope, argued that spiritual authority is superior to secular. He launched an offensive against imperial law, began to appoint bishops on his own. This struggle went down in history under the name "struggle for investiture". It lasted from 1075 to 1122.

Hohenstaufen dynasty

The compromise reached in 1122, however, did not lead to final clarity on the vital issue of supremacy, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, who was the first emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty (who took the throne 30 years later), the struggle between the empire and the papal throne flared up again. The term "Holy" was added to the phrase "Roman Empire" under Frederick for the first time. That is, the state began to be called the Holy Roman Empire. This concept received further justification when Roman law began to be revived, as well as contacts were established with an influential Byzantine state. This period was the time of the highest power and prestige of the empire.

Spread of power by the Hohenstaufen

Frederick, as well as his successors on the throne (other Holy Roman Emperors) centralized the system of government in the territories that belonged to the state. They conquered, in addition, the Italian cities, and also established suzerainty over countries outside the empire.

As Germany moved eastward, the Hohenstaufen extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194, the Sicilian kingdom departed to them. This happened through Constance, who was the daughter of the Sicilian king Roger II and the wife of Henry VI. This led to the fact that the papal possessions were completely surrounded by lands that were the property of the state of the Holy Roman Empire.

The empire falls

The civil war weakened its power. It flared up between the Hohenstaufens and the Welfs after Henry died prematurely in 1197. The papacy under Innocent III dominated until 1216. This pope even insisted on the right to resolve controversial issues that arise between applicants for the throne of the emperor.

Frederick II, after the death of Innocent, returned the former greatness to the imperial crown, but was forced to grant the right to the German princes to exercise in their destinies whatever they please. He, thus renouncing the leadership in Germany, decided to concentrate all his forces on Italy, to strengthen his position here in the ongoing struggle with the papal throne, as well as with the cities that were under the control of the Guelphs.

The power of emperors after 1250

In 1250, shortly after Frederick died, with the help of the French, the papacy finally overcame the Hohenstaufen dynasty. You can see the decline of the empire if only in the fact that the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were not crowned for quite a long time - in the period from 1250 to 1312. However, the state itself still existed in one form or another for a long period - more than five centuries. This was because it was closely associated with the royal throne of Germany, and also because of the vitality of the tradition. The crown, despite the many attempts made by the French kings in order to obtain the dignity of emperor, remained invariably in the hands of the Germans. Boniface VIII's attempts to lower the status of the emperor's power caused the opposite result - a movement in defense of it.

Decline of an empire

But the glory of the state is already in the past. Despite the efforts made by Petrarch and Dante, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned their backs on ideals that had outlived themselves. And the glory of the empire was their embodiment. Now only Germany was limited to its sovereignty. Burgundy and Italy fell away from her. The state received a new name. It became known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation".

By the end of the 15th century, the last links with the throne of the pope were broken. By this time, the kings of the Holy Roman Empire began to take the title without going to Rome to receive the crown. The power of the princes in Germany itself increased. The principles of election to the throne from 1263 were sufficiently determined, and in 1356 they were enshrined by Charles IV. The seven electors (they were called electors) used their influence to put forward various demands on the emperors.

This greatly weakened their power. Below is the flag of the Roman Empire that has existed since the 14th century.

Habsburg emperors

The crown has been in the hands of the Habsburgs (Austrian) since 1438. Following the trend that existed in Germany, they sacrificed the interests of the nation for the sake of the greatness of their dynasty. Charles I, King of Spain, was elected Roman Emperor in 1519 under the name of Charles V. He united under his rule the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Sardinia and the Sicilian kingdom. Charles, Holy Roman Emperor, abdicated in 1556. The Spanish crown then passed to Philip II, his son. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was Ferdinand I, his brother.

The collapse of the empire

The princes throughout the 15th century tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the Reichstag (which represented the electors, as well as less influential princes and cities of the empire) at the expense of the emperor. The Reformation that took place in the 16th century destroyed the existing hopes that the old empire could be rebuilt. As a result, various secularized states were born, as well as strife on the basis of religion.

The power of the emperor was now decorative. Meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats occupied with trifles. The empire degenerated into an unsteady union between many small independent states and principalities. On August 6, 1806, Francis II renounced the crown. Thus the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation collapsed.

Two estates - patricians (to know, they lived on those lands initially) and plebeians (who came, who got little land). Differences:

  • - Plebeians owned a small allotment of land
  • - did not participate in wars
  • - Did not take part in the division of the conquered lands. All these lands were transferred to the public fund - ager publicus.

Royal period - 6th century BC It was 7 kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarquinius the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud. About each in more detail:

Romulus

Together with his brother, Remus, he went down in history as the founder of Rome. Their mother, Sylvia, was a priestess of Vesta, which suggested her celibacy. When she gave birth to two sons, her uncle Amulius, who wanted to become king after the death of her father, decided to get rid of the girl and her children. The twins were placed in a basket and sent down the Tiber River, but they soon washed ashore and managed to survive. The children were fed by a she-wolf (which later became a symbol of Rome). Later, when they grew up, they returned to the city and killed Amulius. A few years later, Rem was killed by his brother during a quarrel - they could not decide where to establish a new colony (directly on a hill or in a lowland).

Romulus divided the city into three parts and left a ruler in each. He is also believed to have created the Senate.

Little is known about his death. Some sources claim that he simply ascended to heaven.

Didn't have any special powers.

After his death, his heir was chosen.

Numa Pompilius

He was chosen for his talents, since after the death of Romulus there was no legitimate ruler left (before the election of Numa, the powers of the patricians were daily transferred to each other) Reforms:

  • - Establishment of an association of artisans
  • - Ordering of religious life (the cult of the goddess Vesta and the god Janus).
  • - Prohibition of human sacrifice
  • - Introduction of a new calendar consisting of 355 days.

Tull Hostilius

Previously, he was a farmer, however, after becoming king, he began to wage numerous wars.

Conquered the neighboring city of Alba Longa. In one of the wars, the army of this city was in no hurry to help Rome, counting on getting rid of its pressure. Rome won everything, and Alba Longa was ordered to destroy.

During this time, the boundaries of Rome expanded significantly.

Ankh Marcius

Tull's grandson. As contemporaries noted, he was distinguished by a very quiet disposition, because of which neighboring cities (Etruscans and Latins, for example) began actions to capture Rome.

Continued conquest. He waged a successful war with the Latins: it ended in victory, and the Latins formed a layer of plebeians.

Ankh Marcius also captured a number of Etruscan cities.

Tarquinius the Ancient

Etruscan, who amassed a large fortune and went to Rome. He came to the throne by marrying the daughter of Ankh.

He continued the wars with the Latins and Etruscans.

Brought Rome out of the image of the village. Reforms:

  • - paved the forums,
  • - conducted a sewer ("Great cloaca"),
  • - installed plumbing
  • - initiated the construction of stone houses

Servius Tullius

He was a slave, but his masters loved him. He was predicted the fate of the king: contemporaries describe the appearance of a fiery crown on his head. He later received a good education. Oddly enough, the prediction came true: he was enthroned by his wife Tarquinia. Reforms:

  • Divided Rome into 21 arrondissements
  • - Changed the principle of recruiting troops. Allowed to recruit plebeians. Divided society into 6 units according to a certain number of wars. First came the chariots, then the horsemen, and the poorest simply allocated money and a small number of wars.
  • - Plebeians were introduced into the community. The king sometimes freed slaves, which earned people's love
  • - Powerful city fortifications were built

Tarquinius the Proud

He overthrew Servius (brutally killed with the help of his wife) and made a coup d'état. Carried out a series of actions that led to the revolution.

In particular, he began repressive actions against the common people and surrounded himself with personal protection for complete safety. Reduced the powers of the authorities. The army began to be staffed from mercenary wars. at the same time, the rights of the lower classes were significantly reduced. Together with his sons, he was expelled and then killed during one of the uprisings.

In 510 he was overthrown. Thus ended the royal era.

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In 390 BC. e. Rome was sacked by the Gauls and historical records of the previous period were destroyed, so it is impossible to know exactly how many kings actually ruled the city, or which of the acts attributed to individual kings by later authors are accurate.

ancient roman kings- the legendary and semi-legendary rulers of Ancient Rome in the royal period before the founding of the Republic. They ruled for 244 years, starting from the date of the founding of Rome - April 21, 753 BC. e. The royal period ended with the expulsion of the last king of ancient Rome.

Years of government

Tsar

Years of life

Note
April 21, 753 BC e. - July 5, 717 BC March 26, 771 BC e. - July 5, 717 BC Grandson Numitora . Founder of Rome and the Roman Empire.
750 BC e. - 745 BC e. ? - 745 BC e. King of the Sabines, co-ruler. Not included in the list of seven ancient Roman kings.
716 BC - 673 BC e. April 21, 753 BC e. - 673 BC e. Younger son pomp pomponia . Sabine, a real historical figure. Wise and peaceful.
673 - 641 BC e. 710 BC e. - 641 BC e. Grandson Hostia Hostilia . Warlike, destroyed Alba Longa, strengthened the army, doubled the population of Rome.
641 - 617 BC e. 677 BC e. - 617 BC e. Grandson . Founded Ostia.
616 - 579 BC e. ? - 579 BC e. Guardian of children, from the Etruscans. Powerful and active.
578 - 535 BC e. August 13? - 535 BC e. Son-in-law. reforms Tullia strengthened the state system.
535 - 509 BC e. ? - 495 BC e. Son . The last ancient Roman king, expelled for repression and tyranny.

The personalities of the Roman kings reflect the ideas of the Romans about their distant ancestors. The kings themselves were subsequently equated with deities, their golden statues were installed on the forum in Rome (they were melted down in 410 in order to pay off). Within the framework of the tsarist era, not only the state arose, but also the most important elements of the socio-political organization that developed already in the republican period - the Roman policy.

The first ancient Roman king was the legendary, who united with his brother Rem around them are various people who have become their support and strength: shepherds, vagabonds, criminals and runaway slaves. On the way to sole power, he did not stop at the deceit and murder of his brother Rema . He gave his name to the founded city - Rome (lat. Roma) and became king. In order for the city to grow rapidly, it was made a refuge for fugitives: slaves, debtors, murderers and other criminals.

He was a grandson and was similar in wisdom and peaceful disposition to his grandfather. He patronized agriculture, crafts and trade. But he had to fight, as the neighbors perceived his peacefulness as a weakness. He waged a successful war with the Latins: it ended in victory, and the Latins formed a layer of plebeians.

He is considered the founder of the harbor and salt mines of Ostia, located at the mouth of the Tiber. He fortified the Janiculum fortress on the other side of the Tiber, and built the first wooden bridge across the Tiber. He also built a prison at the foot of the Capitol.

The next king of Ancient Rome, although he came from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia, was not a purebred Etruscan, the path to higher positions was closed to him. Even in his youth, he obtained a large fortune for himself and went to Rome. Due to his wealth and wisdom, he soon became one of the most powerful men in Rome. The king noticed, made him his close associates and appointed him head of the cavalry. After his death, he convinced the National Assembly that it was he, and not one of the young children, who should become the king of Rome.

He increased the Senate to 300 people at the expense of new members from poor families, and the centuriate comitia was also expanded to 1800 people. brought many Etruscan customs to Rome and, after victories over the Etruscans and Sabines, was the first to celebrate a triumph in Rome according to the Etruscan model. Under him, a water supply and sewerage system was built, the building of a large circus for entertainment.

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